dr sidney article is on page 17-29

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National Organization for Human Services

Journal of Human Services

A Journal of the

National Organization for Human Services

Volume 34, Number 1 ● Fall 2014

ISSN 0890-5428

National Organization for Human Services

Journal of Human Services

A Journal of the

National Organization for Human Services

Volume 34, Number 1 ● Fall 2014

ISSN 0890-5428

Journal of H um

an S ervices • Volum

e 36, N um

ber 1 ● Fall 2016

How do you measure student success?

� e HS-BCP exam provides us with data on student performance in distinct areas of our curriculum. We use the results for our annual evaluative data to determine if we are

meeting our outcome objectives. “

–Susan Kinsella, Ph.D., MSW, HS-BCP Dean, School of Education and Social

Services Saint Leo University

The Human Services-Board Certifi ed Practitioner Examination (HS-BCPE) independently verifi es a student’s human services knowledge. It was created through the collaboration of human services subject matter experts and normed on a population of professionals in the fi eld. The HS-BCPE covers the following areas:

Access objective results on your student’s knowledge of human services principles and measure the strength of your

human services program. Learn more:

http://www.cce-global.org

™

How do you measure student success?

1. Assessment, treatment planning and outcome evaluation

2. Theoretical orientation/interventions 3. Case management, professional

practice and ethics 4. Administration, program development/

evaluation and supervision

National Organization for Human Services

Journal of Human Services

A Journal of the National Organization

for Human Services Volume 36, Number 1 ● Fall 2016

ISSN 0890-5428

63263_NOHS_covers_nk.indd 1 9/20/2016 7:30:25 AM

COVER 2 COVER 3

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Bachelor of Science

Human Services Leadership Online Accelerated courses and dedicated advisors—learn more!

online.uwosh.edu/hslo

Master of Science

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Earn your bachelor’s or master’s degree ONLINE from UW Oshkosh.

63263_NOHS_covers_nk.indd 2 9/20/2016 7:30:25 AM

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

1

National Organization for Human Services

The National Organization for Human Services (NOHS) was founded in 1975 as an

outgrowth of a perceived need by professional care providers and legislators for

improved methods of human service delivery. With the support of the National

Institute of Mental Health and the Southern Regional Education Board, NOHS focused

its energies on developing and strengthening human service education programs at the

associate, bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels.

The current mission of NOHS is to strengthen the community of human services by: (a)

expanding professional development opportunities, (b) promoting professional and

organizational identity through certification, (c) enhancing internal and external

communications, (d) advocating and implementing a social policy and agenda, and

(e) nurturing the financial sustainability and growth of the organization.

Members of NOHS are drawn from diverse educational and professional backgrounds

that include corrections, mental health, childcare agencies, social services, human

resource management, gerontology, developmental disabilities, addictions, recreation,

education, and more. Membership is open to human service educators, students,

fieldwork supervisors, direct care professionals, and administrators. Benefits of

membership include subscriptions to the Journal of Human Services and to the Link

(the quarterly newsletter), access to exclusive online resources, and the availability of

professional development workshops, professional development and research grants,

and an annual conference.

Six regional organizations are affiliated with NOHS and provide additional benefits to

their members. They are the New England Organization for Human Service, Mid-

Atlantic Consortium for Human Services, Southern Organization for Human Services,

Midwest Organization for Human Services, Northwest Human Services Association,

and Western Region of Human Service Professionals.

NOHS is closely allied with the Council for Standards in Human Service Education

(CSHSE). CSHSE, founded in 1979, has developed a highly respected set of standards

for professional human service education programs and also provides technical

assistance to programs seeking Council accreditation.

Membership information can be found on the NOHS website by clicking “Join Now”

at: www.nationalhumanservices.org. Correspondence about membership can be

found at http://www.nationalhumanservices.org/membership .

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

2

2016 Editorial Board

National Organization for Human Services

Lead Editors Ed Neukrug and Tammi Dice

Old Dominion University, Department of Counseling and Human Services

Assistant Editor Mike Kalkbrenner

Old Dominion University, Department of Counseling and Human Services

Copy Editors Kristy L. Carlisle 1, Hannah Neukrug 2, and Ashley L. Pittman1,

1Old Dominion University , Department of Counseling and Human Services 2University of Virginia, Department of Global Development Studies

Reviewers

Rebecca Cowan

Cappella University

Harold Abel School of Social and

Behavioral Sciences

Greg Hickman

Walden University

School of Human Services

Laurie Craigen

Boston University School of Medicine

Mental Health Counseling and

Behavioral Medicine Program

Kathleen Levingston

Walden University

Clinical Mental Health Counseling

Sherrilyn Bernier

Goodwin College

Department of Social and

Educational Sciences

Shawn Ricks

Old Dominion University

Department of Counseling

and Human Services

Donald Froyd, Jr.

