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Linguistics for Everyone

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Instructor’s Manual and Answer Key

Linguistics for Everyone

An Introduction

Kristin Denham Western Washington University

Anne Lobeck Western Washington University

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher except as may be permitted by the license terms below.

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Contents

Part 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key 1 Features of the Book 1

Possible Course Organization and Schedules 3

Chapter Overview 3

Part 2 Answer Key 13 1 What Is Language and How Do

We Study It? 14

2 The Human Capacity for Language 19

3 Phonetics: Describing Sounds 25

4 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language 33

5 Morphology: Words and Their Parts 43

6 Morphological Typology and Word Formation 55

7 Syntax: Heads and Phrases 61

8 Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules 71

9 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words 82

10 Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences 94

11 The Early Story of English 103

12 English Goes Global 112

13 Representing Language: The Written Word 116

14 The Life Cycle of Language 123

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1 As we point out in the Preface to Linguistics for Everyone, linguis- tics isn’t just for linguists anymore. More and more interdisciplin- ary linguistics programs and departments are cropping up across the country, and introductory linguistics courses often include students from a variety of majors, many of whom have had no prior expo- sure to the scientific study of language described in this book. Nev- ertheless, as the many features of this book illustrate, linguistics has broad application across a number of different fields, in addition to being an area of study in and of itself. As we mention in the Preface, “[l]inguistics contributes to our understanding of anthropology, soci- ology, computer science, speech pathology, communications, journal- ism, history, political science, you name it.” You may be relatively new to this field of teaching introductory linguistics, and your students may or may not be linguistics majors; for these reasons, we have designed this book to pique the interest of students regardless of major and experience, and to be very “teachable,” with multiple features that you can use to design assignments and promote exploration of language.

I. Features of the Book

Several innovative features will help you organize material and de- sign classroom activities and assignments. • The “At a Glance” and “Key Concepts” features will help you

organize your approach to each chapter and will prime your students to address its concepts; they offer the opportunity for lively discussions that engage students’ natural interest in language and tie that to their study of linguistics. These features are a way to prepare students for the chapter’s topics and get them focused, as well as giving you a preview of the chapter topics to help with organization.

P A R T

Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

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2 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

• Students will find the “Language Alive!” “Did You Know . . .?” and “Linguistics in the News” features both interesting and instructive. They are intended to spark students’ curiosity, and to answer some questions about language and the ways we communicate (“So that’s why we say…” “I always wondered about that.” “Now it makes sense.”) and to lend a sense of immediacy to their study of linguistics. You can use these to prompt small group discussion and debate about, for example, cultural influences on language, sexism in language, animal communication—topics that relate linguistics to the world around us. Many of these are also good topics for research assignments.

• The “Accent On” feature focuses on careers in which linguistics is necessary or advantageous and shows students the practical applications of linguistics (and maybe entices a few to major in linguistics). The “Accent On” can also be the focus of an assignment or discussion; for example, students could select one of the “Accent On” professions and write an essay on it, using the resources in “For More Information” in the feature box and in the “Sources and Resources” list. Or they might interview a person in a language-related job and ask them to identify other professional areas where knowledge of linguistics is useful.

• The “Hwæt!” features are pure gravy. They are peripheral bits of information that are interesting or curious and not necessarily “linguistic”— fun facts related to material in the chapter. You could challenge students to contribute their own features, indicating their (valid) sources, of course. Perhaps these could be used in future editions of the text.

• The marginal definitions of terms (boldfaced in the text) will help you construct quizzes and exams; at a glance, you can see where terms have been introduced, which indicates the topics students have studied. The marginal glosses will help your students review the terms for exams and quizzes and can serve as a check for understanding of key points and terminology. Ask them to provide examples/evidence for the margin definitions in order to encourage discovery rather than memorization.

• The “Review, Practice, and Explore” sections contain a variety of exercises and activities—basic practice of linguistic analysis, general and specific topics for discussion, research ideas for short essays and papers, analysis of other languages, and problem-solving exercises that extend the concepts introduced in the chapter. The large number and varied types of activities allow you to choose those that suit your students and your goals for this course.

• All exercises are keyed to the relevant areas in the text so that you can assign them as students progress through the chapter for immediate review and reinforcement, or you can assign some or all of them at the end of the chapter for a comprehensive review and an opportunity to pursue points of particular interest. We recommend taking advantage of the exercise keys and assigning the RPE (or a selection thereof) along with class reading assignments. This encourages students to come to class prepared and promotes more active

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Chapter Overview • 3

learning; students not only complete daily reading assignments but also must actively engage the material prior to coming to class.

• Group Work/Research Presentations: the “Accent On,” “Linguistics in the News,” and research topics in the “Review, Practice, and Explore” sections offer excellent options for collaborative assignments (written assignments that are either handed in or given as presentations).

• The chapter summary offers a quick review of the main points. • The “Sources and Resources” list contains specific places to investigate to

deepen and broaden knowledge of any of the chapter’s topics, so offers an excellent place to begin research projects on any of the chapter’s topics. It is not just the citations from the chapter, but also related relevant sources.

II. Possible Course Organization and Schedules

Different instructors will choose, of course, to organize the course material in dif- ferent ways, depending on the length of the term, the goals of the course, and the goals of the instructors. As discussed above, the core material of any introduction to linguistics course is included in Chapters 3–9 (phonetics, phonology, morphol- ogy, syntax, semantics), which is one possible focus, and which could involve teaching these chapters in some detail. Another more general focus (an overview of the areas of linguistic study) would involve picking and choosing material from the core, but also including discussion of additional chapters (Chapter 11 on the history of English, Chapter 12 on language variation, and Chapter 13 on writing systems). Chapter 14 is designed as a capstone chapter, bringing together threads introduced in other chapters, and can be included as material covered in class, or as a resource for final research projects and presentations. Below, we highlight features of each chapter that will help you organize the material along these two general lines: with a focus on the grammatical system itself, or with a more general focus, an overview of topics of study in linguistics.

III. Chapter Overview

We devote two chapters to each core area (phonetics/phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics), which allows several options: You can teach both chap- ters as a unit, pick and choose sections from each to make up a single unit, or teach sections and assign others to students for presentations, group work, and so on. We also weave language change and variation throughout each chapter, in addition to including chapters that focus on these topics.

Chapter 1: “What Is Language and How Do We Study It?” addresses the na- ture of human language (versus other communication systems) and also includes a

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4 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

discussion of the origins of linguistic science (a topic other textbooks often omit) and an introduction to how linguistics differs from other approaches to the study of language. This chapter provides an accessible overview of the general questions that linguistics seeks to answer: What is language? What is grammar? How does the human language system differ from other communication systems? It’s im- portant to have students read it, because it is a good introduction to the course and contains nothing that will baffle them. Students can even read the chapter before the first day of class in preparation for discussion (if you are constrained by time even before your class begins); or, of course, they can read it during the first week of class. The Research, Practice, and Explore exercises in this chapter are also ac- cessible to students with no prior knowledge of linguistics, and can be assigned in advance of (and as a prerequisite to) class discussion.

Chapter 2: “The Human Capacity for Language” is an important chapter for in- troducing students to the study of linguistics, which is why we have included it as the second chapter in the book. This chapter provides an overview of the contri- butions of both psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics to the study of language. The material presented is an excellent “hook” for students, piquing their curiosity about the biological foundations of language, which is precisely what students are not only unaware of, but what they typically find immediately fascinating. In ad- dition, this chapter lays an important foundation for discussion of the more techni- cal aspects of grammatical structure in later chapters, by introducing students to evidence of the biological foundations of language (through their own intuitions about grammar, first and second language acquisition, linguistic savants, language and the brain, pidgins and creoles, and language genesis). We find that regard- less of students’ majors, beginning the course with this material provides a solid foundation upon which to tackle other more theoretical aspects of language. This material is also easily supplemented with excellent video resources, such as Chris- topher the linguistic savant on the Linguistic Society of America video archive, and the first two sections of Gene Searchinger’s Human Language video series.

Chapter 3: “Describing Sounds” provides an introduction to English phonet- ics, with a unique twist: an emphasis on language change and variation. In addi- tion to providing an overview of English consonants and vowels, minimal pairs, and allophones and phonemes, the chapter illustrates language change over time and space exemplified by both historic and contemporary vowel shifts: the Great Vowel Shift of the sixteenth century, and the ongoing Northern Cities Vowel Shift (among others, discussed in the Research, Practice, and Explore section). You therefore have different options available for teaching this chapter: focusing on the phonetics of English and phonetic transcription and/or including in the unit a discussion of the historical and sociolinguistic aspects of language change and variation, in the form of vowel shifts. We find that introducing students to phonetic

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Chapter Overview • 5

transcription is enriched by the discussion of dialect variation and the history of English, actively engaging them in listening to and analyzing their own speech and that of others. The approach to phonetics in this chapter provides you with a way to tackle early on the underpinnings of language discrimination based on accent (supplemented by some of the fine activities on the PBS Do You Speak American? website, such as Test Your Vowel Power), or to focus more specifically on phonetics (exploring, along with the material in the chapter, Peter Ladefoged’s phonetics website). Our decision to use the symbols /š č ǰ ž / instead of their IPA counterparts comes after years of using both and finding that there is much less confusion for students to not use digraphs. It’s quite simple for students to modify to the traditional IPA symbols if they continue study in linguistics.

Chapter 4: “The Sound Patterns of Language” requires as a prerequisite the ma- terial in Chapter 3; students will need a basic understanding of allophones and phonemes, and literacy in the IPA in order to navigate the material here. The chapter provides accessible examples of a number of different phonological pro- cesses (assimilation, deletion, epenthesis and metathesis rules, etc.) and a general introduction to suprasegmental phonology (syllable structure, stress, and intona- tion). This chapter can be taught in its entirety should your goal be to provide a more comprehensive overview of a wide selection of phonological processes, but it is also possible to teach a selection of the phonological rules we discuss, to introduce the concept of phonological rules. Should you choose this more general goal in teaching this chapter, we recommend supplementing the discussion of (a few) of the phonological processes discussed here with the Did You Know…? and Language Alive! features, which highlight “real-life” examples of pronunciations explained by phonological processes (rather than by speakers being “lazy” or un- educated), such as invented spellings (such as chruk for truck, jrink for drink, and kald for called), sounds that have dropped out of English (and how are they re- flected in spelling?), pronunciations such as aks and tenashoes (other examples?).

Chapter 5: “Words and Their Parts” introduces students to the ways in which words can be divided into (free and bound) morphemes, and focuses on the kinds of knowledge we use to understand word structure (etymology, recurrence of a root or suffix in another word, etc.). We also introduce content and function words here, as well as syntactic categories, an important foundation for Chapter 7 on syntax. We discuss derivational and inflectional morphemes; the section on derivational morphology includes a discussion of word tree diagrams (as a way of exemplifying how we build words up in ordered steps), and the discussion of in- flectional morphology includes historical examples (the origins of the English case system) as well as details of the English pronoun system and of English verb forms.

There are several different ways to teach this chapter, depending on your chosen focus. The basic material on (bound and free) morphemes, function and

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6 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

content words, and syntactic categories can form a core unit, and instructors can choose how much additional material they wish to include. You can choose to introduce derivational morphology, for example, without also discussing tree diagrams, and you can provide an overview of inflectional morphology without delving into the detail the chapter offers. The sections you do not wish to cover might be assigned as outside reading or for small group discussion. The Research, Practice, and Explore exercises and activities can be similarly focused; some target general concepts, and others investigate morphological concepts in more detail, and you can select accordingly.

Chapter 6: “Morphological Typology and Word Formation” includes a section on synthetic and analytic languages, which provides a preview of how inflectional morphology interacts with syntax, and how languages vary according to how in- flectional information is expressed. This chapter also provides a good foundation for the discussion of the changes that took place during the development of Eng- lish in Chapter 11, as English moves from a synthetic language to a more analytic one. If you plan on teaching Chapter 11 (“The Early Story of English”), teaching this section of Chapter 6 provides a good introduction to concepts that will be re- visited in Chapter 11.

The rest of this chapter concerns word formation rules (clipping, blending, com- pounding, etc.). It is very accessible to students and a good section to assign for them to read on their own. Word formation rules are interesting to students and something that they can come to class fully prepared to discuss. Slang, profanity, and lexicog- raphy are also discussed in this chapter, all of which are accessible topics and offer the opportunity for student-directed investigation (leaving you time to focus in class on other more technical aspects of grammar that require more instructor guidance).

The chapter pair on syntax, Chapters 7: “Syntax: Heads and Phrases” and Chapter 8: “Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules” offers a number of different teaching alternatives, depending on your focus.

The discussion of syntactic categories in Chapter 7 overlaps neatly with the introduction of syntactic categories in Chapter 5, though in Chapter 7, we include syntactic evidence for each category and a set of simple phrase structure rules to illustrate them. Beyond the discussion of categories, this chapter focuses on what phrase structure rules allow us to express about syntax: linear order, phrases, heads, and category labels, and includes an introduction to the notion of the clause and to the grammatical functions of subject and predicate. The material in this chapter provides students with important terminology and an introduction to basic concepts of sentence structure, an important foundation for discussions of theory (which try to go beyond description, to find answers to the question of “why” sentences are structured they way they are). We find that while the syntactic evidence for cat- egories (nouns are words preceded by determiners, for example) is accessible to students because it is based on their intuitive knowledge, reading and manipulating

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Chapter Overview • 7

phrase structure rules takes more guidance and time. We therefore recommend that students have ample time to practice reading and using phrase structure rules prior to moving on to Chapter 8. The decision to include “old style” phrase structure rules is informed by years of experimentation with using them and trying other alternatives. Their use has shown us that they do provide a good way of represent- ing the unconscious structural rules we have in English, while providing a way to constrain the complex system to make it most accessible for this level.

Chapter 8 focuses on aspects of syntactic structure that are not explained by phrase structure rules alone, and what we can learn about syntax by examining more data and evidence, and by using scientific investigation to answer questions about sentence structure. It begins with a discussion of evidence for hierarchical structure (ambiguity) and goes on to address substitution, coordination, movement, and deletion. These concepts and the evidence we present to illustrate them are best navigated in class, with instructor guidance, on a par with Chapter 4 on phonology. Again, as with Chapter 4, you may wish, depending on your focus, to spend time on each syntactic operation presented in this chapter, or to choose one or two, to illustrate the concept of a syntactic operation more generally (you might, for ex- ample, choose to discuss only deletion or only movement, but not both).

Chapter 9: “Semantics: Making Meaning with Words” focuses on word mean- ings, and includes discussion of meaning relationships (the various “nyms”), but also focuses on the fact that word meanings change over time, offering ex- amples of various types of meaning change throughout the history of Eng- lish. So here again, language change—with specific examples from Middle and Old English—is incorporated into the chapter. This allows you the option of high- lighting meaning change and variation or to stick with more formal aspects of meaning relationships themselves (semantic features and fields, entailment and markedness, semantic relationships, and the nyms).

The latter section of the chapter is on the many nonliteral, or figurative, mean- ings of words, making this section especially appropriate for courses with English majors or other humanities majors (and can be applied to the study of literature in accessible ways). This chapter is quite easily navigated by students with little instructor guidance, and includes a great variety of material (from which you may wish to pick and choose).

Chapter 10: “Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences” fo- cuses on how we construct meaning from sentences themselves and from the con- text in which they are uttered. As with other chapters, it is possible here to focus on formal linguistics or to broaden the focus to utterance meaning more gener- ally. The first section of the chapter, on sentence meaning, focuses on propositions and their truth conditions, entailment and paraphrase, and presupposition. The next section, on thematic roles and argument structure, forms a bridge between semantics and syntax, outlining how these two grammatical components overlap.

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8 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

The chapter then moves from semantics of sentences to pragmatics (meaning in context). These divisions allow for different teaching options; you might choose to teach sentence meaning and argument structure for a more formal linguistics focus, and have students pursue the section on pragmatics on their own, through group or individual assignments. Alternatively, you might choose to put more focus on meaning in context, conversational maxims, politeness, and Speech Act Theory, and to introduce students to the complex interplay of social and linguistic factors in forming meaning, including our cultural expectations, as well as atti- tudes about power and solidarity, social conventions, and so on. Also in this chap- ter is a discussion of the research on the ways in which language might (and might not) shape how we think and view the world—a topic of interest to everyone, and an important topic to discuss in the context of the science of language, in order to dispel myths (about numbers of words for snow, for example). The question of whether our language influences how we think is an excellent topic for debate, discussion, and research projects.

Chapter 11: “The Early Story of English” provides an overview of the major historical events that led to Present Day English, beginning with the origins of historical linguistics and the comparative method, Indo-European and other lan- guage families, and then focusing on Old, Middle, and Early Modern English. It is an important chapter to include for English majors (especially those majoring in English education)—and is of interest to everyone. However, because there is dis- cussion of language change throughout the core chapters, it is possible to omit this chapter and still have students come away with a good understanding of language change, and even with examples from Old and Middle English, since many such examples are included in the core chapters. If you omit this chapter from class dis- cussion, you could possibly include it as an outside-of-class group assignment, in order to familiarize students with the development of English.

The study of the historical development of English can easily fill an entire course, and narrowing this material down to a week-long unit is possible but requires some careful organization. We suggest introducing historical linguistics and the comparative method in class (having students work with the cognate lists in the chapter and in the Research, Practice, and Explore section) as a foun- dation. Then, spend one class period each on Old, Middle, and Early Modern English. The final section of the chapter, on the birth of prescriptive grammar in England, can be the topic of outside study group discussion or individual as- signment. Students will already be familiar with the notion of prescriptive and descriptive grammar (from Chapter 1 and throughout the other chapters), as well as with the notions of language authority and language discrimination, but the discussion of the origins of prescription in this chapter introduces the historical context in which these notions emerge.

Because of the wide range of material covered in this chapter we recommend daily, rather than weekly, homework assignments in order to facilitate discussion rather than lecture.

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Chapter Overview • 9

Chapter 12: “English Goes Global” is unique in its presentation. We do not simply march through a selection of American English dialects with sample features. Instead, emphasis is placed on how language change (over time) and language variation (in progress) are one and the same process. Because students are familiar with many features of various dialects from the core chapters, more emphasis is placed here on the social factors that correlate with language variation (including region, ethnicity, race, gender, and social class), and the interconnectedness between language and identity. The chap- ter is accessible, so if time is tight, students can read the chapter on their own. Many research project ideas could be developed around material from this chapter.

Chapter 13: “Representing Language: The Written Word” focuses on the many differences between spoken and written language. Included is a discus- sion of the history of writing systems, including the alphabetic system of Eng- lish. Unique among typical history of writing chapters is discussion of how contemporary standards of spelling, writing conventions, and punctuation are still changing, illustrating the ways in which a print system can affect our ideas about language and standardization in our literate society (linking this chapter closely with both Chapter 11 and Chapter 12). The topics covered here also provide excellent material for research projects if time does not allow a thorough exploration of the material during class time. Alternatively, if time allows, Chapters 11, 12, and 13 can all be taught together as a unit that focuses on language change and variation, and their effects on speech, writing, and language attitudes.

Chapter 14: “The Life Cycle of Language” is a unique chapter among intro- ductory texts—and one not to be missed! Here again, as in Chapters 11, 12, and 13, focus is on the fact that languages are crucially affected by power. There is a unique section on the origins of language, and what that might tell us about why our brains are organized for language as they are. This chapter also returns to a discussion of pidgins and creoles, offering them as examples of language genesis. The inclusion of language endangerment and language death and the reasons behind it are also unique and offer further opportunities for research-based projects and papers. We return to many of the topics from the text here, providing some final thoughts, so it is an excellent chapter to end with.

Sample Syllabi If instructors want to include all of the chapters, here are a few ways to include the information within terms of different lengths. These can, of course, be further modified in a multitude of ways, but we provide some course schedules that we have used effectively.

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10 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

I. 11-Week Term This organization allows all chapters to be covered, though consolidates some pairs into single weeks, in a way that works quite well. (We’ve tried it!) Assign- ments should be done daily or weekly, selecting RPE from each chapter. Some of the RPEs work well for group work, so assigning some as individual assign- ments and some as group assignments is effective.

Week 1 Chapters 1 and 2 What Is Language and How Do We Study It?; The Human Capacity for Language

Week 2 Chapter 3 Phonetics: Describing Sounds

Week 3 Chapter 4 Phonology: The Sound Pattern of Language

Week 4 Chapters 5 and 6 Morphology: Words and Their Parts; Typology and Word Formation

Week 5 Chapter 7 Syntax: Heads and Phrases

Week 6 Chapter 8 Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules

MIDTERM EXAM could be about here.

Week 7 Chapters 9 and 10 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words; Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences

Week 8 Chapter 11 The Early Story of English

Week 9 Chapter 12 English Goes Global

Week 10 Chapter 13 Representing Language: The Written Word

Week 11 Chapter 14 The Life Cycle of Language

II. 10-Week Term In this syllabus, we suggest returning to Chapters 1 and 2 at the end of the course. This arrangement is more like some traditional approaches; after the core concepts and technical tools are mastered, students can return to questions of UG, innateness, and acquisition. Also, these chapters tie in well with the material in Chapter 14.

Week 1 Chapter 3 Phonetics: Describing Sounds

Week 2 Chapter 4 Phonology: The Sound Pattern of Language

Week 3 Chapters 5 and 6 Morphology: Words and Their Parts; Typology and Word Formation

Week 4 Chapters 7 and 8 Syntax: Heads and Phrases; Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules

MIDTERM EXAM could be about here.

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Chapter Overview • 11

Week 5 Chapters 9 and 10 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words, Semantics; Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences

Week 6 Chapter 11 The Early Story of English

Week 7 Chapter 12 English Goes Global

Week 8 Chapter 13 Representing Language: The Written Word

Week 9 Chapter 14 The Life Cycle of Language

Week 10 Chapters 1 and 2 What Is Language and How Do We Study It?; The Human Capacity for Language

III. 14-Week Term This schedule works well if you can have time to study one chapter per week. More frequent testing works better with this longer-term schedule; suggested slots for quizzes are given. This also may be preferable for a large class in which daily or weekly assignments are less practical.

Week 1 Chapter 1 What Is Language and How Do We Study It?

Week 2 Chapter 2 The Human Capacity for Language

QUIZ 1

Week 3 Chapter 3 Phonetics: Describing Sounds

Week 4 Chapter 4 Phonology: The Sound Pattern of Language

QUIZ 2

Week 5 Chapter 5 Morphology: Words and Their Parts

Week 6 Chapter 6 Morphology: Typology and Word Formation

QUIZ 3

Week 7 Chapter 7 Syntax: Heads and Phrases

Week 8 Chapter 8 Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules

QUIZ 4

Week 9 Chapter 9 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words

Week 10 Chapter 10 Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences

QUIZ 5

Week 11 Chapter 11 The Early Story of English

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12 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

Week 12 Chapter 12 English Goes Global

QUIZ 6

Week 13 Chapter 13 Representing Language: The Written Word

Week 14 Chapter 14 The Life Cycle of Language

QUIZ 7

IV. Shorter Term (Summer 7-Week Term, for Example) This organization allows two chapters a week, pairing chapters that work well together. A smaller selection of RPE assignments from each of the weekly chap- ters can be assigned.

Week 1 Chapters 1 and 2 What Is Language and How Do We Study It?; The Human Capacity for Language

Week 2 Chapters 3 and 4 Phonetics: Describing Sounds; Phonology: The Sound Pattern of Language

Week 3 Chapters 5 and 6 Morphology: Words and Their Parts; Morphology: Typology and Word Formation

Week 4 Chapters 7 and 8 Syntax: Heads and Phrases; Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules

Week 5 Chapters 9 and 10 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words; Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences

Week 6 Chapters 11 and 12 The Early Story of English; English Goes Global

Week 7 Chapters 13 and 14 Representing Language: The Written Word; The Life Cycle of Language

Acknowledgments Many thanks to Nicholas Cousino, linguistics major extraordinaire, for help with the editing of this instructor’s manual and answer key. Please don’t blame him if there are errors, and please do contact the authors (kristin.denham @wwu.edu, [email protected]) with any feedback.

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2 P A R T

For your convenience, we include the questions of “Review, Practice, and Explore” sections of the chapters along with the responses to the exercises. Of course, all the items do not have spe- cific correct answers. In some cases, we offer possible answers to convey our thinking when designing the exercises and activities, but you might accept different answers from your students.

Answer Key

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14 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 1

1.1 Onomatopoeia and Arbitrariness One of Hockett’s design features of language is arbitrariness. Arbitrary signs or symbols have no connection to what they represent. In language, the connection between words and meanings is ar- bitrary, which is illustrated by the fact that different languages have different words for the same concept (‘horse’ is cheval in French and Pferd in German). What about onomatopoeia? Think about words like buzz and woof. Is the connection between these words arbitrary or not? Look up some ex- amples from other languages. What do such examples tell you about onomatopoeia and arbitrariness?

Answers will vary. Though the connection between sound and meaning is not entirely arbitrary with onomatopoeia, it does vary across languages, demonstrating that it’s not completely imitative.