University of Phoenix,

Central Valley Campus

College of Social Sciences

Mia Swan

Old Dominion University

Department of Counseling and

Human Services

Sandra Haynes

Metropolitan State College

of Denver

College of Professional Studies

Margaret Sabia

Walden University

School of Human Services

Chaniece Winfield

Old Dominion University

Department of Counseling and

Human Services

Frederick Sweitzer

University of Hartford

Interim Provost

Cheree Hammond

Eastern Mennonite University

Master of Arts in Counseling Program

Mark Rehfuss

Old Dominion University

Department of Counseling and

Human Services

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

3

Table of Contents

Research Articles

 Human Services Students’ Perspectives on Death Education: Listening to Their Lived Experiences  Irene S. McClatchey, Steve King pp. 5-16

 Control Cognitions and Sexual Risk Behaviors in African American Males  Rod Harley pp. 17-29

Conceptual Articles

 The Ethical Standards for Human Services Professionals: Revision 2015  Linda Wark pp. 31-36

 The Affordable Care Act and Addiction Treatment: Preparing the Undergraduate Human Service Professional

 Chaniece Winfield, Rebekah Cole, Laurie Craigen pp. 37-45

 Introducing Mindfulness and Contemplative Pedagogy as an Approach to Building Helping Skills in Human Service Students

 Breanna Banks, Tony Burch, Marianne Woodside pp. 47-60

Brief Reports

 Connecting Human Services Students with Professional Experiences  Rebecca Bonanno, Tracy Galuski, Thalia MacMillan pp. 61-65

 Applying John Dewey’s Theory of Education to Infuse Experiential Learning in an Introduction to Human Services Course

 Michael T. Kalkbrenner, Radha J. Horton-Parker pp. 65-68

 Inclusion of “Human Service Professional” in the Standard Occupational Classification System  Narketta Sparkman-Key, Edward Neukrug pp. 69-72

 Creating an Interdisciplinary Human Services Program  Nicole Kras pp. 73-74

 Gaining Understand of Human Services Professionals: Survey of NOHS Membership  Narketta Sparkman-Key, Alyssa Reiter pp. 75-79

Book Reviews

 Review of College for Convicts: The Case for Higher Education in American Prisons  Shoshana D. Kerewsky, Deanna Chappell Belcher pp. 81-82

 Book Review: Herman, J. (2015). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence— from domestic abuse to political terror.

 Justin Spiehs, Kayla Waters pp. 83-84

Guidelines for Authors pp. 85-86

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

4

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

5

Human Services Students’ Perspectives on

Death Education: Listening to Their Lived Experiences

Irene S. McClatchey, Steve King

Abstract

Death education for healthcare professionals is rare in spite of the fact that many of them will

work with dying and bereaved populations. Researchers have identified the benefits of death

education for various helping professionals, but no studies were found describing human services

students’ lived experience of participating in death education. Using an inductive constant

comparative method, the results from interviews of 14 human services students revealed themes

that described the participants’ perceived meanings regarding death education. Study participants

reported feeling that death education was beneficial in preparing them personally and

professionally for working with dying and bereaved clients.

Introduction

Humans cannot avoid confronting death anxiety, the fear generated by death awareness

(Chengti & Chengti, 2012). This anxiety may be more acute for health care workers who come

into contact with others who are in the process of dying. Increasingly, helping and health care

professionals are faced with the challenge of working with people struggling through the death,

dying and bereavement (DD&B) process and the complex interplay of clinical content, personal

fears, anxieties, and the meaning of death. This work can provoke confusing, frightening, and

painful feelings within a helping professional (Braun, Gordon, & Uziely, 2010) and influence

how helping professionals, such as social workers, nurses, doctors, and human services workers

approach their work with DD&B clients. Death education may lower death anxiety among these

professionals (Barrere, Durkin, & LaCoursiere, 2008), which in turn may improve patient care

(Melo & Oliver, 2011). Unfortunately, death education to prepare those working with the

DD&B population is rare (Breen, Fernandez, O’Connor, & Pember, 2013) and few qualitative

studies that examine students’ experiences of participating in death education could be found in

the literature (Adesina, DeBellis, & Zannettino, 2014; Ek, et al., 2014; Harrawood, Doughty, &

Wilde, 2011; Mott, Gorawara-Bhat, Marschke, & Levine, 2014). None were found describing

the experiences of human services students participating in death education. Given such, further

research is warranted to examine the impact of death education on human services students in an effort

to address the lack of preparation among these students to work with the DD&B population. The

purpose of this study is to explore the perspectives and lived experiences of human services students

participating in death education and their perceived comfort level working with DD&B clients after

participation in DD&B education.

Literature Review

Death Education

Death education, the teaching of the practical and emotional aspects of death, dying, and

bereavement, is scarce among healthcare professionals (Breen et al., 2013). Healthcare

Irene S. McClatchey and Steve King, Department of Social Work and Human Services,

Kennesaw State University. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

6

professionals consistently report two common threads that run through their learning needs

regarding DD&B: concrete knowledge about the dying process and learning how to manage their

own personal reactions and attitudes regarding death (Harrawood at al., 2011). Despite the

recognition of the importance of a specialized skill set for working with the DD&B population,

Fonseca and Testoni (2011) reported. “…there is still a vast amount of work to be done in the

field” (p. 164). For example, according to Cacciatore, Thieleman, Killian, & Tavasolli (2015)

social work training programs lack exposure to the issues involved in caring for dying clients,

and social workers see themselves as completely unprepared to work with DD&B issues. Nurses

also feel unprepared to work with dying patients (Peterson, Johnson, Scherr, & Halvorsen,

2013). Medical residents share similar feelings of lack of preparedness towards end-of-life care

for patients (Billings, Randall, & Engelberg, 2009). Csikai and Durkin (2009) further noted that

along with the knowledge needed to practice effectively students need to undergo a reflective

process of critically evaluating their own personal attitudes about DD&B to be thoroughly

prepared to work with the dying client population.

A lack of preparation to work with the DD&B population may lead to feelings of helplessness

and guilt (Deffner & Bell, 2005). Wong, Reker, and Gesser (1994) found a significant relationship

between the death attitudes of nurses and their personal approach to clinical work with dying

patients. Similarly, Braun et al. (2010) discovered that positive attitudes about caring for dying

patients are significantly correlated with low levels of negative death attitudes among practicing

oncology nurses and directly influence the quality of services they provide to clients.

Furthermore, lowered death anxiety has been linked to improved patient care (Melo & Oliver,

2011).

Outcome Studies

Researchers have studied the impact of death education among medical, nursing, and

social work students using quantitative methods. For example, in a pre-test/post-test study,

Smith and Hough (2011) surveyed internal medicine students. Study results revealed that more

than 70% of the students felt enhanced comfort working with the DD&B population when death

rounds were used as part of their education. Similarly, in a pre-test/post-test study design,

Barrere et al. (2008) reported that nursing students participating in death education had lower

levels of death anxiety. Social work students participating in a decision case method in a

graduate course in death and dying reported that they felt better prepared to work with the dying

population (Head, 2008). These participants also stated that death education changed their own

personal feelings and attitudes about death and dying for the better.

Other researchers have examined the lived experience of students participating in death education.

Mott et al.’s study (2014) involved medical students who served as hospice volunteers. These students

shared their experiences in reflective essays. Participants learned about and felt increased ease around

hospice patients, expressed normalcy of dying at home, shared personal thoughts around death and dying,

and gave suggestions for improving end-of-life care education for medical students. Adesina et al. (2014)

and Ek et al. (2014) surveyed and interviewed nursing students and found that they need support and an

opportunity to reflect on their work with dying patients. Harrawood et al. (2011) discovered three

themes in a qualitative study of a course on death education for graduate level counselors-in-training:

an openness to examining death and death constructs; a greater understanding of beliefs regarding

death in general and one’s own death; and a reduction in negative emotional state.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

7

Studies on death education have mostly centered on medical and nursing students. The

study results show the need for and positive effects of death education on students and their

attitudes toward working with the DD&B population. Unfortunately, such education is rare

(Breen, et al., 2013). Human services professionals will undoubtedly work with the DD&B

population in hospitals, nursing homes, and hospices, but no studies were found exploring the

lived experience of human services students participating in a DD&B course. This clearly points

to the need to further examine how human services students receiving death education perceive

this experience and the development of their professional comfort level for working with DD&B

clients. The purpose of this study is to explore the perspectives and lived experiences of human

services students participating in DD&B education and their perceived comfort level caring for

DD&B clients after participation in DD&B education.

Method

Institutional Review Board approval for the study was obtained from the university,

and informed consent was obtained from all study participants. Pseudonyms were used during

all of the stages of data collection, transcriptions, analysis, and writing.

Description of the Death Education Course The Death, Dying, & Bereavement (DD&B) elective class lasted one semester and

students earned three credit hours. Using a textbook on DD&B as a basis for the curriculum,

classroom discussions centered around topics of death views over time in American society and

other cultures. Other discussion topics included euthanasia; the use of life-extending and death-

prolonging medical measures; end-of-life choices; suicide; mass violence, and disasters.

Theories on death, suicide, and bereavement were reviewed and discussed.

Guest speakers representing various religions were invited to share their respective

religions’ views on DD&B. Other speakers included an elder law attorney, a social worker and

nurse from a hospice, a social worker from a cancer clinic, and a county coroner, who spoke of

their work with the dying and bereaved populations. A visit to a local funeral home where the

students were exposed to all aspects of a funeral director’s job was also included. Movies on

dying with dignity, such as, The Suicide Tourist, were viewed and discussed by the students.

Students in the class were active participants by contributing to class discussions and

writing reflection papers on topics discussed. In addition, the students wrote their own

obituaries, funeral arrangements, and a final paper describing a personal loss and applying a self-

selected bereavement theory that best described their approach to their loss.