Japanese dog bark – wan wan

Japanese cow moo – mou mou

Japanese sound of pouring rain – zaa zaa

1.2 Sign Systems Investigate some of the different sign systems that we use other than language. Examples are traffic signs, Morse code, and the hand signals referees and umpires make at sports events. These systems can sometimes be quite complex. What design features do they have, and how are they similar to or different from the human language system?

Answers will vary.

1.3 Prairie Dog Language Researcher Con Slobodchikoff of Northern Arizona University has studied prairie dogs for more than 20 years and concluded that their communication system has many of the same features as human language. According to Slobodchikoff (1998), prairie dogs have different barks (“nouns”) for different predators, and they combine these “words” with other sounds, or “modifiers,” that indicate size, color, and other features. He also claims that prairie dogs coin new “words” by assigning new barks to new objects or animals in their environment. Prairie dogs, he argues, have words for coyo- tes, skunks, and badgers, as well as for such nonpredators as deer, elk, and cows, and even for “the man with the yellow coat.” Investigate Slobodchikoff’s work on prairie dogs and determine which of Hockett’s design features prairie dogs seem to possess and which they don’t. (See http://www .animallanguageinstitute.net/AboutUs/tabid/64/Default.aspx)

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 1 • 15

1.4 Animal Communication Systems Investigate the communication system of a species other than one belonging to the primates. Much research exists on the systems used by dolphins and whales, different varieties of birds, bees, wolves and other canines, and so forth. Discuss which of the design features the system exhibits and how it is similar to and/or different from human language.

Answers will vary.

1.5 Primate Experiments Conduct some research on the attempts to teach primates communication systems, and discuss the ways in which they challenge Hockett’s design features. The most debate centers on whether primates can recombine symbols to create new expressions (duality of patterning), and whether they can acquire the system from other primates. Here are the primary primates with the names of the primary researchers: Washoe (Gardner, Fouts), Nim Chimpsky (Terrace), Kanzi (Savage- Rumbaugh), Koko (Patterson), Lana (Rumbaugh), and Sarah (Premack).

Answers will vary.

1.6 What Do You Mean by Grammar? As we’ve pointed out in the chapter, the term grammar has many meanings. Explain the distinct meanings of grammar in the following sentences. If you can think of others, discuss them as well. You may use a dictionary if you like, but do not rely on it alone.

a. I better watch my grammar around you! b. Please proofread your paper for grammar and style. c. I’m taking a class on Spanish grammar. d. There have been three grammars written on the language Quechua. e. Our innate capacity for the grammar of a language is quite amazing.

I better watch my grammar around you!

This refers to what is seen as the prescriptively correct use of words, sentences, and pronunciations. For example, avoiding double negatives or stigmatized forms such as ain’t.

Please proofread your paper for grammar and style.

This refers to grammar as the standards of written language, including punctuation and organization.

I’m taking a class on Spanish grammar.

This refers most likely to the morphology and syntax of the language (and perhaps also to its vocabulary and pronunciation), most likely as it would be taught to non-native speakers of the language.

There have been three grammars written on the language Quechua.

A “grammar” here refers to a written text that details the phonology, morphology, semantics, and syntax of the language.

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16 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

Our innate capacity for the grammar of a language is quite amazing.

“Grammar” here refers to the set of linguistic principles or rules, a linguist’s scientific description of the phonological, morphological, semantic, and syntactic rules of a language.

1.7 Is That Ungrammatical? Which of the following sentences are ungrammatical in terms of your descriptive grammar and which are ungrammatical in terms of prescriptive grammar? Briefly explain why you analyzed each sentence the way you did.

a. Rosie a beautiful pony is. b. Maurice and me are going to the movies tonight. c. John put the book. d. All the tulips are coming up in the garden. e. The all tulips are coming up in the garden. f. Purple big pillows were on her bed. g. I don’t have no idea. h. Who did you talk to? i. I saw a cat climb up tree. j. I have drank six glasses of water in a row.

The ones that are ungrammatical in any dialect are marked with an asterisk, *. The others may be acceptable in some dialects, though they violate some prescriptive rules of usage or formal style (given in parentheses):

a. *Rosie a beautiful pony is. b. Maurice and me are going to the movies tonight (avoid objective pronoun me

in subject position) c. *John put the book. d. All the tulips are coming up in the garden (probably fine for all speakers, though

more formal all of the tulips) e. *The all tulips are coming up in the garden. f. *Purple big pillows were on her bed. g. Everyone should know their own address (singular everyone as antecedent for

plural their) h. Who did you talk to? (sentence ends with a preposition to) i. I saw a cat climb up tree. [ungrammatical unless tree is understood as a proper

noun.] j. I have drank six glasses of water in a (past participle drank versus drunk)

1.8 Correct According to Who or Whom? All of us can probably remember when someone corrected our language, and many of us can also probably think of examples where we have corrected someone else’s language. Sometimes this cor- rection can lead to modification; we adopt the “new” form in order to be more socially acceptable. What is a rule of grammar that you have learned is the correct or proper way to say something but that you do not always (or ever) use in speaking? For example, you may have learned that It’s me

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 1 • 17

is incorrect, and the correct form is It is I; however, you may use me anyway, and I sounds odd to you. Have you modified your speech to say It is I? Who corrected you? How would you respond to someone who tells you that your way of speaking is wrong? Write a short paragraph on the language authorities in your life and what modifications you’ve made (or not made).

Answers will vary.

1.9 Language in Different Places The following sentences are grammatical in some variety of English but perhaps not in yours. Do you recognize each as English? Why or why not?

a. He is joking only. (Indian English) b. Those cats were just a-playing. (Appalachian [American] English) c. They might could make a deal. (Southeastern American English) d. Ought she to walk the dog soon? (some British English varieties) e. They have made a good life for theirselves. (various varieties) f. This car needs washed. (various varieties) g. We’ve already boughten some bread. (various varieties) h. The child has learnt the alphabet song. (some British English varieties) i. She done told you. (various varieties) j. They be late. (African American English) k. We happy. (various varieties)

Answers will vary.

1.10 Language in Different Times Below are some examples of varieties of English that are no longer spoken but are the ancestors of Present-Day English. Do you recognize each variety as English? Why or why not? Which sentences are “older” than the others? Try to put them in order, and explain why you ordered them the way you did. (An answer key is at the end of this “Review, Practice, and Explore” section.)

a. Untill you had gave me an account of what you had Cutt . . . b. That I ne knew therwith thy nycetee ‘That I knew not thereby your foolishness’ c. Hiericho seo burh wæs mid weallum ymbtrymed & fæste belocen ‘Jericho the city was with walls surrounded and firmly locked’ d. Cecile answerede, “O nyce creature!” ‘Cecile answered, O foolish creature!’ e. Thou sydest no word syn thou spak to me ‘You said no word since you spoke to me’ f. I have thoughts of what you Said to me Concerning them fish. g. I wonder you had not wrote to me. h. For ðes folces tocyme, and hi ne dorston ut faran ne in faran ‘Against the people’s arrival, and they no dared out go nor in go’

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18 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

Answers:

Old English (from the OE Heptateuch): c, h

Middle English (from Chaucer’s Second Nun’s Tale): b, d, e

Early Modern English: a, f, g

1.11 Sign Language versus Body Language Find at least four examples of arbitrary signs in American Sign Language or another sign language of your choice. Also find a few examples of nonarbitrary signs. What are some grammatical features of the sign language you are researching? How do your examples illustrate the difference between sign language and body language?

Answers will vary depending on students’ knowledge of ASL signs and their origins. Some signs may make them less arbitrary than others (the sign for “boy,” for example, indicating the brim of a cap, and certain classifiers, such as the handshapes for “vehicle” “flat things”). This provides a good opportunity to discuss the complex notion of what “arbitrary” means.

1.12 Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance Record 2 to 5 minutes of casual conversation among friends or family members. (You must by law have their permission to do so. However, try to make the recording as unobtrusive as possible—you don’t want their speech to be stilted or formal as a result of the taping. So tell them you’re taping them but then try to get them to forget about it.) Now transcribe the tape, writing down everything that was said, including ‘ums’ and ‘ahs’, false starts, and other features. (Please leave out names and other iden- tifying characteristics.) You will likely find that the speaker very rarely uses complete sentences. What does this simple exercise tell you about the distinction between competence and performance?

Answers will vary.

1.13 Language Myths and Stereotypes Learning more about language allows us to recognize misperceptions about language when we hear them. While some “language myths” are rather benign, some can be very discriminatory. Based on what you’ve learned in this chapter, choose four of the following language myths (none of the state- ments below is true) and explain why they are misperceptions. Why do you think such mispercep- tions persist? Try to explain.

a. Some languages have no grammar. b. French is much more romantic than German. c. English descended from Latin. d. Aborigines speak a primitive language. e. Teenagers are ruining the English language. f. Children are taught language by their parents. g. We’d speak better English if schools would teach more grammar. h. Some kids learn language better than others. i. People who use double negatives are just lazy.

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 2 • 19

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 2

2.1 Children’s Rules Children often produce forms that they don’t hear in adult speech—forms that nevertheless follow a systematic rule. In the following examples of children’s language, what systematic rule is evident here? How do these data support the human capacity for language? Do children learn by imitation?

a. I buyed a fire dog for a grillion dollars. b. Hey, Horton heared a Who. c. My teacher holded the baby rabbits and we patted them. d. Daddy, I stealed some of the people out of the boat. e. Once upon a time, a alligator was eating a dinosaur and the dinosaur was eating the alliga-

tor and the dinosaur was eaten by the alligator and the alligator goed kerplunk.

Answers:

Use of past tense -ed (heared, holded etc.) illustrates that children acquire rules that they then overgeneralize until they learn exceptions. These examples illustrate the same process as noted in the wugs experiment. Unique vocabulary such as grillion shows that children do not learn language by imitation.

What do the following examples of conversations with children tell us about how children acquire language, and how do they provide evidence for our linguistic “hardwiring”?

Child: I taked a cookie.

Adult: Oh, you mean you took a cookie.

Child: Yes, that’s right, I taked it.

Adult: Adam, say what I say: Where can I put them?

Child: Where I can put them?

Answer: This conversation illustrates that young children are fairly impervious to correction and do not learn through imitation. That child language does not conform to adult speech provides evidence that language is (unconsciously) acquired rather than (consciously) learned.

2.2 Two-Year-Olds Have No Words Even though children seem limited in the number of words they can string together in the early stages of acquisition, their utterances can express a range of complex meanings. For example, nega- tive utterances at this stage can express denial, rejection, or non-existence. Study the following sets of negative utterances of children in the early multiword stage. What kind of negation is being ex- pressed in each set? (Adapted from Foss and Hakes 1978.)

a. Allgone juice, no hot, no more light anymore play (non-existence) b. No dirty soap, no meat, no go outside (rejection) c. No morning (it was afternoon), no daddy hungry, no truck (denial)

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20 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

2.3 Adult Speech to Children Here are some examples of interactions between adults and children. What kinds of correction or reinforcement do the adult offer the child? What does the adult not correct? Do you think these in- teractions might help or hinder language acquisition? Why?

Child: [picking up toys]. Adult: thanks for picking up your toys!

Adult offers linguistic input through positive reinforcement, initiates conversation

Child: Sally goed to the store. Adult: No, Sally went to work.

Adult corrects verb form, and explicitly corrects child (commenting on the falsity of her statement)

Child: Doggy gone. Adult: Yes, Rover went for a walk with your sister.

Adult corrects child (Doggy/Rover, gone/went) implicitly through restatement

Child: I want a cookie. Adult: You want a cookie? Well, here you go!

Adult reinforces child’s statement through model dialogue

Child: Him ride bike. Adult: Yes, he’s riding a bike.

Adult corrects (him/he, ride/is riding) implicitly by reinforcing the truth value of the sentence

Do you think these interactions might help or hinder language acquisition? Why?

Answers will vary, but observe that adults in these examples are concerned mainly with communication rather than with grammatical structure, which they do not always attempt to correct.

2.4 How Would They Say It? Here are some examples of issues that arise for speakers learning English as a second language. Based on the information given about each language, try to come up with what the learner might say. (Adapted from Haussamen 2003.)

a. In Vietnamese, there is no article before the word for a profession (student, teacher, doctor, etc.). What is a sentence a Vietnamese speaker learning English might say?

b. In Korean, pronouns aren’t marked for gender, so you might hear a Korean speaker learn- ing English use it in places where native English speakers might not. What is a possible sentence the Korean speaker might utter?

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 2 • 21

c. In Japanese, pronouns don’t have to match the noun they refer to, so a singular pronoun can refer to a plural noun and vice versa. What kind of sentence might a Japanese speaker learning English utter?

d. In Cantonese, Japanese, and Korean, there are no plural forms of nouns (plurality is marked in other ways). What sentence might a speaker of one of these languages who is learning English produce?

Answers will vary. Samples are given here. (Thanks to Diane Majors.)

a. Vietnamese: I am student./ He is teacher./ They went to doctor. b. Korean: Serena will come with us; he can leave at 5. (male pronoun for female

referent). c. Japanese: Dogs eat meat and he can bite too. (singular pronoun for plural referent) d. Cantonese, Japanese, and Korean: Three girl came to Eva’s house. I saw many

student. (no plural marking on nouns)

2.5 Acquiring or Teaching a Second Language Explore one of the following questions about second language acquisition in more detail in a short research paper.

• What are some of the leading theories about how we acquire a second language, and how do these theories differ from one another?

• What are some of the theories about how to teach a second “foreign” language (now more frequently called world language) in school?

• Investigate English as a Second Language (ESL), teaching English as a Second Language (tESL), and teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (tESOL). What are some of the theories about how to teach English language in a multilingual classroom?

• How does the U.S. system differ from the Canadian or British systems? How are heritage languages (the speakers’ first language, or L1) treated in such systems?

Answers will vary.

2.6 Bilingual Education Bilingualism is a fascinating linguistic phenomenon, a behavior that is of interest not only to lin- guists but also to educators. Bilingual education is both much studied and controversial. Many states and organizations want to limit bilingual education, and other organizations and states promote it. Do some research on the pros and cons of bilingual education. What are the arguments in favor of it, and what methods and approaches seem to be most effective? Where has bilingual education been argued to be ineffective, and why?

Answers will vary.

2.7 Creole Grammar Some tourist guidebooks describe pidgins and creoles as baby talk, broken English, improper, or grammarless. But as we’ve seen, creole languages have systematic rules and are fully developed

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22 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

linguistic systems. Below is a set of data that illustrates the rule of plural formation in Nicaraguan Creole English (from Honda and O’Neil 2008).

Nicaraguan Creole English Standard English

a. the boat-dem de in the river. the boats are in the river. b. Ronald send to me two turtledove. Ronald sent me two turtledoves. c. Is many dog in Bluefields? Are there many dogs in Bluefields? d. these dog-dem in the street. these dogs are in the street. e. He want seven case of beer. He wants seven cases of beer. f. He did see the case of beer-dem. He saw the cases of beer.

the word dem is borrowed from the English word them; however, it has a different meaning and use in Nicaraguan Creole English. When do you use -dem in Creole?

Is the following sentence grammatical in this language?

g. Di man-dem a plaant kann. the men are planting corn.

Answers: The suffix -dem is used as a plural marker on nouns with definite determiners (these, the) but not on nouns introduced by (indefinite) quantifiers (many) or numerals (two, seven). Di man-dem a plaant kann (di = the) is grammatical in Nicaraguan Creole English, because -dem is attached to a noun preceded by a definite determiner (di man- dem = the men).

2.8 Linguistic Savants the Linguistic Society of America maintains an archive of language-related short videos at the University of Georgia. At the website http://www.uga.edu/lsava/Smith/Smith.htm are several clips about Christopher taken from the movie Het Talenwonder. Watch the clips and write a one-to-two- paragraph response. Consider what Christopher’s language ability tells us about the following:

• the human capacity for language • our language “intelligence” and its relation to other cognitive abilities • Universal Grammar

Answers will vary but students may observe: Christopher appears to be able to learn languages very quickly without explicit instruction, which provides striking evidence for the human capacity for language, even in people whose other cognitive abilities are severely impaired (he cannot find his way home, for example, and fails the logical “hidden keys” test that Smith administers). That Christopher could infer the rules of a language such as Berber (one of which is that pronominal subjects need not be pronounced), to which he had only limited exposure (data not including null subjects), provides evidence that our language ability involves the capacity to extract grammatical rules from limited data (the poverty of the stimulus argument). That Christopher failed to learn a “logical” language that did not conform to principles of Universal Grammar suggests again that while other cognitive abilities may be impaired (those responsible for logical reasoning, for example) such abilities are separate from Universal Grammar, the ability to produce and understand language.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 2 • 23

2.9 Genie Says Here are some examples of the speech of Genie, the child who was not exposed to language until almost age 13. Her speech has been described as agrammatic. What kinds of word order errors does Genie make, and does her speech resemble aphasic speech in any way? Does it resemble any of the stages of acquisition we’ve discussed in the chapter? Explain. (Data from Curtiss 1977: 31.)

Adult: Where are the graham crackers?

Genie: I where is graham cracker.

(or)

I where is graham cracker on top shelf.

Genie’s way of forming questions:

Where is tomorrow Mrs L?

Where is stop spitting?

Where is may I have ten pennies?

When is stop spitting?

Other examples of Genie’s language:

Man motorcycle have.

Genie full stomach.

Genie bad cold live father house.

Want Curtiss play piano.

Open door key.

Answers may vary.

Genie’s Question Formation:

Though Genie seems to be able to distinguish questions from statements, her syntax (I where) seems unique. Children do not produce such constructions (producing instead Where kitty?). Genie seems in this case to mark questions with I where or where is (and this marking was the result of researcher’s attempts to get Genie to produce a “normal” WH-question). That she produces when is suggests that her rule for forming questions might be something like “place (any) question word + is in sentence initial position.” Interestingly, Genie produces an inversion in Where is may I have ten pennies? which suggests that she can, in some cases, invert subject and auxiliary verb in questions, but not systematically. These data also show that Genie produces sentences she is not hearing from adults, and thus is not imitating, but learning/acquiring language in her own way.

Other examples:

These examples show a range of syntactic differences, and the lack of function words (such as prepositions, determiners), inflectional morphology (possessive -s), and missing content words (verbs, subjects) make them somewhat difficult to interpret, but Genie’s

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24 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

reliance on content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) allows her to communicate, even in the absence of rule-governed syntax. (In this way Genie’s language is similar to that of Broca’s aphasics, who also lack function words and whose syntax is labored and disrupted.) Reliance on semantic relationships to express meaning (content words) is similar to early child language (two-word stage, though Genie’s utterances are longer).

Man motorcycle have.

Subject - Object - Verb (SOV) order (not basic English word order)

Genie full stomach.

Subject - predicate order; missing verb, but otherwise conforms to basic English word order

Genie bad cold live father house.

(assumed meaning: Genie (had a) bad cold (and) live(d) (in her) father(‘s) house.)

- verb, tense, conjunction, possessive suffix -s missing

- possessive indicated syntactically (father house)

- reflects basic English word order

Want Curtiss play piano.

(assumed meaning: Genie wants Curtiss to play the piano.)

- Subject (Genie/I) omitted

- function words missing to/the

- basic English word order maintained

Open door key.

- lacks subject and function words (Open the door with the key.)

- basic English word order maintained: verb (open) + object (door)

+ instrument (key) order

2.10 Broca’s and Wernicke’s Aphasias Look up some examples of aphasic speech. Find examples of both Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia and also of one other disorder we have discussed here (agraphia, alexia, anomia). Explain how each of your examples fits the description of a particular type of aphasia or language disorder.

Answers will vary.

2.11 Sign Language Aphasia Conduct some research on sign language aphasia. How does it differ from oral language aphasia, and how it is similar? What does sign language aphasia tell us about the brain and how it is lateral- ized for language?

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 3 • 25

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 3

3.1 Describing Consonant Sounds Using Table 3.1, describe the following sounds in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation. Example: /p/ is a voiceless bilabial stop.

1. /f/ voiceless labiodental fricative 2. /h/ voiceless glottal glide 3. /g/ voiced velar stop 4. /θ/ voiceless interdental fricative 5. /n/ voiced alveolar nasal 6. /r/ voiced alveolar (bunched) liquid 7. /ŋ/ voiced velar nasal 8. /b/ voiced bilabial stop 9. /š/ voiceless palatal fricative 10. /č/ voiceless palatal affricate 11. /t/ voiceless alveolar stop 12. /m/ voiced bilabial nasal

3.2 Voiced or Voiceless? Come up with four minimal pairs of words in which a sound differs only in voicing status; for exam- ple: pin and bin /pın/ /bın/. Refer to the vowel chart in Tables 3.4 and 3.5 for help with transcribing vowels.

Answer: Examples of minimal pairs differing only in the voicing status of one sound are the following:

chin /čın/ /č/ is a voiceless palatal affricate

gin /ǰın/ /ǰ/ is a voiced palatal affricate

kit /kıt/ /t/ is a voicless alveolar stop

kid /kıd/ /d/ is a voiced alveolar stop

pad /pæd/ /p/ is a voiceless bilabial stop

bad /bæd/ /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop

3.3 Different Places of Articulation Looking at the consonant chart in Table 3.1, come up with three sets of three words, the words in each set differing only in the place of articulation of one of the sounds in the same position. For example, in the words pit, tit, kit, /pıt/ /tıt/ /kıt/, the initial sounds are all voiceless stops, but /p/ is bilabial, /t/ is alveolar, and /k/ is velar.

Answer: Examples of words that differ only in the place of articulation of one of the sounds in the same position are the following:

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26 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

kip /kıp/ /p/ is a voiceless bilabial stop

kit /kıt/ /t/ is a voiceless alveolar stop

kick /kık/ /k/ is a voiceless velar stop

Kim /kım/ /m/ is a voiced bilabial nasal

kin /kın/ /n/ is a voiced alveolar nasal

king /kıŋ/ /ŋ/ is a voiced velar nasal

3.4 Different Manners of Articulation Looking at the consonant chart in Table 3.1, come up with three sets of two words each that differ only in the manner of articulation of one of the sounds in the same position. For example, in the words ship and chip, /šıp/ /čıp/, the initial sounds are a voiceless palatal fricative /š/ and a voiceless palatal affricate /č/. The differing sounds do not have to occur at the beginning of the word.

Answer: Examples of words that differ only in the manner of articulation of one of the sounds in the same position are the following:

bad /bæd/ /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop

mad /mæd/ /m/ is a voiced bilabial nasal

tack /tæk/ /t/ is a voiceless alveolar stop

sack /sæk/ /s/ is a voiceless alveolar fricative

dish /dıš/ /š/ is a voiceless palatal fricative

ditch /dıč/ /č/ is a voiceless palatal affricate

3.5 Place and Manner Natural Classes For each group of words, write a three-part description (voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation) for the underlined sound in each word. Then determine which single natural class of sounds describes the underlined sounds in each group.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

pizza think favorite sing

malice though soap bark

bashful thrash vaporize get

wash thistle zenith

father there shape

valise thatch

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 3 • 27

Group 1 = labial

Group 2 = interdental fricative

Group 3 = fricative

Group 4 = velar

3.6 Oops! That’s Not What I Meant! Slips of the tongue involve accidental manipulation of the building blocks of language. The slips can be phonetic, phonological, morphological, and syntactic. In the following phonetic slips, either a whole phoneme or only a piece—a feature—of each sound is involved in the slips. Describe what happened from the intended utterance to the actual utterance and why you think each slip occurs.

Example: Intended utterance Actual utterance black cat plack gat

The voicing from /b/ moves to the /k/ of cat resulting in /g/. Removing the voicing from /b/ results in /p/. This switch provides evidence for the features of these phonemes and for a speaker’s ability to manipulate those features unconsciously.

Intended utterance Actual utterance a. pity the new teacher mity the dew teacher b. mismatched mitchmashed

(Before attempting an analysis, be sure to transcribe this one to see the correct phonemic representation.)

c. bad, naughty kitten mad, daughty kitten d. coin toss toin coss

a. pity the new teacher mity the dew teache

Answer: The nasality from the /n/ moves onto the /p/, making it into an /m/. Removing the nasality from /n/ results in a /d/.

/n/ - voiced alveolar nasal minus nasal = voiced alveolar stop - /d/

/p/ - voiceless bilabial stop plus nasal = bilabial nasal - /m/ (There is no voiceless bilabial nasal.)

b. mismatched mitchmashed

(Before attempting an analysis, be sure to transcribe this one to see the correct phonemic representation.)

Answer: /mismæčt/ /mičmæšt/

The /č/, a voiceless palatal affricate, moves to replace the /s/, but is not a simple exchange of /č/ and /s/. Either /č/ and /s/ exchange, but the /s/ becomes /š/ by keeping the palatalization of /č/, or the /s/ is simply replaced by /č/ and the palatalization spreads, making /s/ into /š/.

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c. bad, naughty kitten mad, daughty kitten

Answer: The nasality from the /n/ moves onto the /b/, resulting in /m/. Removing the nasality from /n/ results in a /d/.

/n/ - voiced alveolar nasal minus nasal = voiced alveolar stop - /d/\

/b/ - voiced bilabial stop plus nasal = bilabial nasal - /m/

d. coin toss toin coss

Answer: The /t/ and the /k/ exchange.