Design and Participants

To allow for multiple experiences and voices to give the study focus, and to allow for

triangulation, the researchers used a case study design (Creswell, 2013). A sample from two

classes bounded the case study design by time and place. To recruit participants for this

purposive sample the researchers asked students to volunteer to participate in the study during the

last DD&B class meeting of the semester at which time final grades had already been assigned.

Out of 57 students, 14 volunteered to participate. The sample consisted of 12 females and two

males ranging in age between 20 and 54. Twelve of the participants were White, one was Black,

and one was Biracial. The sample varied from students on financial aid to those who were able to

attend school without any financial assistance.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

8

Procedure/Data Collection

The Principal Investigator (PI), who is an Associate Professor of Human Services who

specializes in death education and grief issues among children, and the co-PI, who is an Assistant

Professor of Human Services with a special interest in undergraduate Human Services pedagogy,

developed the interview questions. The questions were drawn from an extensive review of the

DD&B education literature and the extensive teaching experience of the DD&B class instructor.

Questions posed included: “Describe your experience taking this class.” “How, if at all, has

taking the class changed your own personal feelings and attitudes about DD&B?” “How, if at all,

has taking the class affected your feelings and attitudes about working with the DD&B

population?”

The semi-structured interviews were held in the researchers’ offices and lasted

approximately 45 minutes. The constant comparison method as described by Glaser and

Strauss (1967) was used as a basis for the data collection. The researchers discussed apparent

themes after interviews and occasionally probed further on subjects that had emerged when

interviewing subsequent students. Saturation of data (Polit & Beck, 2006) was achieved after ten

interviews, however, all 14 interviews were completed. The interviews were audio-recorded by

one of the researchers and transcribed by a Graduate Research Assistant.

Analysis

The answers to the interview questions were analyzed looking for themes. The research

team used inductive analysis to uncover possible themes trying to “build a systematic account of

what has been observed and recorded” (Ezzy, 2002, p. 86). Once all the interviews had been

recorded and transcribed into Word documents, the two researchers used Microsoft Word 2013

“track changes” making comments in the margins separately to parcel the interview contents into

units of discrete ideas. These discrete ideas served as the main unit of analysis and from these

discrete units the researchers developed broad categories. Within the broad categories, responses

were organized into subcategories. As the researchers compared these units of data within and

between categories, the categories were continuously modified and refined to look for patterns.

Thus, themes and categories were extracted from the data. Subsequently, a coding schema was

developed. Triangulation was performed using interviews, two researchers and through both

inductive and deductive analysis, adding to the credibility of the analysis (Patton, 2015).

Findings The saturation of qualitative data revealed three themes within the students’ shared

experiences during the course. The themes, and the categories of each theme are presented here.

The identified themes were Insights, Tolerance/Acceptance, and Personal Meaning. Categories

within each theme are described within their themes below.

Insights The students felt that they gained insights from attending and participating in the DD&B

class. Students felt that they gained knowledge in several areas. These areas, or categories, were

Theories/Processes, Religion, and DD&B Professions and Services.

Theories/Processes. Most students felt that they learned about DD&B theories and

processes. Tom, a male in his forties, came back to school to get his bachelor’s degree in human

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

9

services after years of working in business. He appeared surprised that he gained insight. Tom

stated:

At first it seemed like I knew everything, I thought I did, OK…I am going to

breeze through, but during the course of the class of the material, I learned quite

something different that I didn’t know about. The bereavement process when it

comes to losing a loved one or anybody for that matter…it was enlightening…

Some students, by gaining insight into the bereavement process, also experienced insight into

their own internal processes. Ella, a young mother of four, who lost her mother two years prior to

class, and who was still reeling from her loss, commented, “Now I know there is a lot more to it

[bereavement process]. I did not really know about uncomplicated grief versus complicated grief.

Now I realize that I am going through complicated grief. My knowledge has expanded a lot.”

Religion. Almost all students were impressed by their new insights into various religions’

views on death, dying, and the afterlife. Cayti, a single female in her early twenties, was brought

up sheltered in the countryside and was impressed by the various religions: “I learned so many

things…listening to people from different religions. I am a southern Baptist from down the road.

I had no idea. It’s just a different point of view and that was the best part to me.” Selena, a single

woman in her mid-twenties, commented on how she gained knowledge about the Islamic religion

that lifted her spirits:

I found the Imam’s lecture to be informative, relatable to my own faith, and

endearing…One of my favorite things that he told us was how Muslims believe that the

sick are closer to God, and so, everyone comes to visit them and asks them to pray for

them. I have to say that made me smile wide.

Death, dying, & bereavement professions and services. Another area in which half of the

students felt their knowledge and insights grew was DD&B Services. Cayti commented:

I think after going to the funeral home, I understand better what happens to the

body after death…beforehand the funeral home was really scary to me

but…everybody gets there at some point…I don’t know, I guess I just look at it

more scientifically now.

Another student was impressed by what he learned about hospice services. Sam, a preacher’s

son in his early twenties, expressed what he saw as his greatest insight from class:

The hospice was a big one for me, because I’ve heard about hospice, [but] I’ve

only heard negative things from people who, I think, were upset at the time, and

then when I got to the class, the other side from someone who is actually a part of

it, it was actually interesting to me, and …I’m actually thinking about doing my

internship at hospice.

Tolerance/Acceptance Several students said they felt more tolerance and acceptance of working with the DD&B

population and in their personal lives. In addition, they felt a newfound tolerance of the act of

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

10

suicide and religions. This theme of tolerance and acceptance thus had three categories:

Professional and Personal Ease, Suicide, and Religions.

Professional and personal ease. More than half of the students felt the class helped them

feel more comfortable around people who were dying or who had just lost somebody to death.

Meagan, in her early twenties, served as a youth minister at her church, which had just lost a

young member. She described how her attitude towards death and dying has changed because of

the class in a professional context:

I guess I’ve been somewhat desensitized to it. I hear D&D and I don’t cringe and

want to hide in the corner. And I know that will help me with my profession. Once

I’ve become a professional I won’t be scared of… I’m not so afraid of people

dying…I guess I could handle being around someone who was dying more now

than I could prior to the class.

Lola is a single mother in her twenties who is currently working as a home-health aide in a nursing

home to help meet her financial obligations while going to school. She commented:

I feel more comfortable about it [DD&B]. I feel like I’m more equipped with those

terms to know what they mean and to differentiate between those and I feel like I

can help more people now. Like, I don’t feel like it’s something I run away from

in the medical setting, now that I know more about the subject.

Students also found increased ease in their personal lives. Melanie, a married mother in

her early forties, has a long history working as the administrator of an assisted living facility.

Yet, she, along with the majority of the interviewed students, felt her personal life benefitted

from the course:

I think we respond to things that we think people want to hear. It [the course]

made me a lot more conscious of that and also just listening. I just went to a friend

of mine who lost her grandmother, and, ironically I just came off this course. I

really made a point just to listen and not say to her, “Oh I understand [how you

feel],” or “You should do this or that or the other.” It [course] helped me even on

that personal level.

Cayti commented on how the course gave her personal ease around those who mourn:

My grandmother has been living with us for months. First, it was very

uncomfortable. I was very uncomfortable with her grief as bad as that sounds. If

she got upset, it made me…uncomfortable. But now it’s a little bit easier for me

to understand, this is how she feels, this is normal how she feels…I’ll sit there

and listen…I think that was one of the lessons I took away: to listen to people.

Suicide. Most students expressed their increased understanding and tolerance of

individuals who die by suicide. At the onset of the course, some students viewed the act of dying

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

11

by suicide as a way to simply avoid dealing with life. Kelly, a female student in her mid-twenties,

felt that she learned the most about suicide:

I definitely learned a lot, I would say especially on suicide and things like that

where I didn’t have a lot of knowledge and you just kind of assume that people

that do that, kill themselves, you know, are taking the easy way out or whatever. I

came to look at it in a different way because of the class.

Sam lost one of his best friends to suicide while in high school and had previously viewed

suicide as a selfish act:

It [class] changed my thought process to kind of understand not why he did it,

the reason. I can understand where he was more, there’s no way out of the

situation so he took his own life. I can understand it being a struggle more

than I did before. Because I guess before it was “why would you do this to

your family and to your friend?” I felt that it was like selfish. That [class]

helped me realize a little better.

Religion. Religion constituted as a category of tolerance in addition to insights as noted

above. Selena, and most of the students, felt that they now have a newfound acceptance of

various religions:

And just to listen to them [religious panel] talk, for me to find that

common thread between them, between all of them, it kind a made me feel

better…like, everybody else out there is trying to divide and conquer.

I just found the common thread…we are the same.

Melanie commented on how excited she was to find similarities between different

religions: “Having that panel…the core of all those religions is ultimately the same. I remember

discussing that with my friends and family. It was really powerful, Muslim, Jew, Christian, and

Buddhist sitting shoulder to shoulder, yes, it was powerful.”

Personal Meaning All of the interviewed students mentioned that the class had some kind of personal

meaning for them. Under this theme three categories were identified: Affirmation of life,

Normalization, and Healing.

Affirmation of life. Almost all of the interviewed students commented on their new

affirmation of life brought about by the class. Lola expressed how the course taught her what

she wants: “It taught me that life can change so fast and drastically and I don’t want that to be

the last thought like, ‘Why didn’t I do more or see more?’” Jessica, an unmarried woman in

her late twenties whose mother abandoned her when she was six years old, took away from the

obituary assignment what she needed to do to fully appreciate life:

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

12

If I get to an older age and I do a life review, have I done everything I wanted to

do? Have I lived my life to the fullest? And that’s got me to create a bucket list…

it [course] has made me think about how I can make my life fulfilling.