3.7 Fiddle-Faddle! Why do you think we say fiddle-faddle and not faddle-fiddle? Why is it ping-pong and pitter-patter and not pong-ping and patter-pitter? And here are some more:

dribs and drabs, spic and span, riffraff, zigzag, mishmash, ding-dong, crisscross, seesaw, hee- haw, flip-flop, hippity-hop, ticktock, eeny-meeny-miney-moe, bric-a-brac, clickety-clack, splish splash, dillydally, blither blather, tip-top, chitter chatter, shim sham, flimflam

Come up with some more examples of similar kinds of singsong (there’s one!) phrases. In the exam- ples given and in your own, which vowel sounds seem to come first? Why do you think these vowels come before others? Do you think this pattern is likely to hold for other languages? Why or why not?

Answers will vary, but basically high vowels and front vowels precede lower and more back vowels. Students may offer some physical reasons for this.

3.8 Mono or Di? Recall that whether vowels are diphthongs or monophthongs varies quite a bit across English dialects. Write each of the following words in phonemic transcription according to your own pronunciation. (It might be easier to listen to someone else’s pronunciation, since it can be difficult to reflect on your own.)

a. foul b. bawdy c. coffee d. toil e. reign f. tine g. frame h. fire i. taught

Answer: Transcription will vary for these, depending on dialect of students.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 3 • 29

3.9 Syllabic Consonants The transcription of words with syllabic consonants can cause some trouble when you are just learn- ing to transcribe. Transcribe each of the following words phonemically, using syllabic consonants where relevant. Remember that not all instances of /r/, /l/, /m/, and /n/ are syllabic consonants.

Answers may vary slightly, depending on students’ pronunciation.

a. purple /pṛpḷ/ b. bludgeon /bləǰṇ/ c. furtive /fṛtıv/ d. kittens /kıtṇz/ e. bottom /batṃ/ f. cycle /saykḷ/ g. cursive /kṛsıv/

3.10 Phonemic Transcription A. Transcribe the following words using phonemic transcription:

Answer: Bear in mind that students might have other pronunciations.

monkey /məŋki/ though /ðo/ crabs /kræbz/ fangs /feŋz/ physics /fɪzɪks/ thanks /θeŋks/ /ðeŋgz/ badger /bæǰṛ/ /bæǰər/ think /θiŋk/ /θiŋk/ useful /yusfəl/ /yusfḷ/ uncle /əŋkḷ/ /əŋkəl/ measure /mɛžər/ /mɛžr/ /mežər/ /mežṛ/ pinch /pɪnč/ shaved /ševd/ wiggle /wɪgll/ /wɪgəl/ huge /hyuǰ/ prestige /prɛstiǰ/ /prɛstiž/ /prɪstiǰ/ /prɪstiž/ cured /kyurd/ /kyurd/ /kyərd/ /kyrd/ wart /wɔrt/

B. 1. Write your name in phonemic transcription. 2. Write a sentence in phonemic transcription.

Answers will vary.

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30 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

3.11 Reverse Phonemic Transcription Write the following sentences in regular English orthography. Keep in mind that this transcription may not match your pronunciation of some of the words. Also keep in mind that some of these sen- tences might not actually make a whole lot of sense—we don’t want context to give away the words, so some of them are a bit, well, wacky.

/ðə maws slɛpt θru may lɛkšər əbawt bʌkəts ǰʌmpiŋ ɪntu ðə læps əv bebz/ The mouse slept through my lecture about buckets jumping into the laps of babes.

/ðə mʌnθ əv eprɪl wʌz pṛtɪkyulərli lʌvli dont yu θiŋk/ The month of April was particularly lovely, don’t you think?

/ɪmæǰɪnɛri kričərz lɛpt tɔrd ʌs frəm al dɪrɛkšənz/ Imaginary creatures leapt toward us from all directions.

/gulz ænd wɪčəz mayt rɔmp ðru rɛd skwɛr ɔn sʌnde/ Gulls and witches might romp through Red Square on Sunday.

/mısəz bizli wakt kwıkli dawn ðə krʊkıd bɔrdwak/ Mrs. Beasley walked quickly down the crooked boardwalk.

/ðɪs ɛgzæmpəl ɪz ɛntɛndɪd tu bi mɔr kənfyuzɪŋ/ This example is intended to be more confusing.

3.12 Who Has “Creaky Voice”? There is a phonetic feature of voicing known as creaky voice (also called laryngealization and vocal fry), in which only the front part of the vocal folds are vibrating, giving a very low frequency of vibration. Sometimes you can even hear vibration of individual vocal folds. This feature seems to be on the rise in American English speakers; some researchers suggest it happens more in young people. It also appears to happen more at the end of an utterance. Look up creaky voice and listen to an audio recording of it. (There’s one at http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/225139_nwspeak20.html.)

In some languages, creaky and noncreaky sounds are distinctive; Mazatec, a language of Mexico, has consonants and vowels that can be creaky or noncreaky (laryngealized or not), and that can make a difference in the meaning of a word. Hear this contrast at the following link: http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/ departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/vowels/chapter12/mazatec.html.

Do you think you or any of your friends use creaky voice? If so, do you do it all the time, or more in particular circumstances? Do you agree that it happens more with young people than with older people? Consider these questions and any others this leads you to. Summarize your discussion.

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 3 • 31

3.13 The Great Vowel Shift Consider the following words reflecting Middle English pronunciation before the Great Vowel Shift took place. Determine the Present-Day English pronunciation of the same words, after the Great Vowel Shift had taken place. (The symbol : indicates a long vowel and can be ignored for this exercise.)

Middle English

a. /lu:s/ b. /me:d/ c. /kni:xt/ d. /bla:mə/ e. /gɔ:t/ f. /ro:t/ g. /du:n/

a. /laws/ louse b. /mid/ mead c. /nayt/ knight d. /blem/ blame e. /got/ goat f. /rut/ root g. /dun/ down

3.14 Northern California Vowel Shift Read about the Northern California Vowel Shift at http://www.stanford.edu/~eckert/vowels.html. This project also focuses on the adolescent peer social order in order to understand how it emerges from a child social order, how gender differences in phonology come about, how adolescent linguis- tic styles emerge from kid talk, and how to theorize style as social practice. Read about this research and write a one-paragraph response to it.

Answers will vary.

3.15 Perceptions Based on Pronunciation Consider the following common pronunciations among varieties of North American English.

agate /ɛgət/—Northwest and Midwest /ægət/—elsewhere both /bɔθ/—Northwest and Midwest /boθ/—elsewhere can’t /kent/—South /kænt/ or /kɛnt/—elsewhere pen /pɪn/—South /pɛn/—elsewhere

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Discuss the variations, and determine which is most noticeable. What are your perceptions of people who pronounce these words either one way or the other?

The variation in the vowel sounds is only one step on the vowel chart, as indicated by the ovals, but we nevertheless find some distinctions more noticeable than others, and these are typically more stigmatized. Are your opinions about each variant linguistically or socially determined? Explain.

Answers will vary, but the point is that some variations are much more “noticeable” because they are more stigmatized. The stigmatized ones are not stigmatized because of anything about the sounds per se, but rather because of our attitudes towards the people who have that pronunciation.

3.16 Is There a “Right” Way To Say It? Think of some words that have more than one common pronunciation (coupon, pajamas, apricot, economic). Practice transcribing by writing each pronunciation in phonemic transcription. After you have done the transcription, discuss the varying pronunciations and the characteristics you associate with each pronunciation. What factors (age, race, gender, class, ethnicity, education, etc.) correlate with each pronunciation, and why do you think you have those associations? Are there some words for which you do not have a preferred pronunciation? Are there some words for which you adopt the pronunciation of whomever you’re speaking with?

Answer: Answers will vary. This is an interesting way to both practice transcription and get at students’ attitudes about varying pronunciations. Other ideas for words to compare are the following: Caribbean, route, aunt, lever, wash.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 4 • 33

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 4

4.1 Allophones of [l] in English There are three distinct allophonic forms of the phoneme /l/ in many English dialects, shown here as [l], [l̥], and [ɫ]. You can figure out the rule that determines when each allophone of the phoneme /l/ occurs. To do this, look at the sounds that occur on either side of the [l]s, and write what determines when each sound occurs.

[lıp] lip [lay] lie [pl̥ei] play [kl̥u] clue [pıɫ] pill [ayɫ] isle [blu] blue [glu] glue

Now look up each of the symbols and write the description of each of these allophones (in terms of place and manner of articulation and voicing).

Answer: [l̥] occurs after a voiceless consonant. It is a called a voiceless alveolar liquid. (It sometimes occurs as the voiceless alveolar fricative, indicated by the symbol [ɬ].)

[ɫ] occurs at the end of a word/syllable or after a vowel. It is called an alveolar lateral fricative. (IPA calls it a velarized alveolar lateral approximant.)

[l] occurs at the beginning of words/syllables and after voiced consonants. So [l] is likely the default/basic sound, the phoneme, which becomes either [l̥] (voiceless, after a voiceless sound, by assimilation) or [ɫ] (after a vowel, or at the end of a word).

Students can try to determine which rule is more likely for the occurrence of [ɫ], either after a vowel or at the end of a word, and why.

4.2 Italian [n] and [ŋ]: Phonemes or Allophones? Using the following Italian words, determine whether [n] and [ŋ] are allophones of one phoneme or separate phonemes in Italian. Do the sounds occur in the same positions? Determine the environment in which each sound occurs; that is, look at the sounds that occur on either side of [n] and [ŋ] to see what determines when each sound occurs. If one sound always occurs before a certain natural class of sound, then the occurrence of that sound is determined by a phonological rule. What is that rule?

[nero] black [ǰente] people [tenda] tent [tinta] dye [rana] frog [aŋke] also

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[faŋgo] mud [tiŋgo] I die

Answer: [ŋ] occurs before velars; thus, /n/ is the phoneme which has [ŋ] as an allophone, occurring before velars.

4.3 Korean [s] and [š]: Phonemes or Allophones? Using the following words, determine whether [s] and [š] are allophones of one phoneme or sepa- rate phonemes in Korean. Do the sounds occur in the same positions? Determine the environment in which each sound occurs; does the sound always occur before a certain natural class of sound, and if so which one? (Adapted from Cowan and Rakušan 1985: 42.)

[son] hand [sɔm] sack [sosal] novel [sɛk] color [us] upper [šihap] game [šipsam] thirteen [šinho] signal [maši] delicious

Answer: /s/ becomes [š] before /i/; therefore, /s/ is the phoneme that has two distinct allophones, [s] and [š].

4.4 Hungarian [a] and [a:]: Phonemes or Allophones? Consider the sounds [a] and [a:] (where : indicates a long vowel). Are these sounds allophones of one phoneme or separate phonemes? Determine the environment in which each sounds occurs; do they occur in the same positions or different ones? (Adapted from Cowan and Rakušan 1985: 66.)

[bamba:n] foolishly [cafatol] tear [aga:r] greyhound [fɛlad] to give up [cimborafa] collar beam [holta] posthumously [oldal] side [ado:š] in debt [kortina] curtain [rak] to put [a:g] branch [a:da:z] furious [ba:mul] wonder [ca:pa] shark [cikornya:š] over-ornamented

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 4 • 35

[fɛla:za:š] soaking up [ra:k] crayfish [a:bra] illustration [olda:š] solution [ča:] to the right

Answer: Because these sounds occur in the same environment (for example, at the beginning of a word, followed by [g]), they are separate phonemes.

4.5 A Variation of the Pluralization Rule In the text, you saw the three plural endings involved in plural formation for most adult speakers of English. Children acquiring English sometimes have variations on this rule. Consider the following pronunciations of some plural words by a child between the ages of 2½ and 3 years.

a. bath + plural = /bæθəz/ b. knife + plural = /nayfəz/ c. cliff + plural = /klɪfəz/ d. self + plural = /sɛlfəz/ e. sleeve + plural = /slivəz/ f. horse + plural = /hɔrsəz/ g. fuzz + plural = /fʌzəz/ h. fish + plural = /fɪšəz/ i. church + plural = /čʌrčəz/ j. cat + plural = /kæts/ k. dog + plural = /dagz/ l. pup + plural = /pʌps/ m. pad + plural = /pædz/ n. kick + plural = /kɪks/ o. stamps + plural = /stæmps/ p. bib + plural = /bɪbz/ q. lamb + plural = /læmz/ r. can + plural = /kænz/ s. camel + plural = /kæməlz/ t. caterpillar + plural = /kælərpɪtərz/

This child’s rule of plural formation seems to match the adult rule for the data in items (j) through (t)—although notice his metathesis of syllables in his pronunciation of caterpillars. However, the adult rule that adds /əz/ after sibilants is slightly different for him. After which sounds does the child add /əz/? Briefly discuss how this rule is similar to and different from the adult rule of plural forma- tion, and consider how this child might have come to acquire this rule.

Answer: Remember that the adult rule is to add /əz/ after the natural class of sibilants /s, z, š, č, ž, ǰ/. This child adds /əz/ after sibilants, but also includes other fricatives (θ, f, v), thus extending the rule to add /əz/ after fricatives and affricates.

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4.6 A Different Variation of Pluralization A well-known psycholinguistic experiment that has come to be known as the wug test, first conducted by Jean Berko-Gleason (Berko 1958), presents children with made-up words and asks them to make them plural. For example, a child might be shown a picture of a fantasy creature and be told, “This is a wug. Imagine there are two of them. There are two ___.” The children then fill in the blank. Very young children are able to do this quite easily, supplying the adult forms: /s/ after voiceless Cs, /z/ after voiced Cs, /əz/ after sibilants.

In one experiment, the 4-year-old subjects produced a slight variation of the adult plural rule; again, as with the other child variation, the variation was only with the /əz/ form. The attachment of /s/ and of /z/ matched the adult rule, as shown in items (a)–(g):

a. cats /kæts/ b. dogs /dagz/ c. pups /pʌps/ d. pads /pædz/ e. kicks /kıks/ f. stamps /stæmps/ g. bibs /bɪbz/

Made-up words demonstrated a similar pattern:

h. wug /wʌgz/ i. biff /bɪfs/

However, the plural forms in items (j) and (k) indicate that these children have a different rule when the word ends in a sibilant:

j. fish /fɪš/ k. bunch /bʌnč/

Again, made-up words demonstrated a similar pattern:

l. clush /klʌš/ m. tazz /tæz/

What is these children’s rule of plural formation, and how does it differ from the adult rule? Briefly discuss how this rule is similar to and different from the adult rule of plural formation, and discuss how these children might have come to acquire this rule.

Answer: The rule is that if the word already ends in a sibilant, you add nothing. It is another logical way to solve the problem that attaching a plural /s/ or /z/ after a sound that is similar poses to a speaker. One solution is to insert a vowel between the two sibilants. Another solution (shown here) is to add no ending after the sibilant.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 4 • 37

4.7 They Hissed, Banged, and Faded A. Determine the past-tense form of each of the following words. Remember to think phonemically

here—ignore spelling. For example, the past tense of dance is /dænst/.

crush turn weed kick plow hate hiss play demand heap climb pit cinch singe tote pass kill pat wish thrive sift tuck bag bait botch nab import possess breathe relate winch bang sand face faze fade

What are the three phonological forms of the English past tense? What natural classes of sounds determine which past-tense form is used? What natural class of sounds does /t/ follow? What natural class of sounds does /d/ follow? What natural class of sounds does /ɪd/ (or /əd/) follow?

Answer:

/t/ follows voiceless sounds (except /t/)

/d/ follows voiced sounds (except /d/)

/ɪd/ follows alveolar stops (/t/ and /d/)

Notice that some of this assimilation has come into the spelling system. Consider crept, slept, wept, leapt. Can you think of others? Some words, such as dreamed and dreamt, have two distinct standard spellings and pronunciations in the past tense. Can you think of any others?

Answer: Some other examples include the following:

sweeped/swept, kneeled/knelt, burned/burnt, leaped/leapt, spelled/spelt, spoiled/spoilt

B. In some dialects, there is a slight variation of the rule you have discovered already for past tense. Consider the following data from some high school students in Seattle (Dialect B):

Dialect A Dialect B

skinned /skɪnd/ /skɪndɪd/ boned /bond/ /bondɪd/ burned /bʌrnd/ /bʌrndɪd/

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How is this past-tense rule different from the rule you already described?

Answer: This “extra” /ɪd/ seems to get added when the word has an /n/ preceding the /d/ ending in Dialect A, thus perhaps extending the cases in which /ɪd/ is added from words ending in the alveolars /t/ and /d/ to words ending in the alveolar /n/ as well. The data set is not large enough to determine how productive the rule is, or whether it is restricted to participial adjectives.

4.8 Dissimilation The word cardomom, a kind of spice, is frequently pronounced as if spelled cardomon, with an /n/ at the end. Look up the following words in a good etymological dictionary to determine their origins. Explain the process of dissimilation that occurred to achieve the Present-Day English forms: seldom, random, pilgrim.

Answer: According to the Oxford English Dictionary, seldom came from the Old English seldan. In addition to the dissimilation of the two alveolars seldan, the <n> may have altered to seldom (first seldum) by analogy with other plurals that ended in -um.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, random came from the Old French randon and by dissimilation, the final <n> changed to <m>.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, pilgrim came from the Anglo-Norman pilegrin, the alveolar <n> later dissimilated from the other alveolars, <r> and <l>, resulting in pilgrim. The Old French word was pelerin, meaning ‘stranger’, which had come from Latin peregrinus, this too involving dissimilation of the first <r> to <l>.

4.9 Schwa Insertion In many people’s speech, a schwa sound is commonly inserted after a syllable ending in /l/ or pre- ceding a syllable beginning with /l/.

Realtor /riltər/ → /rilətər/

athlete /æθlit/ → /æθəlit/

Conduct a survey among your peers to determine whether the following words have schwa inserted: athletic, biathlon (decathlon, pentathlon), jewelry. Can you can think of others?

Answers will vary. Another example is England. Some dialects insert in words like film or elm.

4.10 Where Have All the /l/s Gone? The deletion of /l/ before other consonants is in a state of flux in English. In most words in which /l/ is followed by another consonant, the /l/ is not pronounced by most speakers: half, calf, walk, salmon, would, could, should. This /l/ before a consonant had disappeared across the board by the time of Early Modern English (1500–1800), though it remained in the spelling. However, some people now pronounce the /l/ because of what we call a ‘spelling pronunciation’, an effect of seeing the /l/ in the word in print. (This has also happened with the /t/ of often, which used to not be pro- nounced but now is by some speakers, though not in soften or fasten.) Some words with an /l/ have two standard pronunciations, so you may hear folk or psalm with or without the /l/, though other /l/s

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 4 • 39

before consonants are not pronounced by most speakers, such as in yolk. And though most speakers do not pronounce the /l/ in half or calf, those same speakers might pronounce the /l/ in wolf and criticize those who do not have an /l/ in wolf.

Consider the following and determine whether you have an /l/ in your pronunciation:

half, calf, walk, salmon, salve, palm, calm, talk, golf, wolf, Rudolph, elf, shelf, myself, always, folk, psalm

Are there some words that you can pronounce either with or without the /l/? If so, what do you think determines which pronunciation you use? What factors do you associate with particular instances of /l/-dropping in these words? Try to come up with other examples of words that have an <l> in the spelling but may or may not have an /l/ in the pronunciation.

Answers will vary.

4.11 Deletion of /r/ in American English Even the so-called standard American dialect that doesn’t traditionally delete /r/ after vowels may delete /r/s elsewhere. Some Americans who regularly pronounce /r/ elsewhere do not have it in the middle of the word governor, for instance, although they may have it in governing or government. Can you suggest any reason for the loss of /r/ in the one word when it is retained in the other two?

Say the following words; in which ones do you pronounce the /r/s? Be careful not to be fooled by the spelling—you may think you have an /r/ where you really do not pronounce one. Then describe the circumstances under which the loss of /r/ occurs. Consider the position of the stress in the words and also whether there are other /r/s in the word.

surprise mirror February thermometer gubernatorial temperature vernacular spectrograph caterpillar reservoir southerner particular repertory formerly Arthur wintergreen paraphernalia kindergarten

Answers will vary.

4.12 Switching Sounds Around Some words commonly involve sound exchanges, either as slips of the tongue or as dialectal variations. Describe the metathetic pronunciation of the following words, which are given following each word, and discuss anything that surprises you about these pronunciations.

integral /ɪntrəgəl/ cavalry /kælvəri/ comfortable /kʌmftərbəl/ foliage /foyləǰ/ relevant /rɛvəlɪnt/ strategy /stræǰəti/

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Also look up the older forms of each of these words, whose Present-Day English pronunciation is the result of metathesis. Give the older form of the words.

horse, run, frost

And finally, consider the word iron. How is metathesis at work in the standard pronunciation of this word?

Answers:

horse – Old English hros

run – Old English irnan, iernan, rynen, irnen

iron – Many different forms in older English, among them iren, eiren, airn, yrne. Note that today’s pronunciation does not match the spelling; it is a metathesized version of the spelling pattern.

frost – Old English forst

4.13 Slips of the Tongue Slips of the tongue involve accidental manipulation of the building blocks of language: phonetic, phonological, morphological, and syntactic. For the following phonological slips, describe what happened from the intended utterance to the actual utterance, using the terminology from syllable structure.

Intended utterance Actual utterance

a. play with fire fay with plire

Answer: The onsets of the two content words exchange: /pl/ and /f/.

b. stoke the fire stike the foire

Answer: The nuclei of the two content words exchange: /o/ and /ay/.

c. take off your snowpants snake off your toepants

Answer: The onsets of the two content words exchange: /t/ and /sn/.

d. fish net fit nesh

Answer: The codas exchange: /š/ and /t/.

e. I would name it . . . I nould wame it . . .

Answer: The onsets exchange: /w/ and /n/.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 4 • 41

4.14 Where’s the Stress? Remember that the English stress system is quite complicated. In the following words, for example, the words in Data set A and those in Data set B follow a different stress rule. What are the two rules that determine which syllable is stressed in these groups of English nouns? The accent mark ́ indicates the primarily stressed syllable for most English speakers.

Data set A Data set B synópsis cábinet veránda América agénda cínema consénsus aspáragus amálgam metrópolis uténsil jávelin

It will be useful to first divide the words into syllables. Then examine the structure of the syllables that receive primary stress. Write a rule that describes which syllable receives primary stress.

Answer: Data set A: The second syllable (or the penultimate) is stressed.

Data set B: The third syllable from the end (antepenultimate) is stressed.

Some possible false hypotheses include the following.

Data Set A:

Stress the second syllable.

Stress the middle syllable.

Stress the syllable with a vowel that is followed by two consonants:

synópsis veránda (even though the two consonants are in different syllables…)

Data Set B:

If the word starts with a vowel (America, asparagus), stress the second syllable; otherwise, stress the first (though this doesn’t work for metropolis).

Stress the first CVC (or CCVC) syllable (cab, mer, cin, par, trop, jav) that’s also followed by a vowel.

Stress the antepenultimate (or “third from the end”) syllable.

So a more parsimonious description is to stress the penultimate (in A) and the antepenultimate (in B).

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4.15 Da DUM Da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM Do you recognize iambic pentameter? Recall that an iambic foot (one iamb) is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable, such as in the words today and undo. Shakespeare, among many other poets, used a lot of iambic pentameter, in which a poetic line consists of five iambic feet. Find or invent some examples of iambic trimeter (three sets of iambs), tetrameter (four sets of iambs), and pentameter (five sets of iambs).

Other terms from poetry of varied stress patterns are the following:

a. Trochee two syllables, stressed-unstressed, as in the words lamppost and standard b. �Anapest three syllables, unstressed-unstressed-stressed, as in the words unperturbed and

disengage c. �Dactyl three syllables, stressed-unstressed-unstressed, as in the words probably and imbecile

Find examples of each of these in poetry as well.

Answers will vary.

4.16 Watch Your Tone! Place the intonation nucleus in at least two places in the following sentences, then describe the way the meaning changes when the intonation changes.

a. I don’t remember his name. b. Did you forget to lock the door? c. I hope she isn’t too disappointed. d. I think we’ve run out of pullover sweaters. e. How can we persuade them to help? f. Her secretary wouldn’t say where the client was.

Answers will vary.

4.17 Rules of a Language Game Here’s an English-speaking children’s language game called Pet. Using your knowledge of syllable structure, figure out and explain the rules of this language game.

/bɛtpɛtərpər letpet ðænpæn nɛvpɛv ərpər/ Betpetterper latepate thanpan nevpeverper.

Answer: Repeat each syllable, but remove the onset of the syllable (if one is present) and replace with /p/.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 5 • 43

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 5

5.1 OK, Break It Up! Divide the following words into morphemes. If there are any you are not sure about—that you be- lieve could be divided in more than one way—describe what is problematic and/or discuss any other issues that arise.

treehouses equipment massage cabinets freakishness communism shipment turnip nevertheless gracious begs heated

Are any of these words monomorphemic? Give an example of how one of these words illustrates the difference between morphemes and syllables.