Normalization. Another aspect of the course that resonated with almost all of the

students was the normalization of death and dying. Selena was apparently initially quite

apprehensive to take this course, but things changed. She said:

Initially, it was really weird. The first day you [professor] were very like chill

about death in general and me and the girl sitting next to me were both like, “Oh

my gosh. What is going to happen in this class?” She’s [professor] so comfortable

with it and we’re both so uncomfortable with it so initially it was kind of like a

culture shock from what we’re used to being all solemn about death to being like

“This is what we’re going to talk about the whole semester.” That definitely

changed. As the semester went on you become okay with it and you realize it’s

part of life and something you can talk about by the end of the semester, it was,

whatever…It [course] normalized it a lot for me.

Jessica agreed that class helped her talk about death and dying in a more comfortable way:

Previously I avoided the topic. I almost didn’t talk about it at all, and now,

because we talk about it twice a week, it’s easier to talk about it. I realize that

death is not a crisis, where before I always thought it was.

Healing. By far, the strongest category was the category of healing. Every student

commented on the fact that the class had been healing to them in one form or another. Melanie,

after suffering the loss of her father at the young age of six, subsequently went through an acting-

out phase. Learning in class about children and grief, she came to view her acting-out period

differently from before and was able to forgive her own behavior:

So I came out of it [course] with a very positive experience. It just validated that

everything was ok, and even though I went through the anger, a pretty extensive

phase as a child, that was ok. …I was told that God decided that it was time for

my father to go. Telling a six-year-old I became immediately very angry and hated

God. Which then began my down spiral and then the physical component of

acting out in anger. I feel that probably it [course] gave me that ability to know

that I wasn’t a bad kid. Because I went through this period of time when I felt that

I was this ill-behaved child who was angry, you know a problem or whatever, but

I wasn’t, I was grieving…It [course] brought some closure and validation…

In that same vein, Lola credited the class and the last assignment with helping her forgive herself

for not visiting her grandmother before her [grandmother’s] death because of being restricted as a

single mother trying to make her way through college. She stated, “…it [assignment] helped me

to work through a lot of guilt that I did have associated with that loss...it was healing.”

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

13

Discussion Human services professionals will undoubtedly work with DD&B clients as the aging

population increases, and they need preparation to do so in an attempt to lower their own death

anxiety (Barrere et al., 2008). However, death education is rare (Breen et al., 2013) and no

qualitative study exploring how human services students perceive death education could be found

in the literature. This fact and the concept that death attitudes may affect professionals’ work

with dying patients (Wong, et al., 1994) led to the current study. In this case study, 14 human

services students shared their perspectives on a DD&B class and their perceived comfort level

caring for the DD&B population after completing the class. The saturation of qualitative data

exposed the themes. These themes were Insights, Tolerance/Acceptance, and Personal Meaning.

Each theme also encompassed several categories.

Our findings of insight into theories and processes in regards to DD&B correspond with

previous findings (Harrawood et al., 2011). However, insights about religions and DD&B

professions and services were new findings. This can, in part, possibly be explained by the

inclusion of representatives from various religions who explained their respective religion’s

viewpoints on DD&B. Harrawood et al. (2011) included speakers from hospice and a funeral

home, as well as a visit to a funeral home; but increased insight among their students in regards to

DD&B professions and services was not identified as a theme. This may be due to previous

knowledge among the students or fewer students expressing interest in DD&B professions and

services.

The current findings of tolerance and acceptance in regards to professional and personal

ease are in line with previous findings by Head (2008). Tolerance and acceptance towards the act

of suicide was a new discovery. Students in the current study were exposed to a recent shift in

society’s growing understanding of the suicide narrative (Caruso, n.d.). This may have had an

impact on how the students conceptualized their own thoughts and feelings regarding suicide

Tolerance and acceptance of religions was also a new finding. Religions seem to polarize in many

negative ways, yet the students, after hearing about various religions other than their own, were

surprised by how similar different religions are in their basic tenets.

Under the theme of personal meaning, normalization corresponds with previous findings

among resident care aids that cope with end-of-life care by normalization (Funk, Waskiewich, &

Stajduhar, 2013). The current study’s theme of affirmation of life resembles Vachon and

colleagues’ (2012) findings that palliative care nurses working closely with the dying expressed

the importance of living an authentic life. Every student interviewed for this study mentioned

healing, not previously reported in the literature on death education. Students attributed this

realization to the final paper assignment where students were asked to write about a personal loss

and their own subsequent bereavement process. Coupled with insights from the class, many

students could see that their reactions were “normal”, and they could, therefore, let go of

lingering feelings of guilt.

Study Limitations The ascribed meanings related to DD&B revealed by participants in the current study may

be unique to this DD&B course. Wide variation in instruction methods, classroom assignments,

and curriculum parameters could affect the impact of DD&B education. Also, students who are

not preparing for a career in the helping professions may experience DD&B education in very

different ways than were revealed here. Students who are unfamiliar and/or uncomfortable with

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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an intensely self-reflective learning process may have different reactions to DD&B education as

taught in this specific course. The majority of the participants in this study were White females. A

more culturally diverse pool of study participants could also have revealed unique and important

themes not discovered in this study. As students self-selected to participate in this study, those

students who did not feel the class was useful or informative may not have wished to share these

feelings with the researchers. The nature of the instructor-student relationship could also have

influenced how participants responded to the interview questions.