Answers:

Words can be divided in different ways, depending on students’ knowledge of etymology, as well as on instructor’s goals and focus. Students may analyze different words as monomorphemic (turnip, massage, cabinet, nevertheless, and so on) if the instructor has focused more on how the morphemes might be stored lexically, on whether the morphemes stand alone in contemporary English (-mun of communism), on how much they retain the meaning in other words, etc. However, if more focus is placed on etymology, further divisions are possible. The words gracious, cabinets, and turnip may raise questions, for example; have students list other words with the same morphemes to determine morphemic divisions based on generalized patterns. Students can check the dictionary for derivations if they want more information.

grac (i) + ous: danger + ous, monster + ous, graci + ous (Latin gratia “good will”)

cabin + et + s: launder + ette, luncheon + ette, kitchen + ette (diminutive of Middle English cabin, which comes from OF cabane, “small chest of drawers.”)

turn + ip: (Fr. tour, Eng. turn (shape) + neep/naep, (Old English word for “turnip”)

parsnip comes from Latin/French pastine, which in English was ultimately was combined with neep = parsnip.

Possible divisions are given here. Remind students that when morphemes are combined, spelling can be affected (grace + ous = gracious).

tree/house/s

equip/ment

mass/age or massage

cabinet/s or cabin/et

freak/ish/ness

commun/ism or com/mun/ism

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ship/ment

turnip

never/the/less or nevertheless

grac/(i)ous

beg/s

heat/ed

5.2 Finding Function Words Find at least six (different) function words in the following text excerpt. Label each word’s syntactic category. Also list and label at least six different content words. What kind of information is lost when function words are omitted?

Answers: Function words are in boldface; others are content words.

Bilbo was very rich and very peculiar, and had been the wonder of the Shire for sixty years, ever since his remarkable disappearance and unexpected return. The riches he had brought back from his travels had now become a local legend, and it was popularly believed, what- ever the old folk might say, that the Hill at Bag End was full of tunnels stuffed with treasure. (From The Fellowship of the Ring by J.R.R tolkien.)

We analyze was as a functional verb whether it is a main verb or an auxiliary verb, because it has no lexical meaning. Students may analyze pronominal whatever as a content word because of the presence of the adverb ever.

Answers will vary about what content is lost when functional elements are omitted; content can be interpreted from context, but other important information is lost.

5.3 What’s Missing? Find an example of a text that omits function words (the classified advertising section of any newspa- per is a good place to look, and newspaper and magazine headlines provide good examples). Identify the syntactic category of each content word in your example, and list the function words that are missing. What effect does the lack of function words have on your understanding of the piece overall?

Answers will vary.

5.4 Free and Bound Morphemes Divide the following words into morphemes. Which morphemes are affixes? Which morphemes are free morphemes, and which are bound?

legalize prescription distaste sportsmanship serenity ridden misinformation

Answers:

affixes = -al, -ize, pre-, -ion, dis-, -s, -ship, -ity, -en, mis-, in-

Bound morphemes are in boldface, others are free. Here again, answers may vary depending on instructor’s focus. If emphasis is on how words are built and stored rather than on etymology, fewer divisions will result.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 5 • 45

leg/al/ize or legal/ize

pre/script/ion (scribe = “to write”) or prescrip/tion (prescribe)

dis/taste

sport/s/man/ship

seren/ity (serene)

ridd/en (ride)

mis/in/form/at/ion or mis/in/format/ion or mis/inform/(a)tion

Misinformation brings up some interesting issues for discussion. Students may analyze this word in a number of different ways (mis/in/form/at/ion, mis/in/format/ion or as mis/in/form/(a)tion), depending on different sets of evidence.

-ion: based on passion, religion, oblivion etc.

-tion: based on destruction, deduction

They may analyze the syllable –a(t) as a phonological insertion (on a par with that in inspire + tion, transport + tion), or as a morpheme (based on activ + ate + tion, hibern + ate + tion). This latter analysis is faulty, as *informate does not exist (information derives from Latin informare).

5.5 A Wieldy Task Analyze the morphology of the following text excerpt, in which the author plays with morphological rules for comic effect. Using the terminology and concepts discussed in the chapter, explain each ex- ample of wordplay as explicitly as you can. Do you find any “cranberry” (bound root) morphemes?

It had been a rough day, so when I walked into the party I was very chalant, despite my efforts to appear gruntled and consolate. I was furling my wieldy umbrella for the coat check when I saw her standing alone in a corner. She was a descript person, a woman in a state of total ar- ray. Her hair was kempt, her clothing shevelled, and she moved in a gainly way. I wanted des- perately to meet her, but I knew I’d have to make bones about it since I was travelling cognito. Beknownst to me, the hostess, whom I could see both hide and hair of, was very proper, so it would be skin off my nose if anything bad happened. And even though I had only swerving loyalty to her, my manners couldn’t be peccable. Only toward and heard-of behavior would do. (From “How I Met My Wife” by Jack Winter, The New Yorker, July 25, 1994.)

Answers: Missing affixes and words are in parentheses.

It had been a rough day, so when I walked into the party I was very (non)chalant, despite my efforts to appear (dis)gruntled and (dis)consolate. I was (un)furling my (un)wieldy umbrella for the coat check when I saw her standing alone in a corner. She was a (non)descript person, a woman in a state of total (dis)array. Her hair was (un)kempt, her clothing (dis)shevelled, and she moved in a (un)gainly way. I wanted desperately to meet her, but I knew I’d have to make (no) bones about it since I was traveling (in) cognito. (Un)beknownst to me, the hostess, whom I could see (both=>neither) hide (and => nor) hair of, was very proper, so it would be (no) skin off my nose if anything bad happened. And even though I had only (un)swerving loyalty to her, my manners

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could(n’t) be (im)peccable. Only (un)toward and (un)heard-of behavior would do. (From “How I Met My Wife” by Jack Winter, The New Yorker, July 25, 1994.)

Most of the roots to which the boldface affixes are attached are bound roots (chalant, gruntled, consulate, etc.) Also, the addition of affixes changes the meaning of the piece. Does I could see both hide and hair of mean the author could see the hostess, for example?

5.6 Derivational Affixation See if you can come up with at least two other words for each of the following suffixes. Label the syn- tactic category of the words or roots to which each suffix attaches, and label the category of the word created by affixation. (Ignore spelling differences—they don’t affect the outcome.) Here’s an example:

Word root/word + suffix = word serenity: serene + ity = serenity adjective + ity = noun

Do the same for the following; find words to which the following affixes are attached, and determine how affixation changes the syntactic category (the part of speech) of the word:

-ence/-ance (as in avoidance)

-en (as in weaken)

-ify (as in simplify)

-ness (as in senseless)

Answers:

Word root/word + suffix = word

attendance attend + ance = noun

appearance appear

assistance assist (verb + ance = noun)

thicken thick + en = verb

deepen deep

strengthen strong (adjective + en = verb)

liquid + ify = verb

ample

rare (adjective + ify = verb)

happy + ness = noun

tender + ness

empty + ness

(adjective + ness = nouns)

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 5 • 47

All of the following affixes attach to nouns or noun roots to derive adjectives.

mind, face, price + less

danger, monster, scandal + ous

leg, reg, brut, mort, nation + al

celest, terrestr, dictator + ial

5.7 It’s Greek (or Latin?) to Me! Recall that many words in English have Greek and Latin roots and affixes and that we use these parts of words productively to form new words. For example, the prefix neo- ‘new’ can be affixed to conservative to derive neoconservative. Some words with Latin and Greek affixes are the following:

Latinate suffixes

excite-ment, pens-ive, ecst-atic, appear-ance, peer-age, pleas-ure, leg-al, real-ize, read-able, seren-ity

Latinate prefixes

co-edit, de-frost, dis-belief, inter-national, non-skid, post-mortem, pre-cede, re-build, trans-mit, audio-phile, bi-lateral, circum-navigate

Greek suffixes

neur-algia, morpho-logy, micro-scope, colos-tomy, an-emia, the-ism, conform-ist, di-graph, kilo-gram, pan-demic, homo-phobe, franco-phone, kilo-meter, aero-gram

Greek prefixes

a-moral, anti-war, auto-mobile, bio-sphere, geo-graphy, hyper-ventilate, mono-chrome, neo- logism, thermo-meter, macro-biotic, acro-bat, techno-crat

A. Using these examples as well as a good dictionary, list at least five words (not on this list) cur- rently used in English that have Greek or Latin affixes. Choose examples of words that are prob- ably recent additions to the language (like neoconservative).

Answers will vary.

B. Create five words using Latin and Greek morphemes. Give each word a meaning consistent with its affix (if you choose neo-, for example, your words would include the meaning ‘new’, as in neolingologist).

Answers will vary.

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5.8 Word Trees A. Draw trees for the following words, indicating the category of word at the top of the tree.

friendship quickly grievance copilot

N friend

ship

Adv

A quick

V grieve

ance

co N pilot

B. Now draw these more difficult word trees, showing the order in which each morpheme attaches.

reorganization understatement degradable nonbeliever deployment

reorganization

re V organize

(a)tion

Students may separate –ize from organ-¸ though this is not a productive morpheme. The suffix is actually able to combine fairly productively with both adjectives (formalize, legalize, modernize) and nouns (hospitalize, computerize, dramatize, demonize) to form verbs. It’s not clear that either of those processes is at work with organize, however.

understatement

under V state

ment

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 5 • 49

degradable

de V grade

able

Though gradeable is a word and it might appear like -able could attach first, de- does not productively attach to adjectives: *dehappy, *degreen.

nonbeliever

V believ(e)

non

deployment

V deploy

ment

Perhaps de- attaches to –ploy, though this is not a very productive process.

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5.9 Word Trees and Meaning A. Remarkable is ambiguous, meaning either ‘notable’ or ‘able to be marked on again’. (One

meaning is more common, but the other is possible nonetheless.) Draw tree structures illustrat- ing these two meanings.

remarkable - able to be marked on again

V mark

able

remarkable - notable

V remark

able

B. Inflammable is a word that has come to have two opposite meanings. the traditional meaning is ‘able to catch on fire easily’, while the more recent meaning is ‘not flammable’. Draw tree diagrams that show the two possible meanings, and provide a brief discussion of what you have illustrated.

in�ammable - not �ammable

V �am(e)

able

in�ammable - able to become in�amed

in V �ame

able

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 5 • 51

C. Draw the two word trees that represent the two distinct meanings of the noun phrase toy car crusher. Label each with an appropriate paraphrase of the meaning.

N - crusher of toy cars

N toy

N car

N N crusher

N - a car crusher that is a toy

N car

N crusher

N toy

In both, crusher could be further broken down into the verb crush and the nominalizing suffix -er.

5.10 Derivation or Inflection? Label the following prefixes and suffixes as derivational or inflectional.

autumnal gestation automated faster fastener

freaks decompose skipping noncompliant

Answers:

autumnal (D) gestation (D) automated (I) faster (I) fastener (D)

freaks (I) decompose (D) skipping (I) noncompliant(D)

5.11 Derivation and Inflection in Latin Does the following data from Latin with rough English translations show that Latin marks case and number on its nouns? Are these examples of inflection or derivation?

vir man vir-i men vir-i of man vir-orum of men vir-o to man vis-is to men

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Answers:

vir man

vir-i men -i = plural

vir-i of man -i = possessive singular

vir-orum of men -orum = possessive plural

vir-o to man -o = *dative singular

vis-is to men -is = *dative plural

All are examples of inflectional affixes, which express both number and case (here, possessive and dative singular and plural). Dative is the case assigned to indirect objects, in English the object of the preposition to/for.

Latin has two -i suffixes, which is not unusual; English has three different -s suffixes (third person singular suffix on verbs walks; plural suffix on nouns dogs; possessive suffix Mary’s dog).

5.12 Mine, Yours, and Thine Possessive pronouns—mine, yours—vary among dialects of English and have been in flux for hun- dreds of years. the standard pattern is given in (a).

a. mine ours yours yours his/hers/its theirs

Some dialects, especially in Appalachian English and some Southern dialects, have the following pattern.

b. mine ourn yourn yourn hisn/hern/its theirn

Describe the pattern that the pronouns take in this dialect and why. Also consider the archaic form thine. Where does it fit into the paradigm?

Answers:

Appalachian English and other dialects mark possessive case on pronouns with the suffix -n (yourn, theirn, etc.).

Thine is the second person singular possessive of thou/thee, an Old English pronoun that was originally reserved for inferiors. Thine fits into the pattern, as a pronoun with the -n possessive suffix. Thou was later supplanted by formal you (which was both singular and plural).

5.13 Masculine, Feminine, Neuter? Conduct some research on Spanish, Welsh, Arabic, tuvalu, and Russian, all of which mark grammatical gender in some ways. Show examples of gender marking in each language, and briefly

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 5 • 53

explain how gender is indicated and how it contrasts among the different forms (masculine, femi- nine, and/or neuter).

Answers will vary.

5.14 Where Have All the Strong Verbs Gone? the following list of words used to be strong verbs and are now weak verbs. Look them up in the Oxford English Dictionary or another good etymological dictionary and give the older, strong form of each verb. Do any of these verbs have different forms in different dialects? Are strong forms maintained?

bow, brew, burn, climb, help, mourn, row, step, walk

Answers: Older strong forms of (now) weak verbs (past participles are used here but students might also list past tense forms). Students might also give slightly different forms from Old and Middle English. The point is that all of these different forms now have the “regular” -ed ending for both past tense and past participial forms.

Verb weak form older strong form (past participles) bow bowed bugan, bogan, béah brew brewed bréowan burn burned brinnan, birnan, burnon climb climbed climban/clumben help helped helpan/holpen mourn mourned murn row rowed rówan step stepped stóp/(be)stapen walk walked wealcan

Dialect variation:

holp and holped for ‘help’ in Appalachian English, Scottish English

clumb for ‘climbed’ in Appalachian English

5.15 Been There. Done That. A. table 5.5 shows the five forms of an English verb. Using that table as a guide, label the form of

each boldface verb in the following sentences. Another helpful resource is table 5.6, which lists the different forms of the verb be.

1. Ferdinand has been eating dandelions. 2. Bees are buzzing around the flowers. 3. Have you seen the movie? 4. Lee loves chocolate. 5. I want to go home. 6. She hopes to see the movie tomorrow. 7. Elisabeth lives in Chicago. 8. they have been planning a trip. 9. Joseph had a dog named Bones. 10. Ferdinand has been stung by a bee.

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B. Construct seven sentences that include (at least) one verb in the form specified for each sen- tence. Label the verb forms.

1. infinitive 2. past participle 3. present participle 4. past tense 5. present tense 6. present tense, past participle 7. past tense, present participle

A. Answers:

Ferdinand has been eating dandelions. (present participle) Bees are buzzing around the flowers. (present tense) Have you seen the movie? (past participle) Lee loves chocolate. (present tense) I want to go home. (present tense) She hopes to see the movie tomorrow. (infinitive) Elisabeth lives in Chicago. (present tense) They have been planning a trip. (present tense) Joseph had a dog named Bones. (past tense) Ferdinand has been stung by a bee. (past participle)

B. Answers will vary.

5.16 Be in Other Languages Look up the word for be in at least two languages, and provide the verb’s complete present-tense conjugation—all the forms of the verb for each person and number. Do these forms follow a regular pattern, or are they irregular compared to the way that other verbs are conjugated in the language? If they are irregular, discuss why you think this might be.

Answers will vary.

5.17 Be in Spanish If you have studied or are a speaker of Spanish, you are aware that there are two forms of the verb be in Spanish – and if you are not a speaker of Spanish, you can learn about these two verbs now! In Spanish, a different verb is used to express to be, depending on whether the speaker is addressing a condition or an essential quality, illustrated, for example, as follows.

La manzana está verde. ‘the apple is green.’ (condition) La manzana es verde. ‘the apple is green.’ (quality)

Come up with some other examples that use a form of be in English, and determine which verb would be used in Spanish. You should consult a speaker of Spanish or conduct some research to validate your answers.

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 6 • 55

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 6

6.1 Analytic A. In the Lushootseed (dxwlɘšucid) language, the place name Skykomish can be broken down into

the following morphemes. Based on this word, would you classify this language as more ana- lytic or synthetic?

Skykomish sq’ixwabš s - q’ixw - abš nominalizer—located upstream—people of ‘upstream people’

Answer: Lushootseed is a synthetic language; words are composed of more than one morpheme.

B. Explain how this example from Chinese is illustrative of an analytic rather than a synthetic language.

我所有的朋友都要吃ヌ蛋

wŏ suŏyŏu de péngyou dōu yào chı̄ jı̄ dàn

I all possessive friend(s) all want eat chicken egg(s)

‘My friends all want to eat eggs.’

Answer: Chinese is an analytic language, with each word composed of a single unanalyzeable morpheme.

6.2 Japanese as Synthetic and Analytic Japanese has agglutinative (synthetic) verbs but analytic nouns. Conduct some research on Japanese, collect examples of verbs and nouns, and illustrate those aspects that are synthetic and those that are analytic. If you find other examples of languages that share features of more than one language type, discuss those as well.

Answers will vary.

6.3 Analyzing Yoruba Nasals Recall the discussion in Chapter 4 of the various phonological processes that change one sound into another. Such processes are at work in Yoruba, leading to several different forms, called allomorphs, of the progressive morpheme. Based on the following data, what is the form of the progressive mor- pheme (equivalent to English -ing) in each set of Yoruba verbs? The English translations are given only in the infinitive. (Adapted from Cowan & Rakušan 1985: 79.)

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present progressive

bá ḿbá ‘to meet’ bɛ́ ḿbɛ́ ‘to cut off’ bɛ́rʋ̀ ḿbɛ́rʋ̀ ‘to fear’ bò ḿbò ‘to cover’ bù ḿbù ‘to cut’

Answer: -m is the progressive morpheme.

6.4 Analyzing Iraqi Arabic Noun Stems Based on the data in Set 1, what is the possessive morpheme in Iraqi Arabic? (Adapted from Cowan & Rakušan 1985: 88-89.)

Set 1

nonpossessive possessive (my)

walad waladi ‘son’ qalam qalami ‘pencil’ balad baladi ‘town’ tanak tanaki ‘tin’ ǰaras ǰarasi ‘bell’ possessive morpheme = i

Now consider the following data. Assume that the form of the possessive morpheme doesn’t change, and that a phonological process applies to the nouns in Set 2 to derive their forms (which are differ- ent from the forms of the nouns in Set 1). What is that process and why does it occur?

Set 2

nonpossessive possessive (my)

šaʕar šaʕri ‘hair’ baɣal baɣli ‘mule’ laḥam laḥmi ‘meat’ taxat taxti ‘bench’ šaʕab šaʕbi ‘people’ Answer: The possessive morpheme for Set 1 is -i. The possessive morpheme for Set 2 is also -i but the addition of the morpheme leads to deletion of the vowel from the root, but only when the preceding vowel is also -a; for example, baɣal → baɣali → baɣli.

6.5 Slang A. Using the slang dictionaries in your library and online, discuss the origins and evolution of three

slang words. If the words are still in use and the current meaning is related to or derived from the older meaning, discuss how their meanings have changed.

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B. Define and discuss three slang terms that you and your friends know and/or use. Are they listed in the slang dictionary? If they are, do they have the same meaning as your definitions? Do you think your slang words will be around in ten years? Twenty years? Why or why not? See if you can determine the origins of your slang terms.

In your discussion, try to answer the following questions:

• What criteria do we use to define a word as slang? • What role do dictionaries play in defining a word as slang? • What is the difference between slang terms and dialect variation?

Answers will vary.

6.6 Compounds Sometimes it isn’t obvious whether a group of words is a compound word or not. Consider the following:

cab ride

iron gate

paperback book

paperback novel

life insurance premium

barking dog

Are these compound nouns? Why or why not? What kinds of tests can you use to help determine whether they are compounds or not?

Answer: Students can use the stress test; in word strings of two syllables, compounds will receive stress on the first syllable, so cab ride is a compound noun phrase. Also, students can use adjectives and try to determine whether the adjective is modifying the whole NP or just the first piece; if the whole NP, then it is a compound noun: a big iron gate, an expensive life insurance premium.

6.7 Eponyms A. Choose at least five of the following eponyms, look them up in a good etymological dictionary

such as A New Dictionary of Eponyms (Oxford University Press), and write a summary of each word’s meaning and origin.

badminton, cardigan, derringer, forsythia, gorilla, hollandaise, jodhpurs, limousine, mack- inaw, tuxedo, volt, welch, zeppelin, Amber alert, Enronomics, Casanova, Dear John, Dear Abby, jack-of-all-trades, boycott, Martha moment, Starbucks, John Hancock, quisling, John Doe, bogart, Uncle Tom, Aunt Jemima, Electra, oedipal, Ophelia, the Atkins, (to be) borked

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B. Consider the following words, which all originally came from brand names. Which of these do you use as the generic name for the item?

escalator, granola, cellophane, zipper, yo-yo, linoleum, kerosene, jungle gym, dumpster, frisbee, chapstick, port-a-potty, xerox, Q-tip, band-aid, taser, ping-pong

Answers will vary.

6.8 Blends What do the following words mean, and what words did they come from?

skullet, pomo, modem, spork

Come up with two other blends, and give the words that they are blended from.

Answer: Some other blends include electrocute from electricity and execute (first appeared in 1889), guesstimate from guess and estimate (from 1930s), Spanglish from Spanish and English (from 1960s).

6.9 Creative Morphology in Poetry Poet Charles Wright employs a number of word formation processes in his work. One such process in particular is illustrated in the following boldface words from his poetry. What is the word forma- tion he uses? Explain briefly.

A. From “Black and Blue”: Like deer in a leafy light, window and looking glass, Yesterdays flash and reflect, Ready to bolt, ready to empty out. Horizon them black and blue.

B. From “Chickamauga”: History handles our past like spoiled fruit. Mid-morning, late-century light calicoed under the peach trees. Fingers us here. Fingers us here and here.

C. From “Meditation on Song and Structure”: In North Carolina, half a century ago, Bird song over black water, Lake Llewellyn Bibled and night-colored, mockingbird Soul-throated, like light, a little light in great darkness.

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D. From “Meditation on Song and Structure”: The afternoon breaking away in little pieces, Siren’s squeal from the bypass, The void’s tattoo, Nothing Matters, mottoed across our white hearts?

Answer: Wright uses conversion here, using as verbs words that are typically used as nouns.

Below are two more examples from the poetry of Charles Wright of a word formation process dis- cussed in the chapter. What process is Wright using in excerpts E and F?

E. From “A Short History of the Shadow”: Now into June, cloverheads tight, Seurating* the yard. *Reference to Georges Seurat’s pointillist paintings (e.g., Le Pont de Courbevoie).

F. From “Journal of English Days”: November’s my favorite month, the downside of autumn And winter in first array, the sky Constabled* now and again Over Kensington Gardens: north of the Serpentine, *Reference is to John Constable.

Answer: Here Wright makes use of eponyms.

6.10 Clippings Here are a few clippings not mentioned in the chapter:

jag, memo, typo, lab, gas

Determine what words each of these came from. Come up with three more examples of words formed by clipping.

Answer:

jag - jaguar

memo - memorandum

typo - typographical error

lab - laboratory

gas - gasoline

Others include gym (gymnasium), phone (telephone), fan (fanatic), deli (delicatessen).

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60 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

6.11 Duplicate Reduplication A relatively recent phenomenon in English is the doubling of certain words and phrases to create a new meaning. So someone might say, “No, I don’t like like him” or “Yes, she’s my girlfriend girl- friend,” which seem to be used to contrast one meaning of a word with another. Come up with sev- eral other examples of words that can do this kind of reduplication, and explain how the doubling of these words changes the meaning of the original word. Describe any limitations on the reduplication (which words can do it, which can’t) and therefore how productive a process it is.

Answers will vary. Students may note that this occurs with words that have more than one related meaning, thus the need to distinguish the forms. Students may also note the importance of intonation in getting the intended meaning. This new convention is used more by young people.

6.12 Forming New Words Recall the following word formation processes used in English: affixation, compounding, blending, clipping, acronyms, eponyms, conversions, backformations, and reduplication. Now, consider the following words from the Word Spy and previous nominees for the American Dialect Society’s Word of the Year.

chugger, bridezilla, NIMBY, manscaping, crittercam, nanopublishing, furkid, tofurkey, refudiate

Explain which process of word formation has applied in each word. Look up the meaning of each word; if you can find no meaning, make one up!

Answer:

• chugger – blend of charity and mugger, used to refer to people who may stand on street corners trying to get money for “good causes”

• bridezilla – blend of bride and Godzilla, used (primarily by wedding consultants) to refer to brides who may be particularly difficult to please and/or work with

• NIMBY – acronym of Not In My BackYard, used to refer to opposition to some project (usually development such as airports, factories, housing development) in one’s own neighborhood

• crittercam – blend of critter (informal form of creature) and clipped form of camera, used to refer to a camera worn by an animal to monitor it in the wild

• nanopublishing – blend of the prefix nano-, used in a figurative sense to mean “very small-scale,” and publishing. The word grows out of the blogging revolution, providing a targeted audience with news and comment on some special topic.

• furkid – blend of fur and kid, used to refer to a pet treated as if it were someone’s child

• tofurkey – blend of tofu and turkey • refudiate – a word coined (likely via malapropism) by Sarah Palin. Probably a blend

of refute and repudiate

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 7 • 61

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 7

7.1 Nouns and Noun Phrases Find all the nouns in the following excerpt. Identify any members of the category Det (as we’ve de- fined it here, to include determiners, numerals, and quantifiers) that introduce each noun. There may be other words that precede the noun too. See if you can tell what they are, if they are not members of the category Det.

Answer: Determiners are underlined, nouns are bolded

Lyra and her dæmon moved through the darkening hall, taking care to keep to one side, out of sight of the kitchen. The three great tables that ran the length of the hall were laid already, the silver and the glass catching what little light there was . . . The places here were laid with gold, not silver, and the fourteen seats were not oak benches but mahogany chairs with velvet cush- ions. (Pullman 1995: 3.)

Can you identify four NPs in this excerpt? List them and underline the head noun of each.

Answer: Examples of noun phrases are the darkening hall, the three great tables, oak benches, Lyra.

Points for discussion: single words can be both nouns and noun phrases when they are proper, mass, or plural and generic, but not when they are single count nouns: Lyra is happy. Silver is expensive. Benches are places to sit. *Chair is large.

Students are likely to label oak, mahogany, and velvet as adjectives, however, they behave like nouns. They can stand alone as nouns, and they occur with determiners (with no other noun following). They do not behave like adjectives; they take no comparative or superlative (*oaker, *mahoganier) and they do not allow a degree modifier like very (*very oak). Thus, they are nouns, providing a good opportunity to discuss the fact that nouns can modify other nouns.

7.2 Verbs and Verb Phrases Write out the following sentences, and circle all the main verbs in each. Underline auxiliary verbs and modals.

Answer: Main verbs are bolded, auxiliary verbs and modals are underlined.

a. I might never have seen you if you hadn’t taken this class. b. Who are you buying that magazine for? c. Shakespeare wrote many plays and would have written more if he had lived longer. d. You always seem to be happy about something. e. �Were they with you on the trip? [were is the main verb here, but functions as auxiliaries

and modals, undergoing subject-auxiliary inversion (SAI)] f. Ned must leave before he gets into trouble.

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7.3 More Verbs and Verb Phrases In a text of your choice, find examples of verb phrases that conform to each of the following pat- terns. Write out each of your example sentences, and label each verbal element.

a. modal + have + be + main verb b. have + main verb c. have + be + main verb d. modal + be + main verb e. be + main verb f. main verb (no auxiliaries or modals)

Answers will vary.

7.4 The Verbs Have and Be This section looks at a number of ways that auxiliary verbs differ from main verbs. Many of our ex- amples included have and be as auxiliary verbs. A. Consider the following data, and then try to answer the questions below.

Lucinda has a ferret.

Lorenzo is obnoxious.

• What is the main verb in each sentence? On what do you base your conclusion?

has and is are both main verbs in these examples.

• What happens when you apply SAI?

SAI: Is Lorenzo obnoxious?

Does Lucinda have a ferret?

So is is able to undergo SAI, but has does not (in American English).

• What happens when you negate the sentences or form tag questions?

negation: Lorenzo isn’t obnoxious. is contracts with not

Lucinda doesn’t have a ferret. has does not contract with not

tag: Lorenzo isn’t obnoxious, is he? is appears in the tag question

Lucinda doesn’t have a ferret, has does not appear in the tag does she? question

• Do have and be in these sentences behave in exactly the same way? If not, how are they different? (Hint: The difference has to do with do insertion.)

No, they do not behave the same way. Have acts like other main verbs—if no auxiliary is present, a form of do needs to be inserted. Be, however, acts like an auxiliary verb, even when it is the only verb in the sentence.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 7 • 63

• Are have and be in these sentences main or auxiliary verbs? Why?

Be shares features of both main and auxiliary verbs. It behaves like an auxiliary verb even when it is the only verb in the sentence. Have is a main verb, having all of the characteristics of main verbs.

B. Now consider the following sentences.

Lucinda has had a ferret. Lorenzo is being obnoxious.

• What is the main verb in each of these sentences? What is the auxiliary verb?

Has is the auxiliary and had is the main verb.

Is is the auxiliary verb and being is the main verb.

C. Finally, consider the following sentences.

Baa, baa, black sheep, have you any wool? Has Mary a new car?

• These sentences probably sound odd to speakers of U.S. English, but they are natural for speakers of contemporary British English and some varieties of Canadian English. Can you explain how this use of have differs from U.S. English have, based on these data?

These examples show that in British English, have, like be, acts like an auxiliary verb even when it is the only verb in the sentence and is thus the main verb. American English speakers treat have like a main verb and must insert a form of do as the auxiliary: Does Mary have a new car?

7.5 Which Do Is It? Main Verb or Auxiliary? Each of the following sentences includes some form of the verb do. Using the tools of analysis in the chapter, identify each form of do as pleonastic (“dummy”) auxiliary do or as main verb do. (Note: Some sentences may have both, so be careful!) Explain why you label each do the way you do, and give any relevant examples (of SAI, tag question formation, and negation) to support your hypotheses.

Main verb do is underlined. Auxiliary do is bolded.

a. I never could do yoga! b. Did you get a new puppy? c. I didn’t do it! d. You ate my dessert! I did not! e. You ate my dessert. Yes, I did eat your dessert. f. I don’t do dessert. g. Just do the job, will you?

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7.6 Finding Adjective Phrases The following text excerpt contains several adjective phrases (remember, a phrase, as we’ve defined it, consists minimally of a head but can include other material).

a. List at least five adjective phrases that you find in the excerpt.

Adjective phrases are bolded (the whole phrase, including any modifiers). Adjectives are underlined.

b. List two noun phrases from the excerpt that include prenominal adjective phrase modifiers.

I had never seen Sanaz without her uniform, and stood there almost transfixed as she took off her robe and scarf. She was wearing an orange T-shirt tucked into tight jeans and brown boots, yet the most radical transformation was the mass of shimmering dark brown hair that now framed her face. She shook her magnificent hair from side to side, a gesture that I later noticed was a habit with her; she would toss her head and run her fingers through her hair every once in a while, as if making sure that her most prized possession was still there. (Nafisi 2003: 16.)

Answers will vary.

7.7 Adverb Phrases The following is a (very uninteresting) text that includes no adverb phrases.

I was sitting at my desk, staring out the window. A car raced by and I wondered where it was heading. A police car sped by. A child riding her bike down the street stopped to watch the exciting chase.

Add at least six adverb phrases to the text to make it more interesting and descriptive. (To make this a little more challenging, use only three adverbs that end in -ly.) How do the adverb phrases change the text? What information do the add?

Answers will vary.

7.8 Not All -ly Words Are Created Equal(ly) As we mentioned in the text, some adverbs have -ly endings, and some don’t. We also mentioned that some adjectives also end in -ly. You can tell -ly adjectives and -ly adverbs apart based on the category of word they attach to. What category does -ly attach to to form adjectives? What category does it attach to to form adverbs?

Adjectives Adverbs

knightly happily

manly softly

friendly possibly

We add -ly to nouns (such as knight, man, friend) to form adjectives. We add -ly to adjectives (happy, soft, possible) to form adverbs.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 7 • 65

7.9 Finding Prepositional Phrases Identify all the prepositional phrases in the following poem, “Of Mere Being” by Wallace Stevens.

PPs are underlined. The palm at the end of the mind, Beyond the last thought, rises In the bronze decor,

A gold-feathered bird Sings in the palm, without human meaning, Without human feeling, a foreign song.

You know then that it is not the reason That makes us happy or unhappy. The bird sings. Its feathers shine.

The palm stands on the edge of space. The wind moves slowly in the branches. The bird’s fire-fangled feathers dangle down.

Can you find a PP that modifies a noun? What kinds of information do the PPs add to the poem?

At the end of the mind modifies palm, and of the mind modifies end. Of space modifies edge. Most of the PPs in this poem express location/place, but without human feeling and without human meaning express something like a state.

7.10 Nouns, Verbs, or Adjectives? We’ve seen that the position of a word can help us identify its syntactic category. For example, if we say Mary is walking, we identify walking as a verb because of its position after the auxiliary verb is. In the sentence Brisk walking is good for you, we identify walking as a noun. Here, it is modified by an adjective, brisk, and occurs in the subject position of the sentence, a position in which we often find NPs. Using the tools introduced in the chapter to help you identify the syntactic category of a word, label the category of each of the following italicized words. Explain your answers by showing how the word behaves morphologically and syntactically like other words in a particular category (such as the position in which the word occurs or whether the word can take affixes).

a. Horatio was very disappointed when he found out that he couldn’t father children.

disappointed – adjective, father – verb

b. A very conscientious father, Horatio tried not to disappoint his children by missing their birthdays.

father – noun, disappoint – verb

c. Loudly playing the drums is Horatio’s only means of relaxation.

playing – verb

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d. Horatio was playing the drums when the hurricane hit.

playing – verb

e. Loud playing of drums disturbs the neighbors.

playing – noun

f. Those annoying drums should be off limits to people like Horatio.

annoying – adjective

g. We should videotape Horatio playing the drums.

videotape – verb, playing – verb

h. We could get a lot of money on eBay for that videotape.

videotape – noun

7.11 Jabberwocky Syntax Following are a few stanzas from the nonsense poem “Jabberwocky” by Lewis Carroll.

a. Choose six nonsense words in the poem, and label them N, V, P, A or Adv. Explain why you labeled them as you did and what syntactic (and other) evidence you used.

b. Find six function words in the poem. How do they contribute to the meaning of the poem and help you make sense of it?

c. What clues, other than grammatical ones, help you derive meaning from the poem? Can you tell what’s going on? On what do you base your interpretation?

“Beware the Jabberwock, my son! The jaws that bite, the claws that catch! Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun The frumious Bandersnatch!”

He took his vorpal sword in hand: Long time the manxome foe he sought— So rested he by the Tumtum tree, And stood awhile in thought.

And, as in uffish thought he stood, The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame, Came whiffling through the tulgey wood, And burbled as it came!

One, two! One, two! And through and through The vorpal blade went snicker-snack! He left it dead, and with its head He went galumphing back.

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 7 • 67

7.12 A Test For Subjects In school, you learn different ways to identify the subject of a sentence. As we’ve mentioned, one is to identify the doer of the action, but this semantic definition is problematic in that although it may help you identify the logical subject of the sentence, it may not help you identify the syntactic subject of the sentence, the NP in the subject position. There is a very good test for syntactic sub- jects, however, namely, the rule of subject-auxiliary inversion. SAI has the effect of inverting or moving the modal or auxiliary verb over the subject to sentence-initial position to form a question to which the answer would be yes or no.

The grizzly bear population in Yellowstone National Park is dwindling rapidly.

Is the grizzly bear population in Yellowstone National Park dwindling rapidly? (SAI)

Here, the auxiliary verb is has moved not over a single noun but over the entire NP, the grizzly bear population in Yellowstone National Park, the subject NP.

Another test for the subject is tag question formation. Only subjects and auxiliary verbs (and modals) occur in tags.

The spider crept up the wall.

The spider crept up the wall, didn’t it? (tag question formation)

it = the spider (subject)

Using these two tests, find the subjects in the following sentences. What is interesting about the sub- jects you find? Are they what you expect?

Subjects are underlined. Instructors may want to discuss the difference between a syntactic subject and a “logical” subject. There and it in (b) and (c) are meaningless, but necessary because English requires a subject.

a. The shadow crept up the wall. b. There were six linguists at the lecture. c. It is very hot outside. d. The giant chased Jack. e. Jack was chased by the giant.

7.13 Diagramming Clauses A. Diagram the clause The wind is rocking the boat, and answer the following questions.

a. What are the constituents of the subject NP? b. What are the constituents of the VP (the predicate)?

Answers:

The subject NP’s constituents are the determiner the and N wind. The predicate VP’s constituents are the verb rocking and NP the boat. Aux dominates the auxiliary verb is.

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B.� Diagram the following clauses for practice.

Answers:

c. Several important dignitaries are visiting.

d. The audience clapped for the actors.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 7 • 69

e. Hortense seems depressed.

f. The ducks with yellow beaks will eat the stale bread.

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7.14 Subordinate Clauses Find the subordinate clause in each of the following independent clauses. (Hint: Subordinate clauses can occur in various positions.)

Subordinate clauses are underlined.

a. Lucinda thinks that ferrets are excellent pets. b. That ferrets can be smelly doesn’t bother Lucinda. c. I wonder whether Lucinda likes ferrets. d. My friend met the woman who likes ferrets. e. I never believed that Lucinda knew that ferrets made good pets.

We’ve repeated our set of phrase structure rules below, along with some sentences to diagram for more practice.

CL → NP Aux VP NP → (Det) (AP) N (XP) Det → that, ten, some, the VP → V (XP) Aux → (modal), (have), (be), (do) AP → (Deg) A AdvP → (Deg) Adv PP → (Deg) P (XP) Deg → very, so, too, clear, etc.

a. The schnauzer was eating his food. b. Seven chickens scurried under the porch. c. Children can be very loud. d. Elizabeth ate apples. e. Those students headed right out the door. f. Each person remained quite calm. g. The fly on the wall is cleaning his wings. h. The six hungry boys walked to the market on the corner.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 8 • 71

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 8

8.1 Syntactic Ambiguity: Drawing Trees Draw tree diagrams for the following sentences, paying special attention to where each PP is at- tached. Some (but not all!) of the sentences are ambiguous. If there is ambiguity, draw two trees to represent the two meanings; be sure to indicate the meaning of each tree in this case.

a. The boy with the hat sat on a mushroom with green spots.

b. The white horse ran out the door on Monday.

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c. Bill likes pieces of cabbage with sauce.

d. The ladybug with six spots sees the grasshopper on the branch.

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e. Seven large sloths climbed up the tree on the hill.

f. The largest manatee chased the smallest manatee into a cave.

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g. Students from six states in the country attended the luncheon.

8.2 Recursion Some of the following sentences include phrases that are recursive. Can you identify the category of the recursive phrase(s) (PP, NP, CL, etc.)?

a. The house on the corner by the bank is for sale. b. A few people came to the party, and everyone left early. c. I don’t think that Barry was happy that Sam won the raffle. d. Cheese that you can buy at stores that import goods from overseas is usually pretty

expensive. e. I jumped up and ran home.

(a) contains PP recursion: by the bank is contained within the PP on the corner. (c) contains clausal recursion: that Barry was happy contains another clause that Sam

won the raffle (d) contains clausal recursion: that you can buy at stores contains another clause that

import goods

In a text of your choice, find at least three examples of recursion (of any category you choose, but common examples include NP, PP, and clause recursion). Label the recursive categories.

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 8 • 75

8.3 Silent Syntax Each of the following sentences or exchanges includes a silent phrase, which is marked with Δ. What syntactic material is missing in each sentence?

a. I just bought three new textbooks, and Avery bought six Δ [textbooks]! b. You might want to go to the party, but I don’t Δ [want to go to the party]. c. The book wasn’t interesting enough Δ [for me] to finish Δ [the book]. d. I promised Jane Δ [I] to take out the garbage. e. The mountaintop is hard Δ [for me] to see Δ [the mountaintop] in the fog. f. [You] Δ Eat your dinner!

8.4 Nouns, Noun Phrases, and Pronoun Substitution Find all the noun phrases in the following sentences. (Some include only a head noun; others are much larger.) Then, show how the pronoun substitution test provides evidence that those phrases are in fact noun phrases, even if they consist of only one word. Are any of the sentences ambiguous? How can pronoun substitution help you explain the two meanings?

Example: Dogs on leashes are allowed in this park.

They are allowed in here.

They = dogs on leashes, here = this park

a. Dogs are free to run and jump and play with the toys at the park.

They are free to run and jump and play with them at it.

They are free to run and jump and play with them.

Here with the toys can either describe the toys or run and jump and play. When it’s part of the NP the toys, then the pronoun them replaces the whole NP.

b. My neighbor brings seven dogs to the park every day.

She/he brings them to it then.

c. The schnauzer and the cocker spaniel bark a lot.

They bark a lot.

d. The schnauzer, the cocker spaniel, and the border collie like to play together.

They like to play together.

e. People who have dogs and like to take them out for exercise use the park often.

They use it often.

g. Mary loves the park.

She loves it.

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8.5 Pronouns and Antecedents Find all the pronouns and their antecedents in the following excerpt. Do any of the pronouns seem to lack antecedents? What about it? Are there any pronouns with pragmatic antecedents?

The meaning of the text is not just an internal matter: it [antecedent is the meaning of the text] also inheres in the text’s relation to wider systems of meaning . . . It [no antecedent. It here is not a pronoun, but is an expletive subject.] is obvious that literary criticism has come a long way from the days when we [pragmatic antecedent] had little to do but thrill to the beauty of the imagery. (Eagleton 1983: 89.)

8.6 A Pronoun Puzzle Recall that a personal pronoun can’t have an antecedent in the same clause and that a reflexive pro- noun must have an antecedent in the same clause.

Irma loves her. (Her cannot refer to Irma.)

Irma loves herself. (Herself must refer to Irma.)

Now, consider the following sentences. What are the possible antecedents of her and herself, and how does this evidence complicate our rules of pronoun reference? Think about the structure of the sentence, in particular the structure of the phrase Irma’s mother.

Irma’s mother loves her.

Irma’s mother loves herself.

Answers: Irma can be the antecedent of her, which appears to violate the restriction that pronouns refer to an antecedent outside of the clause that contains them. But, the difference here seems to be that Irma is contained inside the subject NP (and therefore for some reason doesn’t “count” as the subject NP). Syntactic accounts of this phenomenon make use of c-command; the NP Irma is more deeply embedded in the NP—far enough away to allow coreference. Irma’s mother is the antecedent of herself; here the whole NP is the antecedent, not just the “inner” part of it.

8.7 Coordination and Parallelism Coordination seems to require parallelism: the conjoined constituents must be of the same syntactic category.

A. Label the category of the italic phrases or words in the following examples of coordination.

1. Artichokes are in season but out of stock. PP 2. Olivia heard that schnauzers don’t shed and that they make great pets. clauses

(subordinate) 3. I’ve never seen a unicorn or a hippogriff. NP 4. Each and every candidate attended the rally. quantifier 5. Maurice saw the bus, and his son got on it. clauses (independent) 6. We saw lots of nice cars, but only two or three were in our price range. numeral

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 8 • 77

B. Which of the following examples violate parallelism? Why or why not? Is it accurate to say that parallelism always requires the coordination of the same syntactic category? Under what circumstances can this requirement be relaxed?

1. Artichokes are in season and very delicious. PP and AP 2. Olivia heard about schnauzers and that they make great pets. PP and clause 3. I’ve never seen a unicorn talk or a hippogriff sing. clauses 4. Each voter and every candidate attended the rally. NP 5. Maurice saw the bus and that his son got on it. NP and clause 6. Lucy was grumpy and in a funk. AP and PP

Some of these violate parallelism by coordinating dissimiliar categories if they are semantically similar (grumpy and in a funk are AP and PP respectively, but PP here describes a state). Some students may find the ones that coordinate dissimilar categories to be unacceptable. Deletion may be involved so that there actually is coordination of like categories, but not all of the phrase is spoken; for example,

Maurice saw the bus, and [he saw] that his son got on it. – coordination of two independent clauses

Lucy was grumpy and [Lucy was] in a funk. – coordination of two independent clauses

Artichokes are in season and [they are] very delicious. – coordination of two independent clauses

8.8 Conjunction and Subordination We’ve seen that coordination involves linking constituents in various ways. Subordination, on the other hand, involves embedding one constituent in another.

Wiley will order seafood tonight because he loves it.

Here, the clause he loves it is subordinate and introduced by because, a member of a large set of sub- ordinating conjunctions (also called subordinating prepositions), words that introduce subordinate clauses. Others in this class include although, even though, since, while, when, before, and after.

Wiley ate the shrimp after he ate the mussels.

Make up a pair of clauses. First, coordinate them with one of the coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Then try to use the same clauses, but this time subordinate one of the clauses to the other using a subordinating conjunction. How does subordination affect the meaning of the sentence?

Example

The children wanted to go swimming. It was a cool and breezy day.

The children wanted to go swimming, but it was a cool and breezy day.

The children wanted to go swimming although it was a cool and breezy day.

Answers will vary.

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8.9 The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly Are these words (good, bad, and ugly) nouns or adjectives? They are introduced by a determiner (the), which suggests they are nouns. Let’s look at more evidence and see if this hypothesis is cor- rect. Consider the following sentences:

The poor are always with us.

The poor’s power is always marginal.

The very poor are always with us.

Is poor in these sentences a noun or an adjective? Why or why not? Apply the tests for different cat- egories (discussed in Chapter 7), and see what you find. (Hint: Silent syntax may be involved.)

What are some other examples of words like poor that we use in this way? What do they have in common? What words don’t work in this context?

The fact that we can modify poor with a degree word, such as very, suggests that it is an adjective, not a noun. If we propose that poor is followed by an empty, or silent, noun in the poor and in the very poor, we explain why we analyze these phrases as noun phrases, even though they seem to have no noun head. Further evidence for this silent noun comes from interpretation; the poor has a “generic human” interpretation, something like “the poor people.” This is why we typically only allow empty nouns in such constructions when they can be so interpreted, as in the blind, the sick, the rich etc. Phrases such as the interesting or the hairy sound funny, because we don’t typically associate these adjectives with generic human qualities.

8.10 Particle Shift Certain prepositions have the interesting syntactic property of being able to move around the direct object of the verb.

a. You should hand out the papers. b. You should hand the papers out.

Prepositions with this property (the ability to move) are called particles. The movement rule illus- trated in items (a) and (b) is called particle shift. Which of the prepositions in items (c)–(f) are particles? Use particle shift as a test.

c. Louise ran up a big hill.

*Louse ran a big hill up. No, up is not a particle; it is a preposition.

d. Louise ran up a big bill.

Louise ran a big bill up. Yes, up is a particle.

e. Franz turned on the lights.

Franz turned the lights on. Yes, on is a particle.

f. Franz turned on the corner.

*Franz turned the corner on. On here is not a particle; it is a preposition.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 8 • 79

Write down three sentences with particles (use different examples from those given here). Show how they undergo particle shift. Also, write down three sentences with prepositions, and show how these do not undergo particle shift.

Answers will vary. Some examples of other particles are the following:

Chloe ran down the batteries. Chloe ran the batteries down.

The teacher marked up the papers. The teacher marked the papers up.

Ian ate up the apple. Ian ate the apple up.

They shot off the gun. They shot the gun off.

8.11 Deep and Surface Structure In the following sentences, one or more of these rules may have applied: SAI, passive, and wh-movement. Write out the deep structure for each sentence, list the rules that have applied, and write out the surface structure. In some cases, more than one rule might apply, so list them both.

Example:

Will it rain? deep structure It will rain.

Application of rules SAI

surface structure Will it rain?

a. Is The Lord of the Rings your favorite movie series?

deep structure The Lord of the Rings is your favorite movie series.

Application of rules SAI

surface structure Is The Lord of the Rings your favorite movie series?

b. The window was broken by the baseball.

deep structure The baseball broke the window.

Application of rules Passive

surface structure The window was broken by the baseball.

c. Which letter did the secretary mail?

deep structure The secretary mailed the letter.

Application of rules Wh-movement and SAI

surface structure Which letter did the secretary mail?

d. Should we go home?

deep structure We should go home.

Application of rules SAI

surface structure Should we go home?

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80 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

e. A letter was mailed by the secretary.

deep structure The secretary mailed the letter.

Application of rules Passive

surface structure A letter was mailed by the secretary.

f. Was your stolen jewelry ever recovered by the police?

deep structure The police (ever) recovered your stolen jewelry.

Application of rules Passive and SAI

surface structure Was your stolen jewelry ever recovered by the police?

8.12 A Cross-Linguistic Look at Wh-Movement

Wh-Questions in Chinese

We have seen that English has wh-movement:

a. Jack can see the rabbit. = basic word order b. What can Jack see? = question word order

Some languages have no wh-movement. The basic word order is the same in declaratives and in questions. Chinese is an example:

Ta yao xiaobing (basic word order) she/he want bread ‘She/he wants some bread.’

Ta yao shenme (question word order) she/he want what ‘What does she/he want?’

In English, the movement of the wh-phrase to the front of the clause marks the clause as a question. How do you think Chinese speakers know that a question is being asked?

Answer: The presence of the question word (shenme ‘what’ here) is an indicator that a question is being asked.

Wh-Questions in Aleut

Aleut is a language spoken on the Aleutian Islands off the coast of Alaska. Look at the follow- ing pairs of sentences in Aleut and their translations, and determine whether or not Aleut has wh-movement.

a. Piitrax Ivaanax ilagulix. Peter John help ‘Peter is helping John.’

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 8 • 81

b. Piitrax kiin ilagulix? Peter who help ‘Who is Peter helping?’

a. Tayagux qax qalix. man fish eat ‘The man is eating a fish.’

b. Tayagux alqutax qalix? man what eat ‘What is the man eating?’