Implications for Further Research and Practice As the aging population grows, the need for well-trained and self-aware human services

professionals will increase as well. Therefore, further study of students’ learning experiences and

the ascribed meanings they construct for themselves as a result of DD&B education is warranted

in order to assess and improve death education and client services (Melo & Oliver, 2011). A

number of important possible research questions emerged from this study that would further the

empirical study of DD&B education outcomes, such as: 1) Do students across helping

professions report similar attitudes and experiences after DD&B education? 2) How do different

pedagogical approaches to DD&B education meet the educational needs of helping professionals

across disciplines? 3) What elements of DD&B education best prepare practitioners personally

and professionally for working with the DD&B population?

DD&B education is provided on a limited basis (Breen et al., 2013) and is typically not

required or offered as an elective. The literature clearly documents the need for this type of

education in the helping professions, and students preparing for practice have repeatedly

expressed this need (Adesina et al., 2014; Ek et al., 2014). By participating in a death education

course as described in this study, human services professionals may gain knowledge about the

DD&B process, begin to learn how to manage their own personal reactions and attitudes towards

this process, and provide improved services to dying and bereaved clients as suggested in the

literature (Melo & Oliver, 2011). Such education may thus benefit human services students both

professionally and personally, as well as their future clients.

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Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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Control Cognitions and Sexual Risk

Behaviors in African American Males

Rod Harley

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between locus of control, condom use adherence, and the

maintenance of concurrent sexual relationships in African American males. The study yielded a

positive correlation between locus of control and condom use adherence and a negative

correlation between locus of control and the maintenance of concurrent sexual relationships. The

findings can be used to inform the design of STI and HIV prevention programs and provide

physicians, clinicians, and other human services professionals with innovative new tools to

address the high incidence and poor health outcomes related to STI and HIV within the

heterosexual, African-American, male, population.

Introduction The onset of HIV was initially identified and diagnosed primarily in the young, gay,

White male population; however, even in the early years after the disease was identified, there

was a disproportionate and distressing rise in incidence among African Americans (Bethel et al.,

2003). This disturbing trend has continued to elicit concern as the literature indicates

consistently higher rates of infection for African Americans, even after controlling for age,

gender and geographical region (Centers for Disease Control [CDC], 2012). In addition, African Americans have been identified as having the highest HIV prevalence, incidence, mortality, and

number of years of potential life lost when compared to other racial/ethnic groups in the U.S.

(CDC, 2012). Furthermore, African American males have been shown to be at increased risk of

HIV infection via all the major modes of transmission (CDC, 2012). In fact, CDC data indicated

that the AIDS diagnosis rate among African Americans was almost 11 times the rate among

Whites. This is partly a result of African Americans being more likely to have multiple sexual

partners and initiate sexual activity at an earlier age than youth of other races, although other

factors are also at play (Pflieger et al., 2013; Bakken & Winter, 2002; Williams, 2003).

According to the CDC (2012), more than 50 percent of all new HIV infections occur

among people under 25 years of age, and the majority of sexually transmitted infections transpire

in the 18-24 year-old demographic. Of those infected, African Americans represent a

disproportionate, 67 percent, of new cases (CDC, 2011). Research indicates that the high rates

of herpes and other STD’s among African-Americans are most likely a causative factor to the

high rate of HIV in that community (CDC, 2011). In fact, statistics show infection with herpes

increases the likelihood of infection with HIV two to three times if exposed to the virus (CDC,

2011). HSV-2 (genital herpes) infection can result in minuscule ruptures in the genital and anal

area, which can facilitate the entry of the HIV virus into the body (CDC, 2011). In addition,

herpes infection acts as a magnet for the “target cells” that HIV infects, drawing the virus to the

genital area. This amplifies the probability of acquiring HIV if exposed to the virus (CDC,

2011). For African-Americans, the prevalence of infection with the herpes simplex II virus was

39.2%, more than three times that of Whites at 12.3% (CDC, 2011).

Rod Harley Ph.D., MA, RBH and Associates LLC. Correspondence

regarding this article should be addressed to: [email protected].

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The spread of sexually transmitted infections like genital herpes, chlamydia, and HIV

encompasses extensive and potentially ghastly consequences not just for individuals or specific

demographic groups, but society as a whole in increased medical cost, antibiotic resistance,

deformities, sterility, and death (CDC, 2008). Consequently, the prevention of infection presents

a critical public health priority (Bradboy-Jackson & Williams, 2005). Because the prevalence of

STI’s is heavily impacted by behavior, the focus of the study was behavior oriented with Social

Cognitive Theory (SCT) utilized to conceptualize and frame it. Sexual behaviors identified as

risky by previous studies include a lack of condom use adherence, sex following the

consumption of alcohol or drugs, casual sexual encounters, sex absent birth control, the

maintenance of concurrent sexual relationships, and having numerous sexual partners over one’s

lifetime (Aral 2005; Cook & Clark 2005; Hoyle et al. 2000).