Answer: No, Aleut does not have wh-movement; the question word appears in the same position as a non-question word.

8.13 Another Constraint on Wh-Movement in English Here are some more sentences in which wh-movement in English appears to be blocked.

a. Whose book did you read __? b. *Whose did you read __ book?

Why is (b) ungrammatical?

Answer: the whole phrase whose book has not moved, only the question word.

Here are some similar examples in which wh-movement is grammatical. Can you make up the ungrammatical sentences patterned in the same way as (b) from these examples? Can you state (informally) the constraint on wh-movement that blocks the ungrammatical sentences from being generated?

a. Which person did you meet yesterday?

*Which did you meet person yesterday?

b. What class does John have in the morning?

*What does John have class in the morning?

c. Whose dog are you taking care of?

*Whose are you take caring of dog?

Wh-movement appears to operate on whole phrases/phrasal constituents, not just on the wh-word.

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82 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 9

9.1 Deciphering Meaning: American English Vocabulary We can derive meaning from the morphology and syntax of a word even if we’ve never seen it before. We can also derive meaning from context. Here are some words from different dialects of English, words you may or may not be familiar with (these are words taken from the Dictionary of American Regional English). Can you match each word with its meaning? Check your answers with the key at the end of this section. How did you come up with your answers? What clues did you use? Which words were the most difficult to match to meanings, and why? (to explore the DARE web site, go to http://polyglot.lss.wisc.edu/dare/dare.html)

pinkie a. a tomato

princeton b. a man’s short hairstyle

poison apple c. a nickname for an unimportant or out-of-the-way place

pirok d. a water faucet placed on the outside of a building

sill cock e. a main-dish pie, frequently containing fish and rice

Skunk’s Misery f. a trick, deception

prairie g. a vacant lot or city block

sandy h. a small sailing vessel with a sharp stern

Answers:

pinkie (h), princeton (b), poison apple (a), pirok (e), sill cock (d), Skunk’s Misery (c), prairie (g), sandy (f).

Students should discuss how they used grammatical, contextual, and etymological clues to try to match words with their meanings.

9.2 Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia can be used as a rhetorical device to create the illusion of sound in a text, as in the following example:

And ere three shrill notes the pipe he uttered, / You heard as if an army muttered; / the mutter- ing grew to a grumbling; / And the grumbling grew to mighty rumbling; / And out of the house the rats came tumbling. (Browning 1888.)

Find at least three examples of onomatopoeia in poetry or prose. You might find examples in unlikely places such as the newspaper and e-mails.

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 9 • 83

9.3 Etymological Clues Sometimes we use etymology (word origins) to help us decipher meanings. As you know, many English words have Latin and Greek roots. Below is a list of Greek and Roman gods’ names. See if you can list words that have these names as roots. How does the meaning of the god’s name help you decipher the meaning of the words on your list?

Luna—goddess of the moon. At one time, people believed that the moon had the power to drive some people out of their minds.

Hypnos—Greek god of sleep

Somnus—Roman god of sleep

Nox—goddess of darkness of night

Lethe—means ‘forgetfulness’; the river in Hades where the spirits of the dead drink and then forget their former lives and become listless ghosts.

Phobos—son of Ares, the Greek god of war. His name means ‘fear’.

Pan—god of fields, forests, wild animals. Part man and part goat, he often caused serious trou- ble. the belief that he was nearby caused people to run in terror.

Gaea—goddess of the earth; Greek word for earth.

Terra—Roman goddess of the earth

Gratiae—the Graces, three sisters who were goddesses of all that is charming in women

Hygeia—Greek goddess of health

Pysche—the maiden who fell in love with Eros, the Greek god of love. Her name means ‘soul’.

Hydra—a water serpent slain by Heracles

Helios—god of the sun

Sol—Roman god of the sun

Morta—Roman sister of Fate

Answers will vary, but some possibilities are lethargy, lunatic, hygiene, geology, helicopter, phobia, etc.

9.4 Count or Noncount Nouns? Many nouns can have both count and noncount interpretations. For example:

noncount: Love is patient.

count: She had two loves: philosophy and poetry.

noncount: Rice is good for you.

count: there are many rices to choose from: arborio, jasmine, basmati - to name a few.

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84 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

Consider whether the following words are count or noncount, and give evidence (use them in sentences) to support your analysis.

truth, courage, music, fish, money

Answers:

To determine whether a noun is count or noncount, students can see whether the noun can be preceded by a numeral and pluralized (in which case the noun is a count noun, unless it is a zero plural, such as fish or sheep). There are other tests as well: few/many/ several precede count nouns and more/less typically (but not always) precede noncount nouns.

Examples:

truth There are many truths. (count) There is much truth to that. (noncount)

fish There are many fish(es) in the sea. (count) There is too much fish in the soup. (noncount) I caught six fish(es). (count)

9.5 Semantic Features of Nouns Write out the feature specifications of each of the following nouns. Remember that each noun is specified for three features: concrete/abstract, count/mass, and proper/common. Be prepared to jus- tify your answers, as not all of you will agree on the features you assign to each noun.

kitten, homework, beer, the president of the United States, music, river, light, Santa Claus

Answers will vary, because many nouns can be count or noncount, abstract or concrete, and common or proper:

kitten: common, count, concrete

homework: common, noncount, concrete

beer: common, count/noncount, concrete

the president of the United States: proper, count (there is only one), concrete

music: common, noncount, abstract

river: common, count, concrete

light: common, count/noncount, abstract/concrete

(That shed much light on the subject. noncount/abstract v. We put up many lights. count/concrete)

Santa Claus: proper, count, concrete (could be common: There were many Santa Clauses at the mall today.)

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 9 • 85

9.6 Children’s Semantic Fields Children do an amazing job of acquiring word meanings quickly and accurately. However, most children do make errors; most commonly, they overgeneralize the meaning of a word. Here are some typical examples:

Word Child’s meaning

sweet all things sweet (syrup, cookies, donuts, sugar, etc.)

apple all fruits that are recognizable to child (round)

hot light, bright objects (fire, lights, lamps, etc.)

Describe how these examples illustrate how the children are constructing semantic fields and how those are different from adult versions.

Answers will vary, but generally, children construct semantic fields based on their experience, which differs from the (wider) experience of adults.

9.7 Antonyms: Find the Opposites Give antonyms for the following terms, and label each pair as gradable, relational, or complemen- tary. Compare your answers. Did everyone come up with the same pairs? Discuss why or why not.

• over • hello • quickly • now • chicken • near • black • give

Answers will vary based on classroom discussion.

9.8 Antonymy and Markedness Antonyms come in different forms: gradable, relational, and complementary. Nevertheless, we tend to think of antonyms as opposites. Markedness is a related concept involving binary opposi- tions, highlighting how we tend to consider one member of a pair of antonyms typical and the other marked. Markedness is illustrated by the following pairs of antonyms, with the “typical” member of the pair on the left and the “marked” member on the right.

a. How high/*low is it? (height) b. How long/*short is it? (length) c. How wide/*narrow is it? (width) d. How heavy/*light is it? (weight) e. How deep/*shallow is it? (depth)

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86 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

What are three or four other pairs of adjectives that illustrate this markedness relation?

Answers:

Some more examples may include: How tall/*short is it? How dark/*light is it? How hard/*easy is it?

9.9 Synonyms Write a short paragraph (four or five sentences) on a topic of your choice. Use at least four Anglo- Saxon terms from table 9.2. then rewrite the paragraph, replacing the Anglo-Saxon terms with their Latin/Greek synonyms. How does this substitution change your paragraph? Explain briefly.

Answers will vary.

9.10 Ethnic Slurs Research the origins of four or five ethnic slurs you are familiar with. trace how those terms have evolved in meaning over time. Why do you think such terms are so powerful? Do you think that by changing terms (by using politically correct language or euphemisms) we can also change attitudes and reduce discrimination? Will changing how we talk also change how we think about ourselves and about groups other than our own?

Answers will vary.

9.11 Hyponymy Here are four semantic categories:

cars students jobs dogs

Come up with at least four hyponyms for each category. What criteria did you use to decide? Are your hyponyms distinguishable in terms of semantic features? Compare notes with your classmates. Why might your hyponyms for these categories differ from person to person?

Answers will vary based on students’ experience, background knowledge, etc., but it is useful to point out that regardless of agreement/disagreement over specific examples, it seems to be a property of human language that we “sort” words into semantic categories.

9.12 Polysemy Explain how each of the following words is polysemous. the first example is done for you.

a. finger (lift a finger, give someone the finger, finger something—steal or touch) b. lip c. heart d. face e. toe f. butt g. hand h. ear

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 9 • 87

Now, find as many examples of polysemy in the following poem as you can. (Polysemous words in bold.)

Things

What happened is, we grew lonely living among the things, so we gave the clock a face, the chair a back, the table four stout legs which will never suffer fatigue. We fitted our shoes with tongues as smooth as our own and hung tongues inside bells so we could listen to their emotional language, and because we loved graceful profiles the pitcher received a lip, the bottle a long, slender neck. Even what was beyond us was recast in our image; we gave the country a heart, the storm an eye, the cave a mouth so we could pass into safety.

9.13 Homonyms Recall the following distinctions between homonyms, homophones, and homographs:

homonyms: sound same, same spelling

homophones: sound same, different spelling

homographs: same spelling, sound different

Supply a homonym, homophone, or homograph for each of the following words. Label your examples.

compact, bat, see, pupil, refuse, aisle, pail, bank, race, job, entrance, alter, braid

Answers will vary. Some examples are given here.

Homonyms

compact (agreement/cosmetics container)

bat (baseball bat/flying rodent)

see (visualize/escort)

pupil (eye part/student)

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88 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

Homophones

pail/pale

alter/altar

braid/brayed

Homographs

réfuse (noun, ‘garbage’) – refúse (verb, ‘reject’)

entránce (verb, ‘bewitch’) – éntrance (noun, ‘place of entry’)

compáct (verb, ‘to press/pack’) – cómpact (noun, ‘agreement’)

9.14 Ambiguity Label each of the following newspaper headlines as lexically ambiguous (ambiguous because of a word) or syntactically ambiguous (ambiguous because of the structure of the sentence). Briefly explain each of your answers. If the sentence is both lexically and syntactically ambiguous, label it as such and explain why.

a. Grandmother of Eight Makes Hole in One b. Quarter of a Million Chinese Live on Water c. Police Begin Campaign to Run Down Jaywalkers d. two Convicts Evade Noose, Jury Hung e. Safety Experts Say School Bus Passengers Should Be Belted f. Milk Drinkers Are turning to Powder g. Iraqi Head Seeks Arms h. two Sisters Reunite after Eighteen Years at Checkout Counter i. Doctor testifies in Horse Suit j. Police Discover Crack in Australia

Answers will vary; some possible analyses are given here:

a. Grandmother of Eight Makes Hole in One

Syntactically ambiguous: hole in one can be a noun phrase referring to golf score, or a noun phrase followed by a prepositional phrase, with a literal meaning.

[hole [in one]] or [a hole] [in one]

NP PP NP PP

b. Quarter of a Million Chinese Live on Water

Lexically ambiguous: PP on water has two meanings.

c. Police Begin Campaign to Run Down Jaywalkers

Lexically ambiguous: to run down can mean ‘capture’ or ‘hit with a car’

d. two Convicts Evade Noose, Jury Hung

Syntactically ambiguous: hung can be an adjective (‘a hung jury’) or a verb (‘jury is hung.’)

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 9 • 89

e. Safety Experts Say School Bus Passengers Should Be Belted

Lexically ambiguous: belted, a verb, can mean ‘seatbelted’ or ‘punched’

School bus passengers is also syntactically ambiguous:

[school bus [passengers]] or [school [bus passengers]]

NP NP

f. Milk Drinkers Are turning to Powder

Lexically ambiguous: turning to can mean ‘transforming into’ or ‘resort to’ and powder can mean ‘ash/dust’ or ‘dried milk.’

g. Iraqi Head Seeks Arms

Lexically ambiguous: head can mean ‘leader’ or ‘part of the body containing the brain’ and arms can mean ‘weapons’ or ‘body part.’

h. two Sisters Reunite after Eighteen Years at Checkout Counter

Syntactically ambiguous:

[after eighteen years [at checkout counter]]

PP PP

[after eighteen years] [at checkout counter]

PP PP

i. Doctor testifies in Horse Suit

Syntactically ambiguous:

doctor [testifies [in horse suit]]

VP PP

doctor [testifies] [in horse suit]

VP PP

j. Police Discover Crack in Australia

Lexically ambiguous due to the ambiguity of crack.

Also, choose two lexically ambiguous words that you find in these headlines. How do you know these words are ambiguous rather than simply vague?

To check for vagueness; a vague word will not necessarily have the same interpretation as its antecedent in VP Deletion contexts. Answers may vary depending on which words students identify as lexically ambiguous. Here is a possible example, designed to determine whether arms is ambiguous or merely vague:

Iraqi head seeks arms and the president does ∆, too.

Which are possible meanings?

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90 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

a. Iraqi head (body part) seeks arms (body part) and the president seeks arms (body parts) too.

b. Iraqi head (body part) seeks arms (body part) and the president seeks arms (weapons) too.

c. Iraqi head (leader) seeks arms (weapons) and the president seeks arms (weapons) too.

d. Iraqi head (leader) seeks arms (weapons) and the president seeks arms (body parts) too.

If students think that (b) and (d) are possible, arms is vague. If they think that only (a–c) are possible, then arms is ambiguous, according to Kempson’s (1977) test.

9.15 Meaning Change in Progress the American Heritage Dictionary gives the following definitions for aggravate:

1. to make worse or more troublesome 2. to rouse to exasperation or anger; provoke

Many usage experts believe only the first definition should be used. Here’s the dictionary’s usage note: “Aggravate comes from the Latin verb aggravare, which meant ‘to make heavier,’ that is, ‘to add to the weight of.’ ” It also had the extended senses ‘to annoy’ and ‘to oppress.’ Some people claim that aggravate can only mean ‘to make worse,’ and not ‘to irritate,’ on the basis of the word’s etymology. But in doing so, they ignore not only an English sense in use since the seventeenth cen- tury but also one of the original Latin ones. Sixty-eight percent of the American Heritage Usage Panel approves of its use in It’s the endless wait for luggage that aggravates me the most about air travel. Look up the following words to see what the experts have to say about them; then discuss your own usage and attitudes about the words and their meanings.

anxious

hopefully

orientate

comprise

literally

Answers will vary depending on sources consulted, and personal usage. A sample answer for anxious is provided below:

anxious: according the Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage (1989, Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc., Publishers), it has long meant “eager,” in addition to its original meaning “worried,” (“anxiety”). But interestingly, by the time American grammarians brought the “incorrect” anxious – eager usage to public attention (around 1900), the word had already been used in this way for over 160 years, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. The usage dictionary lists numerous examples of “careful” writing in which anxious is used to mean eager, which suggests that a prohibition against this usage is certainly not based on misunderstanding word meanings, nor is it based on lack of education or social prestige. Rather, a prohibition against such widely accepted usage seems purely arbitrary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 9 • 91

9.16 Historical Shifts in Meaning Below are a number of words from Old English (and a few that came into Old English from Old French) that still exist in Present-Day English, though each has shifted in meaning. Identify the type of meaning shift for each word. Choose from amelioration, pejoration, narrowing, broadening, and shift (in denotation—a completely new meaning).

PDE word Original word Meaning dream dréam ‘mirth’

moody mōdig ‘brave’ deer déor ‘beast/animal’

knight cniht ‘boy, lad’

gum góma ‘inside of mouth or throat’

bead bedu ‘prayer’

dizzy dysiʒ1 ‘foolish’ bird bridd ‘young bird’

tide tíd ‘time’

uncouth uncúþ2 ‘unknown’

witch wicca ‘male or female sorcerer’

PDE word Old French Meaning butcher bocher ‘one who slaughters goats’

accident accident ‘an event’

carry carier ‘transport by cart’

Answers: amelioration (A), pejoration (P), narrowing (N), broadening (B), and shift (S)

PDE word Original word Meaning Answers dream dréam ‘mirth’ S

moody mōdig ‘brave’ S, P deer déor ‘beast/animal’ N

knight cniht ‘boy, lad’ S, (N), A

gum góma ‘inside of mouth or throat’ N

bead bedu ‘prayer’ S

dizzy dysiʒ ‘foolish’ (to feel faint) S bird bridd ‘young bird’ B

tide tíd ‘time’ N

uncouth uncúþ ‘unknown’ S, P

witch wicca ‘male or female sorcerer’ N (P)

1this symbol (ʒ), called yogh, was used in Middle English to represent /y/ and sometimes other velar phonemes. 2this symbol, þ, called thorn, was used in Old and Middle English to represent either of the interdental fricatives, /θ/ and/or /ð/.

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PDE word Old French Meaning butcher bocher ‘one who slaughters goats’ B

accident accident ‘an event’ N

carry carier ‘transport by cart’ B

Answers may vary depending on interpretation and on depth of research. Many words that appear to have shifted have done so over time, and their current meanings are related (however tangentially) to their original ones. For example, “bead” is still connected to the meaning “prayer” in the sense of the rosary (a string of beads by which one counted one’s prayers). So in this case the meaning of “bead” might be analyzed as having shifted, and also narrowed.

9.17 Shifts in Meaning: Slang Words the changes in meanings of English slang and taboo words are particularly interesting to study because these meanings have often changed rather dramatically over time. For example, the slang word crapper has its origin in one thomas Crapper, who was in some way associated with the originator of the flush toilet (the “Silent Valveless Water Waste Preventer” patented in 1819, Albert Giblin). Choose four slang terms and look up their meanings. Explain how the meaning of each word has shifted over time. Illustrate with examples, and identify examples of broadening, narrowing, pejoration, amelioration, and shift in denotation. (Slang dictionaries are excellent resources for this exercise.)

Answers will vary.

9.18 Metaphors We Live By? What are some of the metaphors we use in talking about the following concepts, and do they fall into a particular category? If so, do you think that category accurately represents our cultural perceptions of that concept? Explain briefly.

love marriage illness life

Answers will vary.

9.19 Human Qualities: Personification Personification involves ascribing human attributes to inanimate or abstract concepts:

High gas prices are killing us, and they are the enemy of commuters.

the bad weather is truly treacherous and might cheat farmers out of some of the growing season.

In a text of your choice, find five examples of personification. Examples can come from a newspa- per, poem, story, tV news report, magazine, radio program, or other medium. (Hint: sports com- mentary abounds with personification and metaphor.)

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 9 • 93

9.20 Semantic Classes of Idioms Idioms can be classified by the concepts they express. For example, there are many idiomatic expressions for anger, work, love, and sex.

Anger: flip your lid, blow your stack, bite someone’s head off, let off steam

Love: fall for, be crazy about, dig, have a crush on, hit it off with, get hung up on, make eyes at someone

Come up with two classes of idioms on your own, and give three or four examples of idioms that fall into each class.

Answers will vary.

9.21 The Semantics of Jokes Many jokes are funny for semantic reasons, relying on ambiguous words, synonyms, antonymy, and various types of figurative language to create humor. We also use our knowledge of other grammati- cal components (syntax, morphology, phonology) to create humor. Explain the humor in each of the following jokes using your grammatical knowledge. What contributes to the humor in each joke? Be as specific and detailed as you can.

Q: What’s the difference between Cheerios and Georgia tech (insert team of your choice)?

A: Cheerios belong in a bowl.

Q: What lies at the bottom of the ocean and twitches?

A: A nervous wreck.

Q: Why do chicken coops have two doors?

A: Because if they had four doors, they would be chicken sedans.

Q: What does a skeleton get when he goes to a bar?

A: A beer and a mop.

Q: How many men does it take to wallpaper a room?

A: About two, if they’re thinly sliced.

Q: How many ears did Davy Crockett have?

A: three—his left ear, his right ear, and his wild front ear.

Q: Why don’t cannibals eat clowns?

A: Because they taste funny.

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 10

10.1 Propositions and Truth Conditions Which of the following sentences contain propositions? Which propositions are true, and which are false?

a. Eat your cereal! (no proposition because not declarative/assertion) b. Did you eat your cereal? (no proposition because not declarative/assertion) c. I ate cereal this morning. true proposition d. I didn’t eat cereal this morning. false proposition e. the dog ate cereal this morning. true proposition f. the dog ate cereal this morning, didn’t he? (no proposition because not declarative/

assertion) g. Should dogs eat cereal? (no proposition because not declarative/assertion) h. Dogs never eat cereal. false proposition

10.2 Analytic and Synthetic Sentences Label the following sentences as analytic (A) or synthetic (S).

The necessarily true sentences, the analytic ones, are bolded.

a. Lions are felines. b. Lions are carnivores. c. Lions can be fierce. d. Lions live only in certain parts of the world. e. Lions are animals. f. I like lions. g. You don’t like lions.

10.3 Entailment Write down as many entailments as you can for the following sentences. A sentence may have more than one entailment or may have no entailments.

Answers will vary—samples given below.

a. Lions are animals.

Entails that lions are animate.

b. Lions live only in certain parts of the world.

Entails that there are some parts of the world in which lions don’t live.

c. Lions are carnivorous.

Entails that lions eat meat.

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d. Lorraine is my mother’s sister.

Entails that my mother has a sister.

e. Lorraine is my friend.

No entailment.

Do the following sentences have the same entailments? Why or why not?

f. the puppy devoured the pizza. g. the puppy ate the pizza.

No, they do not have all of the same entailments. Both (f and g) entail that the puppy consumed the pizza, but devour entails eating with gusto/voraciously and eat does not.

What entailments are expressed by the following ambiguous sentence?

h. the movie star met the journalist in a tux.

More than one entailment: the movie star met the journalist who was wearing a tux, or the movie star, not the journalist, was wearing a tux.

Paraphrase the following sentences. Remember that paraphrases have the same meaning but differ- ent word order, and any entailments remain the same.

i. Lorraine loves going to the Bahamas in the winter.

Going to the Bahamas in the winter is what Lorraine loves.

j. the baby gave the rattle to his mother.

The baby gave his mother the rattle.

k. the students handed in their papers.

The students handed their papers in.

l. the ball rolled under the bed.

Under the bed rolled the ball.

10.4 Contradictions Make up three sentences that are contradictions because of the interplay of words that express logi- cal relationships, such as all, every, some, and, or, but, and if.

Answers will vary, but some examples are the following:

All insects have six legs, but no insects have six legs.

Some dogs have keen eyesight, and all dogs have keen eyesight.

If all cats have good balance, then no cats have good balance.

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10.5 Presupposition Some of the following sentences include presuppositions. Write the presupposition down for each sentence. What propositions do we infer or assume in each sentence?

a. Do you want to go bowling again?

Presupposes that you already went bowling.

b. Her husband is a banker.

Presupposes that she is married.

c. Have you stopped eating meat?

Presupposes that you used to eat meat.

d. Do you eat meat?

No presupposition.

e. Why did you steal the money?

Presupposes that you stole the money.

f. Einstein discovered relativity.

No presupposition. (Students may claim that (f) presupposes that Einstein discovered something or that someone discovered relativity, which would presuppose that relativity and Einstein exist(ed).

g. I have already donated to the cause.

Presupposes that you’ve already donated to the cause.

10.6 Thematic Roles Assign the most appropriate thematic role to each of the underlined NPs:

a. Francine rode her bike to the party.

agent theme location

b. Elvis ate peanut butter with a spoon.

agent theme instrument

c. Bess gave the waitperson a nice tip.

agent beneficiary theme

d. Ariadne saw the dog at the pound.

agent theme location

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 10 • 97

Make up sentences in each of which the child is the subject but in which it has a different thematic role in each case. You’ll have to change the verb in each sentence you make up.

Answers will vary, but some examples are given. a. The child saw the teacher leave the building. experiencer

b. The child agent The child left for school.

c. The child patient The child was told to wait.

d. The child goal The child was given a pencil.

10.7 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts Identify the following as a direct or an indirect speech act. Explain briefly why you identify them as you do. Does sentence type correlate with meaning?

Many of the sentences that are questions are indirect speech acts; they function as requests and/or commands, rather than simply as requests for information. Answers may vary; some possible responses are given below.

a. Please read the assigned reading by Monday.

direct (polite) command. Indirect (request)

b. Could you pick up the trash over there?

direct (interrogative to gain information) indirect (request or command)

c. Did you see the movie last night?

direct (interrogative to gain information)

d. I would like to know how many of you finished the assignment.

direct (interrogative to gain information) indirect (threat–implying a consequence if the assignment is not finished, depending on the tone)

e. Do your chores!

direct: command

f. Do you want that window open?

direct (interrogative to gain information) indirect (request or command to close the window).

g. Move your car out of the way!

direct: command

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h. Can you please move your car?

direct (interrogative to gain information) indirect (request or command)

i. Please move your car.

direct: assertion

j. Your car is in the way.

direct (assertion) indirect (request or command)

10.8 Performative Speech Acts Speech acts are called performative when uttering them is an act in itself rather than reporting on an act. For example, if someone says “I saw a cat run under the porch,” they are asserting that they saw this event and are reporting on it. If a judge in court says “I order you to spend six days in jail,” that statement performs an action: it legally binds you to serve your jail time. Which of the following speech acts are performative? (Hint: You can usually insert hereby in performative speech acts but not in nonperformative ones.) What conditions must be satisfied for these acts to be performative? Are there conditions under which the sentence would not be performative? Explain briefly.

a. John hopes to be there on time.

not performative

b. SAFE! (yelled by the umpire in a baseball game)

performative

c. I christen you the H.M.S. Titanic.

performative

d. I will pay you the money I owe you.

not performative (future)

e. I promise to pay you the money I owe you.

performative

f. Yesterday, Joe promised to pay the money he owes Jack.

not performative (past)

g. Did Joe promise to pay Jack the money he owes him?

not performative (question)

h. Louise knows that pigs can fly.

not performative (know is not a performative verb)

i. Joachim decreed that pigs can fly.

not performative: though decree is a performative verb, describing what someone decreed is not a performative speech act.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 10 • 99

Performatives can be rather tricky. Discuss some of the issues that are raised when we try to determine whether the following sentences are performative.

j. Checkmate! (spoken by a player in a chess game who has checkmated his opponent)

performative: the other player loses the game

k. Checkmate! (spoken by a player in a chess game who has not checkmated his opponent)

not performative: speaker is incorrect and there is no checkmate.

l. Checkmate! (spoken in a context other than a chess game)

not performative: has only metaphorical significance

10.9 Grice’s Maxims of Conversation A. Make up a (plausible) conversational exchange in which Grice’s maxims are followed.

Explain briefly how each maxim is satisfied. B. Come up with a (plausible) conversation in which at least one of Grice’s maxims is vio-

lated. Explain why the violation might take place and what inferences the speakers and hearers could use to make sense of the utterances. (Remember that a violation doesn’t necessarily mean that the conversation breaks down; it is often the result of maxim clash, wherein a maxim is violated but the cooperative principle maintained.)

C. Now, come up with an example of a conversational exchange in which at least one of Grice’s maxims is flouted. Does the conversation break down or not? Explain briefly.

Answers will vary.

10.10 Positive and Negative Politeness Referring to table 10.2, make up one conversation in which a speaker uses positive politeness and one in which a speaker uses negative politeness, and then answer the following questions:

· How does context influence the situation? · What is the relationship between the two speakers, and does that matter? · In what kinds of situations are we more likely to use positive politeness, and in what situa-

tions might we use negative politeness? · In your conversations, what are some examples of direct and indirect speech acts?

Answers will vary.

10.11 Gender Differences in Conversation It has long been argued that men and women have different speech styles and conversational prac- tices. More recent work in language and gender studies has shown, however, that generalizations about men and women are impossible and that gender interacts with a number of other variables, such as age, ethnicity, social class, and sexual orientation, in shaping our speech styles and prac- tice. What are some current issues and arguments about gendered language? Is it possible to claim that men and women talk differently and use different conversational and politeness strategies?

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(Some good resources include Cameron 2007, tannen 2006, Eckert & McConnell-Ginet 2003, and Wolfram & Schilling-Estes 1998.)

Answers will vary, but in examining current research students should find that it is far too simplistic to claim that “men” talk one way and “women” another; gender itself is far more complex than a binary opposition, and there are many other variables that influence conversational style.

10.12 Terms of Address One way to express status and respect in English is with terms of address. Perhaps as a reflection of changing attitudes about such relationships, however, this system is in a state of flux, leaving many of us unsure of how to address certain people. these days, more adults are likely to be called by their first names by children; use of the terms Mr. and Ms. is waning. Even in elementary and sec- ondary schools, teachers are asking their students to call them by their first names. For many, this confusion about what to call someone can result in “no-naming,” calling that person by no name at all! College professors frequently experience this situation if they haven’t told their students what they would like to be called. Discuss what factors you use when trying to determine how to address someone; consider age, gender, occupation, and level of schooling, among other factors. Is there a situation in which you choose the no-naming strategy? Why? Is politeness at work?

Answers will vary.

10.13 Style-Shifting: Conversational Register We shift registers often and unconsciously, depending on where we are, who we’re talking to and why, and so on. Describe three different registers you might use and the context in which you would use each. Describe the context, the speakers involved, and any other factors that you think contribute to your choice of register. What kinds of vocabulary, sentence structure, accent, and so forth do you use in shifting from one register to another? Give examples to illustrate. (Hints: Do you use contrac- tions such as gonna or wanna in one register but not another? When would you choose a more for- mal term over a more informal one? In what situations would you use euphemisms? When do you say yeah, and when are you careful to say yes or maybe even yes, ma’am?)

Answers will vary.

10.14 Cross-Cultural Conversations What are some of the conversational practices of a culture other than your own? Do the maxims of conversation seem to apply as they do in your own speech community? Give examples of how maxims might be violated, flouted, or even maintained in different ways in another cultural context. Discuss cross-cultural differences in politeness conventions such as honorifics, terms of address, and other conversational practices. Are direct and indirect speech acts used in different ways?

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 10 • 101

10.15 Definiteness and Geographical Place Names Do you say Rocky Mountains or the Rocky Mountains? Most native English speakers agree that the Rocky Mountains sounds better than Rocky Mountains when referring to the geographical location. Likewise, Lookout Mountain somehow sounds better than the Lookout Mountain. For the following list of place names and your local landmarks, do they sound better with or without the definite deter- miner the?

Great Salt Lake

Lake Whatcom

Colorado River

Mississippi River

Nooksack River

Black Hills

Nob Hill

Eagle Lake

Whatcom Creek

Heron Creek

What is the rule that determines whether the occurs with a proper name for a natural landmark? Discuss why you think this might be.

This odd rule has to do with relative size – sort of. So rivers and mountain ranges (or group of hills) take the, while lakes and creeks do not.

The Colorado River Nob Hill

The Mississippi River Eagle Lake

The Nooksack River Whatcom Creek

The Black Hills Heron Creek

The Cascade Mountains Lake Whatcom

The Great Salt Lake looks like an exception to the rule, but it is indeed an exceptional, and very large, lake. These subtle facts about meaning interact in complex ways with the rules governing the use of the definite article. Native speakers have intuitions about when to use the, though these rules do vary across dialects as well.

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10.16 Deixis Explain how each of the following sentences uses deixis.

The deictic phrases are underlined; they indicate a time, location, or proximity to/from the speaker. Pronouns we and I are also deictic, setting up speaker’s location in time or space. Tense also contributes to interpretation of speaker’s location in time (and is highlighted here with the difference between c and d).

a. We’re going on vacation this summer. (this summer = temporal deictic) b. I walked to the store. (to = spatial deictic) c. I walked from the store. (from = spatial deictic, past tense –ed indicates time) d. I walk to the store. (to = spatial deictic, present tense verb indicates time) e. Come on over here! (come, over, here = spatial deictics) f. John bought that new car. (that = demonstrative, proximity) g. the cat is over there behind the couch. (there, over, behind = spatial deictics)

10.17 Language and Thought Pullum (1991) outlines the development of the myth, based on “research” by Benjamin Whorf, that “Eskimos” (a misnomer right there) have “bucketloads” of words for snow and that this is evidence for the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Research this myth (using resources in addition to Pullum’s book). What evidence is there against Whorf’s claim?

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 11 • 103

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 11

11.1 Regular Sound Correspondences A. Which of the following languages is/are Indo-European?

L2, L3, L4

B. On what do you base your answer? Can you identify any regular sound correspondences?

Answers will vary.

C. Can you identify the non-Indo-European languages? What language family are they members of? A key to this exercise appears at the end of this section.

L1 L2 L3 L4 L5

ichi ekas jedyn en egy

ni dvau dwaj twine két

san tryas tr ĭ thria három shi catvāras s̆tyri fiuwar négy go pañca pjeć fı̄f öt rocku s̹as̹ s̆ĕsć sehx hat shichi sapta sedm sibun hét hachi as̹t̹au wosm ahto nyolcz ku nava dżewjeć nigun kilencz jū daça dżesać tehan tíz hyaku çatam sto hunderod száz

(Adapted from Algeo and Butcher 2005: 84.)

Non-Indo-European languages: L1 = Japanese (Altaic family), L5 = Hungarian (Finno- Ugric or Uralic family)

Indo-European languages: L2 = Sanskrit (Indic family), L3 = Wendish (Slovenian–Slavic family), L4 = Old Saxon (Germanic family)

11.2 Non–Indo-European Languages Choose a non-Indo-European language and research it (you can choose from the list of non-Indo- European languages we provide in the chapter). A good source is the Ethnologue website, http:// www.ethnologue.com/ Write a summary of your research in which you answer the following questions:

a. Where is the language spoken, and by how many speakers? b. What language family is the language a member of? What are some related languages? Or

is it an isolate, a language with no other existing family members?

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c. What are two other facts about the language that you find particularly interesting or strik- ing and that you didn’t know before (pronunciations, morphology, word order, vocabulary, interesting facts about its origins)?

Answers will vary.

11.3 Major Changes from Indo-European to Germanic All Germanic languages in their oldest forms share characteristics that distinguish them from other Indo-European languages. these six features unique to Germanic languages are given on page 368.

A. Choose a Germanic language (other than English), conduct some research, and then explain and illustrate how it exhibits two of these characteristics. Give the characteristic, an example, and a brief explanation.

Characteristic: alveolar suffix for the past tense

Example: Old English: ic sēce ‘I seek’ ic sōhte ‘I sought’ ic temme ‘I tame’ ic temede “I tamed’

Explanation: In Old English, the past tense verbs sōhte and temede end in an alveolar sound (/t/ and /d/) in the past tense.

B. Now, choose a non-Germanic language and show that it doesn’t exhibit the two characteristics you illustrated in A. For example, verbs in Latin, a Romance language, do not have alveolar suf- fixes in the past tense.

Example: Latin: sagiō ‘I perceive’ sāgivi ‘I perceived’ domō ‘I tame’ domui ‘I tamed’

Explanation: the Latin verbs sāgivi and domui do not have alveolar suffixes in the past tense.

Answers will vary.

11.4 Old English Grammar Discuss differences in vocabulary and syntax that you can identify in the following Old English sen- tences. What are some of the different word orders that you can identify? What prefixes or suffixes, if any, do you find? What words look familiar to you? Which are completely unfamiliar, and what do they mean? What differences in spelling do you find?

a. þa geseah ic beforan unc onginnan ðeostrainða stowe.

‘then saw I before us begin to darken that place’

runes, prefix ge-, pronoun forms (ic/unc), -an suffix

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 11 • 105

b. Her is seo bot, hu ðu meaht þine æ ceras betan gif hie nellaþ wel weaxan.

‘here is the remedy, how you can your fields restore if they will not well grow’

familiar verb is, more runes, h rather that th pronoun (hie – they), nellaþ- contraction of will not, verb final word order: how you can your fields restore/they will not well grow. Familiar vocabulary? geseah, beforan, weaxan = wax ‘to grow’

c. Ic ahsige eow, forhwi swa geornlice leorni ge?

‘I ask you, why so eagerly study you?’

spelling: eow ‘you,’ familiar words: ahsige, leorni, why = forhwi (hw, which will metathesize later to wh), word order VO (leorni ge ‘study you’)

d. Hwæt sægst þu, fugelere?

‘what say you, bird-hunter?’

hw combination, runic æ and þ, inversion of main verb rather than auxiliary, unfamiliar vocabulary: fugelere ‘bird-hunter.’

e. ond þæs oþrew þone mæstan dæl hie geridon ond him to gecirdon buton þæm cyninge Elfrede.

‘and of the rest the greatest part they seized and (to) them submitted except the king Alfred’

runes, conjunction (ond), more h (Anglo-Saxon) rather than th (Scandinavian) pronouns, word order (him to gecirdon ‘(to) them submitted’), ge- prefix on verbs, <c> for [k] (cyninge)

f. Her for se here to Cirenceastre of Cippanhamme. One þy geare gegadrode an hloþ wicenga

‘here went the army to Cirencester from Chippenham. And in that year assembled a troop (of) Vikings’

ge- verb prefix, spellings: geare = ‘year,’ runes, <c> rather than later <ch> for [č] Cirenceastre, Cippanhamme (-chester: Celtic, -ham: Anglo-Saxon)

VS order (for se here ‘went the army’/gegadrode an hloþ wicenga ‘assembled a troop (of) Vikings’

11.5 Old English to Middle English Spelling the following words are given in their Old English and Middle English spellings. Examine the list, and describe the spelling environments that determined the change in spelling of the Old English letter c during the Middle English period (from Millward 2012: 132).

Old English Middle English Present-Day English

candel candel ‘candle’

castel castel ‘castle’

cese chese ‘cheese’

cest chest ‘chest’

ciele chile ‘chill’

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Old English Middle English Present-Day English

cild child ‘child’

clag clay ‘clay’

cleofan cleven ‘cleave’

cnif knif ‘knife’

cniht kniht ‘knight’

corn corn ‘corn’

crypel crepel ‘cripple’

cuppe cuppe ‘cup’

cwacung quakinge ‘quaking’

cwealm qualm ‘qualm’

cwellan quell ‘quell’

cweorn quern ‘quern’

cycene kichene ‘kitchen’

kynd kind ‘kind’

cyrnel kernell ‘kernel’

a. In what environments did OE c remain ME c? b. In what environments did OE c become ME ch? c. In what environments did OE c become ME k? d. In what environments did OE c become ME q?

Answers:

In what environments did OE c remain ME c?

<c> remains <c> before <a>

<c> remains <c> before <l>

<c> remains <c> before <o, r, u>

(<c> remains <c> before back vowels and consonants)

In what environments did OE c become ME ch?

<c> becomes <ch> before <e, i>

(<c> becomes <ch> before front vowels)

In what environments did OE c become ME k?

<c> becomes <k> before <y>, <n>

(<c> becomes <k> before <y>)

In what environments did OE c become ME q?

<c> becomes <q> before <w>

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 11 • 107

11.6 Middle English Grammar Although the word order of Middle English is similar to that of Present-Day English, the sen- tences below illustrate some important differences. the first five, which are from the Peterborough Chronicle, were written in the first half of the twelfth century (and are therefore closer to Old English). the second five, from Chaucer’s “tale of Melibee,” were written in the last half of the fourteenth century (and are closer to Early Modern English).

A. For each sentence, describe how the word order differs from present-day use. B. What morphological differences (prefixes and suffixes, both inflectional and derivational) from

Present-Day English do you notice in each sentence? What similarities? C. What words are familiar to you in each sample? Can you identify any vocabulary that may have

come from French? D. What are some spelling differences? E. How are these two samples different from each other? In what way is the first sample “older”

than the second? (In what ways is the first sample closer to Old English than the second?)

From The Peterborough Chronicle (early Middle English)

a. his gear heald se kyng Heanri his hird æt Cristesmæsse on Windlesoure.

‘this year King Henry held his court at Christmas in Windsor.’

b. And him com togæ es Willelm eorl of Albamar.

‘And William, Earl of Aumale, came against him.’

c. þerefter come ðe kinges dohter Henries, ðe hefde ben emperice in Alamanie.

‘thereafter came King Henry’s daughter, who had been empress in Germany.’

d. þe King him sithen name in Hamtun.

‘the King afterwards captured him in Hampton.’

e. Sume he iaf up, and sume ne iaf he not.

‘Some he gave up, and some he did not give.’

Answers to (a–e):

a. his gear heald se kyng Heanri his hird æt Cristesmæsse on Windlesoure.

‘This year King Henry held his court at Christmas in Windsor.’

spelling: <c> is <k> kyng, but still <c> in Cristesmæsse (as in OE). Word order is VSO (heald se kyng Heanri his hird). Year is still spelled gear. Runes still present (but gone in his = ‘this’). Preposition on rather than in. Pronoun his.

b. And him com togæ es Willelm eorl of Albamar.

‘And William, Earl of Aumale, came against him.’

Familiar and, com, of. Word order is OVS. Familiar spellings: and, him, com

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c. þerefter come ðe kinges dohter Henries, ðe hefde ben emperice in Alamanie.

‘Thereafter came King Henry’s daughter, who had been empress in Germany.’

VSO order, familiar words and more recognizable spellings (though still with runes) þerefter, come, kinges, dohter, emperice. Unfamiliar words: Alamanie (cf: French Allemande ‘Germany,’ also Fr. emperice). Possessive noun phrase: ðe kinges dohter Henries (King Henry’s daughter). Appearance of verb combination had been (hefde ben)

d. þe King him sithen name in Hamtun.

‘The King afterwards captured him in Hampton.’

Word order is SOV, unfamiliar words: sithen ‘afterwards,’ name ‘captured,’ spellings look modern: king, him, but runes persist.

e. Sume he iaf up, and sume ne iaf he not.

‘Some he gave up, and some he did not give.’

Spelling iaf ‘gave’, sume ‘some;’ familiar words: he, not, and; double negative: ne…not; OSV (Sume he iaf up) order, OVS (sume ne iaf he not) order.

From Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, “Tale of Melibee” (late Middle English)

f. thre of his olde foes han it espyed.

‘three of his old foes have noticed it.’

g. Wepyng is not thing deffended to hym that sorweful is.

‘Weeping is by no means forbidden to him that is sorrowful.’

h. And whan this wise man saugh that hym wanted audience, al shamefast he sette hym down agayn.

‘And when this wise man saw that audience was lacking for him, all ashamed he sat down again.’

i. My lord, I you biseche as hertely as I dar and kan, ne haste yow nat to faste.

‘My lord, I beseech you as heartily as I dare and can, don’t move too fast.’

j. But seyeth and conseileth me as you liketh.

‘But tell and counsel me as it pleases you.’

Answers to (f–j):

f. Thre of his olde foes han it espyed.

‘Three of his old foes have noticed it.’

SOV order. Familiar order for possessive noun phrase (Thre of his olde foes) Familiar spellings and vocabulary, -s plural suffix. Espyed = French

g. Wepyng is not thing deffended to hym that sorweful is.

‘Weeping is by no means forbidden to him that is sorrowful.’

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 11 • 109

Familiar word order SVO in first clause, SOV in second (hym that sorweful is); appearance of not in (single) negation; -ed suffix on verb; lack or runes (that); familiar spellings (-yng for –ing ). French vocabulary: defend.

h. And whan this wise man saugh that hym wanted audience, al shamefast he sette hym down agayn.

‘And when this wise man saw that audience was lacking for him, all ashamed he sat down again.’

Familiar spellings: wh rather than hw; pronouns with h spellings (hym); French vocabulary audience; SVO order (whan this wise man saugh that…); object rather than subject pronoun (impersonal construction): hym wanted audience.

i. My lord, I you biseche as hertely as I dar and kan, ne haste yow nat to faste.

‘My lord, I beseech you as heartily as I dare and can, don’t move too fast.’

Familiar forms of pronouns and other function words, double negation ne..nat, SOV word order (I you biseche), familiar suffix –ly, modals dar and kan.

j. But seyeth and conseileth me as you liketh.

‘But tell and counsel me as it pleases you.’

-eth suffix, familiar pronouns and function words, French vocabulary counseileth, SVO word order.

11.7 Semantic Change Remember that the meanings of words shift over time and that many words in contemporary English originally meant something entirely different. Look up the following words, and find out what their meanings were both before and after the Early Modern English period. Explain whether their mean- ings have ameliorated, pejorated, narrowed, or broadened (you may have to go back to Chapter 9 for a quick review!).

lust, battle, carp, harlot, scant, jolly, luxury, sermon, read, knave, boy

Answers: A: ameliorated, P: pejorated, N: narrowed, B: broadened

Earlier meaning Present meaning Change lust: pleasure/delight/desire unrestrained sexual desire/craving N, P battle: from Latin “beat” combat between armed forces B carp: to speak or talk to complain N, P harlot: vagabond; person of low repute prostitute N scant: short or brief meager amount N jolly: gallant, brave, finely dressed happy N luxury: laciviousness, lust comfortable/extravagant A sermon: talk, discourse religious discourse N read: explain, interpret interpret written symbols N knave: a male child, a boy crafty person (male) N, P boy: a male servant, a slave young male person B, A

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110 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

11.8 Etymology of English Words Using a good etymological dictionary, choose at least three of the following words and determine what Indo-European language the word comes from. Is the word borrowed into English or native to the language? You can find this out by seeing whether the dictionary lists a date of entry into English from another language. If the word is native to English, the dictionary will usually list Old English or Anglo-Saxon as the source language. Also try to determine if there are other English words that derive from the same root.

Answers: Note that not all of the words have other related words.

bath (OE, bathroom, bathe), charity (OFr. cherish, care, borrowed) cheer (Anglo- Norman, cheerleader, borrowed), clerk (OE, from Lat. clericus “priest,” cleric, clergy, clergyman, borrowed) clue (OE, clueless), companion (OFr. company, borrowed), hell (OE), host (OFr. hospitality, borrowed; also “stranger, enemy, army,” from Latin), guest (OE “stranger”) corn (OE “grain,”corny), doom (OE, doomsday) fantasy (OFr. fantastic, fantasia, borrowed) fee (OFr. fee simple, borrowed), galore (Irish, borrowed), genius (Latin, borrowed), gentle (OFr. from Lat. genus, gentile, genteel, borrowed) glisten (OE), group (Fr. groupie, borrowed), holy (OE, health), humor (OFr. humus, borrowed), kind (OE, kin), know (OE), lace (OFr. borrowed), liberal (OFr. liberty, borrowed), maniac (Lat. mania, borrowed), manure (OFr. maneuver, manual, borrowed), mild (OE, melt), mood (OE, moody) napkin (OFr. borrowed), nausea (Lat. nauseate, naval, borrowed), nature (OFr. natural, native, etc., borrowed), nice (OFr. borrowed), outlaw (OE, law, lawless, etc.), pain (OFr. penal, borrowed), pity (OFr. piety, pious, pitiful, borrowed), sad (OE, sated, satisfy, sade), silly (OE, hilarious), soap (OE), virtue (OFr., virile), wit (OE, witticism).

11.9 Early Modern English Syntax When you examine Early Modern English texts, the differences are not as obvious as they are in Middle English, but they are still notable. Find a text excerpt (or more than one) written during the Early Modern English period (1500–1800), and see if you can find and record at least three of the following syntactic features typical of the language of the day. Explain how each is different from Present-Day English. (You may use the excerpts provided in textbooks on the history of the English language, but Shakespeare’s plays and sonnets are an excellent resource.) Write down your exam- ples (and where you found them) to share with the class.

a. adjectival double comparatives: most unkindest b. pronouns: especially look for thou and you c. questions without auxiliary do: Know you? d. negation without auxiliary do: If I become not? e. Orders other than SVO f. plurals without -s: a brace of horse, shoen

Feel free to discuss aspects of grammar other than those listed here. there are many more differ- ences between Early Modern English and Present-Day English grammar than these!

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 11 • 111

11.10 The Etymology of Names A. Look up the etymology of your first name. A good source is the Behind the Name website:

http://www.behindthename.com/ B. What language does it come from? Is it Indo-European? C. What does it mean? D. What are cognates of your name in other languages? For example, Irish Sean is a cognate of

English John and Scottish Ian. All descend originally from Latin Iohannes. E. Compile a list of the languages of origin of your first names. Which languages do most names

come from? Why? F. How do English first names reflect the history of the language? What languages are represented,

and why?

Answers will vary, but typically, many common first names have Latin, Greek or Hebrew origins (biblical) and others are Germanic (typically with associations to nature, Ashley or Brooke). Some students will have Celtic names (Carey, Kevin). This distribution reflects the languages that influenced the development of English. Other names borrowed from yet other languages illustrate borrowing in progress, adding new words to the language.

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112 • Pa rt 2 answer Key

review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 12

12.1 British versus American English Conduct some research to find at least five ways in which British English and american English differ. Give examples from vocabulary, pronunciation, and syntax.

Answers will vary.

12.2 Explore a Dialect research an american dialect of your choice. Provide at least five examples of vocabulary, pronun- ciation, and syntax unique to this dialect. trace its history; is it a regional, social, or ethnic dialect, or something else entirely? Who speaks this dialect and where? What factors led the variety to develop its unique characteristics? among the many dialects you may want to consider are General Southern, Midland, Upper Midwest, West, Pacific Northwest, and Canadian.

Answers will vary.

12.3 Recent Borrowings Look up the etymologies of at least six of the following words in a good etymological dictionary (The Online Etymological Dictionary, The Oxford English Dictionary), and determine from what language the word was borrowed, when it was borrowed, and whether the meaning has changed since the bor- rowing. Where possible, determine what historical, social, and/or geographical factors led to the bor- rowing of the word. also note spelling or pronunciation differences from the original language.

slalom, caravan, jitters, gingham, ketchup, chess, shampoo, icon, klutz, bum, studio, spool, waffle, mosquito, bigot

Answers:

slalom: 1921, from Norwegian. “downhill, zigzagging ski race.” Originally spelled slalåm. (Borrowed through contact with Norwegian via competitive sports.)

caravan: 16th century, borrowed from French caravane (from Crusading times) “North African traveling merchants or pilgrims.” (Borrowed through contact with French.)

jitters: 1925, American English, “extreme nervousness,” perhaps from “chitter,” which came from ME chittern, “to twitter, chatter.” Song Jitter bug was recorded by Cab Calloway in 1934. Jitterbug became the name of a popular swing dance (1938).

gingham: 1615, from Dutch gingang, traders’ pronunciation of Malay ginggang “striped” to refer to “striped cotton.” (Borrowed through trade.)

ketchup: 1711, from Malay kichap (originally from Amoy dialect of Chinese koechiap) “fish sauce.” Catsup is Anglicized spelling. Modern form of condiment emerged when U.S. seamen added tomatoes. (Borrowed through trade.)

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review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 12 • 113

chess: 13th century, from Old French esches, plural of eschec, (“check”). From Sanskrit chaturanga, “four members of an army” (elephants, chariots, foot solders, horses). (Probably brought into English by the French.)

shampoo: 18th century, from Hindi verb “to press,” meaning to be subject to massage of the limbs. Developed present meaning by 19th century. (Entered English via British trade/colonization of India.)

icon: 1572, from Latin icon which was borrowed from Greek eikon, “likeness or image.” The use with respect to a computer was first recorded in 1982.

klutz: 1965, American English, derived from Yiddish (of immigrants) klots “clumsy person.”

bum: 1864, American English, shortened form of German slang bummler, “loafer, lazy person,” or bummer (from German immigrants who fought in Northern Army in the Civil War).

studio: 1819, “workroom for painter or sculptor,” from Italian studio “room for study.”

spool: 1325, Old French. spole “spool.”

waffle: 1744, from Dutch wafel. Cognate of Old High German waba “honeycomb,” and weban “to weave.” (Borrowed into American English through contact with Dutch immigrants.)

mosquito: 1583, from Spanish mosquito, “little gnat.”

bigot: 1598, from Old French. bigot, derogatory name for Normans, based (perhaps) on their affinity for the Old English oath bi God. Earliest English sense is “religious hypocrite,” particularly a female one.

12.4 Etymologies of Place Names Choose five place-names in your state and research their origins, including the language of origin and the meaning.

Answers will vary.

12.5 The Ebonics Controversy What was the 1996–1997 Ebonics controversy, and who was involved? What was the Oakland school board’s intent, and what factors contributed to the media frenzy? Do you think this contro- versy could have been avoided? How would knowledge of language variation have played a role?

Answers will vary.

12.6 Research an Ethnic Dialect Ethnic dialects arise for a variety of reasons, chief among them social isolation and cultural identity. research an ethnic dialect of your choice. Where did the dialect originate and why? What are some of its grammatical features? Why would you say this is an ethnic dialect rather than a regional one? (Some ideas: Pacheco, Cajun, New York Jewish.)

Answers will vary.

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114 • Pa rt 2 answer Key

12.7 Language Stereotypes on Television tV cartoons are a good place to look for the use of dialect as a way to build character. Watch some cartoons (Looney Tunes, South Park, The Simpsons), and pay attention to the use of language. Consider who speaks foreign-accented English, who speaks a nonstandard american dialect, who speaks British English, and so forth. Is the use of language appropriate? Is it fair? Is it discrimi- natory? Is it simply a shortcut to typify a character so that the audience can make assumptions? Provide an overview of your research and your reflections on it.

Answers will vary. One point to discuss is the difference when programs are targeted at children versus adults. There is also much research on cartoons as propaganda and use of accents to create stereotypical caricatures of Japanese and Germans during WWII, and Russians during the Cold War (for example, Boris and Natasha in the Rocky and Bullwinkle cartoons).

12.8 Global Varieties of English research a global variety of English (spoken in a region other than the United States, Canada, or the United Kingdom). What is its history, and what are some unique features of the variety? Choose from the varieties discussed in the chapter, and go into more depth (East Indian English, Caribbean English, South african English, Singapore English) or branch out; what about Barbadian English or Jamaican English? there are many others to choose from.

Answers will vary.

12.9 Is Your English “Pleasant”? Do the exercise on language attitudes found at http://www.pbs.org/speak/speech/mapping/map.html. Linguist Dennis Preston researches people’s attitudes toward dialects of american English. In this exercise, you’ll determine whether various pronunciations from around the world are “correct” or “pleasant.” Summarize your reactions to the exercise and to the other information linked there.

Answers will vary. This exercise provides an opportunity to discuss the social factors that underlie our language attitudes; how what we consider “pleasant” isn’t always what we also consider “correct”; how speakers’ perceptions of their own language may not necessarily be positive, and so on.

12.10 Your Version of General American? Here are some sentences from different american English dialects. Which are familiar to you? Do you think these are features of General american? If not, why not? Compare your answers with your classmates’ answers. Do you all agree on what is considered General american? If you don’t, can you explain why?

a. I’m really liking the new house. b. It’s fixin’ to rain. c. So she’s like “when will we get there?” d. they answered wrong. e. I wonder who all will be there.

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f. the bullet went clean through the door. g. Y’all better get some sleep. h. Youse better get some sleep. i. I like those ones over there.

Answers will vary, but the goal of this exercise is to raise students’ awareness of how they may equate “different” with “negative,” and how an understanding of language variation can lead to a change in their own language attitudes. This exercise also acquaints students firsthand with the subjective nature of what we consider “General American,” because likely they will not all agree on which of these sentences are part of that idealized language variety.

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116 • Pa rt 2 answer Key

review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 13

13.1 Logograms Consider the following symbols, and determine whether they are logograms or ideograms or both. Is it clear what each indicates, or might there be more than one interpretation? Describe what meaning you think each is intended to convey. What other possible interpretations might exist?

a. b. c.

Answers will vary.

13.2 Writing Systems A. Go to the website http://www.wam.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html, and carefully examine

the transition of the various alphabetic systems as graphically represented by robert Fradkin. are there any in which the “leap” from one symbol to the next does not seem likely? What kinds of things might account for the changes?

Answers will vary, but instructors may want to emphasize that we do not have many written examples from these early writing systems.

B. Consider the variation in handwriting systems. the way we are taught to form letters in school blends into a unique system by the time we are adults; many people develop a blend of print- ing and cursive, taking features of each into their own unique style. Consider letters like a/a and make a list of other variations that you notice. think about your own handwriting and the ways in which it varies from the handwriting of other people you know. Write a paragraph summariz- ing the issues raised here, focusing on the variations from a standard that are allowed in hand- writing and why you think we generally allow them.

Answers will vary.

13.3 Old English Pronunciation Leaves Spelling Remnants Our spelling conventions offer us a glimpse into the phonological history of the language. Notice the inconsistencies we have with the pluralization of words that end in /f/:

wolf: wolves, dwarf: dwarfs/dwarves, scarf: scarves, roof: roofs, leaf: leaves, waif: waifs, wharf: wharfs/wharves

Fe ng

Y u/

S hu

tt er

st oc

La st

R es

or t/

G et

ty Im

ag es

S to

ck sn

ap p

/ D

re am

st im

e LL

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Some words that end in /f/ form their plural in the “regular” way. In Chapter 4, we saw that our regular rule of pluralization is that if a word ends in a voiceless consonant, add /s/; so, roof /ruf/ → /rufs/. Why, then, do we have forms like wolves and scarves instead of wolfs and scarfs? Because in Old English, the vowel before the final s was pronounced, and a phonological rule of Old English was that when a fricative came between voiced sounds, it, too, became voiced: the plural of wulf ‘wolf’ was [wulvas] phonetically, though it would be spelled wulfas. Old English had no voiced fricatives as phonemes, so [f, θ, s] did not have [v, ð, z] as voiced counterparts phonemically, though they did occur as allophones quite early in Old English. Later on in the Middle English period, after influence from French, we began to use the letter v. So our current state of pluralization of words that end in /f/ illustrates the conflict between our natural phonological rule of pluralization and the influence of spelling on pronunciation. Determine the plural of each of the following words, and then look them up in a dictionary. Determine whether any of the plurals differ for British speakers and american English speakers. also, determine which of them have two accepted, standard spellings:

belief, leaf, roof, scarf, cuff, wolf, loaf, dwarf, brief, cliff, reef, hoof, proof, chief, knife, half, calf, life, thief, wharf, chef, plaintiff, wife, shelf, handkerchief, giraffe, sheriff, whiff

Answers. There could also be other variations not indicated here.

belief beliefs

leaf leaves (but Leafs in the Toronto Maple Leafs)

roof roofs (but can be pronounced as /ruvz/)

scarf scarves or scarfs

cuff cuffs

wolf wolves, occasionally appears in edited text as wolfs

loaf loaves

dwarf dwarfs, dwarves

brief briefs

cliff cliffs

reef reefs

hoof hoofs, hooves

proof proofs

chief chiefs

knife knives

half halves

calf calves, calfs

life lives

thief thieves, occasionally appears in edited text as thiefs

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wharf wharfs, wharves

chef chefs

plaintiff plaintiffs

wife wives

shelf shelves

handkerchief handkerchiefs, handkerchieves

giraffes giraffes

sheriff sheriffs

whiff whiffs

13.4 Spelling Flukes Mishearing and, therefore, misspelling happens more frequently with idiomatic phrases like these:

laughing stock as laughing stalk

nick picky for nit picky

I would just assume for I would just as soon

all intensive purposes for all intents and purposes

segue as sedge way

Why do you think the mishearings and consequent misspellings happen? Find examples of some other typical mishearings that lead to misspellings.

Answers will vary, but a few other examples are nip it in the butt for nip it in the bud, slow gin for sloe gin, I’m taking a nice cold shower as I’m taking an ice cold shower, apple core tuna (whatever that might be!) for albacore tuna, per say for per se.

Here are two historical misanalyses; that is, the words nickname and apron used to be ekename (with separate vowel changes) and napron:

an ekename a napron

Look up these words in the Oxford English Dictionary, and summarize their etymologies.

Answer: ekename came from Old English eaca ‘additional’ and nama ‘name’, so an ekename was misananlyzed as a nekename.

The opposite misanalysis occurred with apron; borrowed from Old French naperon (cognate with napkin and the British nappy (for diaper)), a napron was then misanalyzed as an apron.

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also consider the contemporary phrase a whole nother, in which the word another can be separated. Do you think nother is likely to emerge as its own word? Why or why not?

Answers: Nother is not at this point very productive, so is not likely to emerge as a distinct free morpheme. Might whole be acting as an infix here?

13.5 Spelling Reform Write a letter to the Simplified Spelling Society in which you outline the pros and cons of spell- ing reform and make a recommendation to them for a modest reform or a complete overhaul of the English spelling system.

Answers will vary.

13.6 Spelling Reform in Other Languages Conduct some research on the spelling reform movements for other languages that have enjoyed somewhat more success than those for English, including German, Japanese, Irish Gaelic, Norwegian, russian, Spanish, or Portuguese. In what ways was the reform successful? In what ways did it fail? Were there features of the language and spelling system that made it easier to reform compared to English? What sort of support (governmental, educational, etc.) seems to be required in order for reforms to succeed?

Answers will vary.

13.7 Punctuation Fluctuation Some punctuation conventions have more than one accepted standard. Use several online or printed usage guides to see their recommendations for the following:

• commas with items in a series

• punctuation with quotations

• possessive apostrophes with words, especially names, already ending in <s>: Jones’ house, Jones’s house, Joneses’ house

Summarize the recommendations and the reasoning behind each of the explanations.

Answers will vary.

13.8 Comma Rules Find rules about comma usage from a usage guide, and list them. Which of the rules can a conscious awareness of grammar help you with, and which are simply conventions of writing that must be learned? are all of the rules useful? If so, what purpose(s) do they serve?

Answers will vary.

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13.9 The Teaching of Standard English though most would agree that there do need to be standards for written English, there is no agree- ment about whether to teach a spoken standard and, if so, how to go about doing so. to discover where your feelings lie, consider the following questions regarding Standard Written versus Standard Spoken (and their roles in education):

• What is the role of the teacher or school in the teaching of Standard Written English? What are the goals?

• What is the role of the teacher or school in the teaching of some Standard Spoken English? What sorts of differences exist between the spoken and written standards?

• Is simply modeling an effective way to teach a spoken standard? • Is talking about dialect, register, style, formality, appropriateness, and so forth directly a way

to approach teaching (about) a spoken standard? • In your own experience, what features of a standard spoken dialect were you explicitly

taught? If you weren’t taught them, how did you acquire them? How might that differ across dialect groups or speech communities?

• What’s the difference between shifting register and shifting dialects?

Answers will vary.

13.10 Survey of Writing Errors Conduct a writing error survey by interviewing teachers and asking them to list their top five writ- ing errors. also ask teachers how they grade errors of writing on written work. Do they consider these grammatical errors? and more generally, what does the term grammar mean to them? You will likely find that teachers don’t all agree on what is considered an error. Why? How is error defined, then? Some good resources on perceptions of writing error include Beason 2001, Hairston 1981, and http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/.

Answers will vary.

13.11 The Oxford English Dictionary Conduct some research on the Oxford English Dictionary. Explore the website http://www.oed .com/. What do “new word” editors do? What are some current additions to the dictionary? read entries for some words, count the number of quotations, and list the dates that they appear. What kinds of texts are the quotations from? the website is full of interesting information and even includes short videos on different topics. Write a one-page description of what you find.

Answers will vary.

13.12 Conversation Transcription A. record 2 to 5 minutes of casual conversation. (You must have permission to do so from the

people you record. However, try to make the recording as unobtrusive as possible—you don’t want their speech to be stilted or formal as a result of the recording. tell them you’re recording them, but then try to get them to forget about it.) Now, transcribe the recording, taking down

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everything that was said, including “ums” and “ahs,” false starts, and so on. (You can leave out names or substitute fake ones if you’d like.) then answer the following questions:

• Did you include any pseudophonetic spellings: -in’, dunno, and so on? • If so, which words did you do it with, and why? Do you know what guided your decisions to

select those words? • How did you indicate interruptions and utterances that trailed off? • Did you edit out anything besides names? Why? • are all the transcriptions of very casual conversations? are any somewhat formal? • What factors seem to affect the number of interruptions, unfinished utterances, the use of

slang?

Answers will vary.

B. assume you’re a newspaper reporter who is selecting quotations from the conversation for an article you’re writing. Which would you select, and how, if at all, would you alter them? Would you put them in quotation marks?

Answers will vary.

13.13 Electronic English Conduct some research and write a brief essay on the potential effects of IMing, text messaging, and other e-mail and chat room communication. Consider questions such as these, among others: Is there potential for some of these conventions to come into other genres of more formal writing? If so, would that be detrimental to the written standard? How might teachers deal with such questions?

Answers will vary.

13.14 Dialect in Literature In the following selections from adriana trigiani’s Big Stone Gap, the author uses various tech- niques in her representation of language to convey something about the various characters. Some of the names of her characters are listed, followed by a brief description of the character. the under- lined words and phrases are typical of a Southern dialect, while the bolded examples convey the informality of speech but aren’t unique to a specific dialect. Consider also how the age, socioeco- nomic status, and education level are reflected here in the representation of language.

Fleeta Mullins—works at the counter in the pharmacy, lived in the Gap all her life:

“Hi-dee, ave Maria,” she barks . . .”I need to declare me some sort of moratorium on these damn fund-raising jars,” Fleeta complains. “I can’t hardly ring up a sale without flippin’ one over.….You’re too much of a soft touch. Let me handle them kids that come in here. If it wasn’t for me, people’d run all over you all day long. I’ll tell them damn kids to take their jars to the Piggly Wiggly. We ain’t got the room; they do . . .” (p. 16)

Teena Lee—a second-grader:

“Miss Mulligan, my mamaw said you’d put my jar on the counter ‘cause we trade here . . .” (p. 16)

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Iva Lou Wade—librarian, driver of the bookmobile, in her 40s:

“Y’all scoot. and here’s my number when you get the information… well, honey-o, some- body’s got to put a fire under your butt.” (pp. 98–99)

Ave Maria Mulligan—35-year-old pharmacist, college-educated:

“Good. right. See there? Iva Lou gets what I’m talking about. Sooner or later everybody has to ask the big questions of themselves. Some of us ignore the truth, and some of us gut the interior of our lives and attempt to reinvent it. I am doing the latter.” (p. 182)

Find a text that uses respellings of different types as well as other indications of dialect, and do an analysis similar to the one here, in which you indicate features of dialect, informal features, and any others you notice that the author may be using to indicate age, socioeconomic status, or education level of the characters via their speech.

Answers will vary.

13.15 Spelling Pronunciations remember that a spelling pronunciation is a pronunciation that reflects a word’s current spell- ing, which differs from the way it was pronounced in previous generations. the following words have undergone some kind of pronunciation change based on their spelling for many speakers of american English. research the etymologies and pronunciations of the following words, and describe how they exhibit spelling pronunciations.

forehead, victuals, figure, ye, wainscoting, tsk tsk

Answers:

forehead – /farɪd/, with stress on the first syllable is the older pronunciation, but now /forhɛd/, is also common.

victual – /vɪtḷ/, now sometimes spelled vittle(s); as it is not very common now in most dialects, many people only see it in print and thus pronounce it following more conventional spelling patterns: /vikčuəl/.

figure – /figyər/ is a common pronunciation, but older American and contemporary British still pronounce as /fɪgṛ/.

ye – This article is now pronounced as if spelled with a “y,” though the original thorn letter represented a /ð/, as in the.

wainscoting – /wenskotɪŋ/, /wenskatɪŋ/, /wenscətɪŋ/

tsk tsk – A spelling that is intended to represent a scolding noise, an alveolar click, but now more pronounced as /tɪsk tɪsk/.

Some other words that have spelling pronunciations that students can research: clothes, salmon, falcon, comptroller, tortilla, waistcoat, conduit, medicine; names, including place names: Bartholomew, Anthony, St. Louis.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 14

14.1 Language Origins Research the language origin stories of a culture other than your own. What do the stories about where language comes from tell us about the culture itself and about language? Some to consider are the myths of Bantu, Hindu, Ancient Greek, or Aztec cultures.

Answers will vary.

14.2 Cape York Creole Pronouns Consider the following data illustrating some aspects of the pronominal system of Cape York Creole, an English-based creole spoken in Australia. Using these data to illustrate your point, present an argument to someone who claims that this creole is just bad English.

dual and plural, 2nd and 3rd persons

dual, 2nd person yutu (pela)

dual, 3rd person tupela

plural, 2nd person yu (pela)

plural, 3rd person ol, dempela

dual and plural pronouns, 1st person

dual, inclusive yumi, yumtu (speaker plus one addressee)

dual, exclusive mitu (speaker plus one other, not the addressee)

plural, inclusive mipela, wi (speaker plus addressee)

plural, exclusive mitupela, wi (speaker plus others, not addressee)

a. If A says to B, “Yumi go nau,” A is saying that the two of them will go but not C. b. If A says to B, “Mitu go nau,” A is saying that A and C will go but not B. c. If A says to B and C, “Mipela go nau,” A is saying that all three of them will go.

Answers will vary.

14.3 Creole Transitivity Markers Many unrelated creoles have a grammatical marker for transitivity (marked TRN below); that is, if a verb is transitive, the transitive morpheme must be attached. Consider the transitivity markers in the following languages.

Solomons Pidgin

luk ‘look’

lukim ‘see something’

hamar ‘pound, hammer’

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hamarim ‘pound, hammer something’

sut ‘shoot’

sutim ‘shoot something’

Mi no luk-im pikipiki bulong iu

I no see (TRN) pigs belong you

‘I didn’t see your pigs.’

And the same sentence is ungrammatical if the transitivity marker is not attached:

*Mi no luk pikipiki bulong iu.

Kwaio (an Oceanic creole language)

aga ‘look’

agasi ‘see something’

gumu ‘pound, hammer’

gumuri ‘pound, hammer something’

fana ‘shoot’

fanasi ‘shoot something’

Conduct some research to find another creole language that uses a transitivity marker. Illustrate with examples. Then, using these data, construct an argument for someone who claims that creoles are simplified and/or illogical versions of a more standardized language. (Data from Keesing, 1988: 119)

Answers will vary, but some languages that mark transitivity include Kriol, Sranaan, and Torres Strait Creole.

14.4 Latin Lives On Look up the following Latin words and phrases, and determine original Latin meanings of at least six. Have the meanings changed, or do they hold their original meanings in Present-Day English?

ad infinitum, alter ego, alumni, A.D. (anno Domini), bona fide, circa, de facto, e.g. (exempli gratia), ergo, extant, facsimile, in vitro, inter alia, m.o. (modus operandi), nota bene (n.b.), per capita, per se, post mortem, pro bono, pro forma, quorum, re, sic, status quo, subpoena, tabula rasa, terra firma, veto, vice versa

All contemporary definitions from Merriam-Webster Online.

ad infinitum – Latin ‘to infinity’ contemporary meaning: without end or limit

alter ego – Latin ‘second I’ contemporary: the second side of a personality

alumni – Latin ‘foster son, pupil’ contemporary: a person who has attended or has graduated from a particular school, college, or university

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A.D. (anno Domini) – Latin ‘in the year of our Lord’ contemporary: a designation used to number years in the Gregorian and Julian calendars

bona fide – Latin ‘in good faith’ contemporary: genuine

circa – Latin ‘around’ contemporary: approximately, used especially with dates

de facto – Latin ‘from the fact’ contemporary: in reality, actually

e.g. (exempli gratia) – for example contemporary: for example

ergo – Latin ‘from the direction of’ contemporary: therefore, hence

extant – Latin ‘to stand out, be in existence’ contemporary: currently or actually existing

facsimile – Latin ‘make similar’ contemporary: an exact copy

in vitro – New Latin ‘in glass’ contemporary: outside the living body and in an artificial environment

inter alia – Latin ‘among other things’ contemporary: among other things

m.o. (modus operandi) – Latin ‘mode of operation’ contemporary: a criminal’s characteristic patterns and style of committing crimes, thus, a method of operation that suggests the work of a single criminal in more than one crime. Now used to mean someone’s habits or manner of working.

nota bene (n.b.) – Latin ‘mark well’ contemporary: used to call attention to something important

per capita – Latin ‘by heads’ contemporary: per unit of population, by or for each person

per se – Latin ‘by itself’ contemporary: by itself, intrinsically

post mortem – Latin ‘after death’ contemporary: after death, can also mean ‘following the event’

pro bono – Latin ‘for the good’ contemporary: doing professional and especially legal work donated especially for the public good

pro forma – Latin ‘for form’ contemporary: made or carried out in a perfunctory manner or as a formality

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quorum – Latin ‘of whom’; quorom of justices of the peace, from the genitive plural of qui ‘who’; comes from the wording of the commission formerly issued to justices of the peace contemporary: the number of officers or members of a body that when assembled is legally competent to transact business

re – Latin ‘back, again, against’ contemporary: again: anew; back: backward

sic – Latin ‘so, thus’ contemporary: intentionally so written; used after a printed word or passage to indicate that it is intended exactly as printed or to indicate that it exactly reproduces an original <said he seed [sic] it all>

status quo – Latin ‘state in which’ contemporary: existing state of affairs

subpoena – Latin ‘under penalty’ contemporary: ‘a writ commanding a person designated in it to appear in court under a penalty for failure’

tabula rasa – Latin ‘erased tablet’ contemporary: the mind in its hypothetical primary blank or empty state before receiving outside impressions

terra firma – Latin ‘solid land’ contemporary: dry land, solid ground

veto – Latin ‘I forbid’ contemporary: an authoritative prohibition

vice versa – Latin ‘to reverse position’ contemporary: with the order reversed

14.5 Language Death Using Ethnologue (http://www.ethnologue.org) and other sources, conduct some research to dis- cover at least five languages that have fewer than one hundred speakers and therefore may soon be extinct. Determine which language has replaced the endangered language. What factors led to that replacement? Summarize your findings.

Answers will vary, but a few examples include Lushootseed, Ket, Cornish, Khoisan, Yurok.

14.6 English-Only Laws Many websites are devoted to the pros and cons of the English Only/Official English movement (some are listed here). Research the pros and cons of the English Only movement. What are the central arguments for each position? Which arguments are supported by statistics and research, and which are based on social attitudes about language and national identity? Where do you stand on this issue and why?

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U.S. English: http://www.us-english.org

James Crawford’s website: http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jWCRAWFORD/ engonly.htm

English First: http://www.englishfirst.org/

English Plus: http://www.massenglishplus.org/mep/engplus.html

Pro-English: http://www.proenglish.org/notenglishonly.html

Center for Applied Linguistics: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/lewell01.html

Linguistic Society of America Resolution, drafted by Geoff Nunberg:

http://www.lsadc.org/info/lsa-res-english.cfm

Answers will vary. One important point to emphasize is that even if one believes that having a common language is important, establishing a law does nothing to make people learn a language better or faster.

14.7 English as a Second Language Using Ethnologue (http://www.ethnologue.org) and other sources, conduct some research to dis- cover at least five countries in which English is an official language but is not a native language of most speakers. Determine, if you can, what factors have led to the prominence of English in these countries.

Answers will vary, but instructors may want to offer students a list of places to get started. Examples include the following: Phillippines, India, Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Pakistan, Madagascar, Singapore, Botswana.

Students may want to discuss the different ways that “official” and “national” languages might be defined, in what ways English is used (school, government, business, etc.), whether the number of speakers is increasing or decreasing.

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