The identification and comprehension of factors that precede and contribute to these risky

behaviors has proved to be a multifarious and difficult challenge for prevention scientists (CDC,

2012). However, disparity in HIV incidence rates, delineated by the data, necessitates amplified

efforts to gain insight into the psychosocial factors that contribute to the continued

disproportionate spread of STI’s and HIV specifically in the African American community

(Adimora & Schoenbach, 2005; Bradboy-Jackson & Williams, 2005).

Recently, human services professionals and behavioral scientists have begun to address

these disparities by investigating individual risk behavior within a broader psychosocial context.

This approach involves the examination of the individual’s behavior within the framework of

their social and physical environment (DiClemente, Salazar, Crosby & Rosenthal, 2005).

Research has produced strong evidence indicating that an individual’s locus of control can be

learned and impacted by familial, relational, peer, cultural, and societal influences. In fact,

several studies have identified control beliefs as one of the many psychosocial factors demanding

examination as potentially protective factors in mental and public health (DiClemente, Salazar,

Crosby & Rosenthal, 2005; Luszczynska & Schwarzer, 2005).

Of specific concern to human services professionals is the identification of multiple

cognitive correlates and indicators of sexual risk behaviors among distinct populations

(DiClemente & Crosby, 2003; Fisher, Fisher, & Rye, 1995; Jemmott & Jemmott, 2000; Pleck,

Sonenstein, & Ku, 1993; Stone, 2005). Fisher, Fisher & Rye (1995) examined psychological

determinants of HIV/AIDS-preventive behaviors in heterosexual university students,

heterosexual high school students, and gay men. The study yielded data indicating that

HIV/AIDS-preventive behavior can be predicted by the individual’s behavioral intentions. In

addition, the behavioral intentions were identified as a function of the individual’s attitude and

behavioral norms within the context of their culture. Furthermore, attitudes and norms were

found to be a function of the basic underpinnings theorized in the study. Other studies, like the

one conducted by Hingson, Strunin, Berlin, and Heeren (1990), focused on the individual’s

belief and understanding of consequences. Hingson and colleagues found that beliefs, specific to

the perceived consequences of risk behaviors, influenced an individual’s risk behavior choices

wherein beliefs of lower risk or vulnerability had a positive correlation with risky behavior. The

findings of these studies, and the current study, could have strategic implications for helping

professionals across practice domains including policy, the design and implementation of

interventions, and best practices in Substance Abuse Prevention and Counseling, Health

Prevention Education, Social Services, Mental Health Counseling, Psychology, and Behavioral

Research.

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19

A review of the literature illuminated a significant absence of data specific to control

cognitions and sexual risk behaviors relative to high-risk African American male population. The

current study addressed this dearth by investigating the relationship between the psychosocial

construct of locus of control and sexual risk behaviors (concurrent sexual partners and condom

use adherence), and how this dynamic may impact the prevalence of STI’s and HIV within the

African American community. To this end, the study investigated the following research

questions:

1. What is the relationship between an individual’s locus of control and condom use adherence in African American males aged 18-24 residing within Hillsborough County,

Florida?

2. What is the relationship between an individual’s locus of control and the maintenance of concurrent sexual partnerships in African American males aged 18-24 residing within

Hillsborough County, Florida?

Methods

Design and Process

Approval for the study was granted by Capella University Institutional Review Board on

August 7, 2012. The study followed a non-experimental correlational survey design.

Demographics consisted of self-reporting heterosexual African American males, between the

ages 18-24, residing within Hillsborough County Florida. Invitations to participate in the study

were posted on several social media sites including Facebook, Twitter, and Black Planet

specifically addressed to African Americans from the target population. In addition, invitations

to participate in the survey were posted at select locations (community centers, recreation

centers, health centers) within areas of Hillsborough County heavily populated and frequented by

the target population. The posting provided a general description of the research study and a link

to the website at which the study instruments could be found. The survey instruments were made

available utilizing www.surveymonkey.com. Additionally, the introduction provided

respondents with the option of making email queries prior to being exposed to the instruments,

and an informed consent process in which a clear explanation of the participant’s right to

withdraw from the study at any time or to skip specific questions on the instruments were made.

Each respondent was assigned an identifying number, which allowed the researcher to link him

to his responses on the Locus of Control Scale and the Sexual Behavior Questions. The data

gathering procedure included a demographic identifier for control variables salient to this topic

(age, gender, and race), as well as extraneous variables found to be of importance in similar

studies (income and education levels). Additionally, the data gathering procedure excluded

participant name or other personal identifying info.

Instrumentation

Demographic Identifier

The survey included a demographic identifier, which gathered confirmatory and other

identifying data. Four simple yes or no questions were utilized to confirm that the survey

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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participant met the study inclusion criteria. Participants were asked to verify that they were

male, heterosexual, African American, and resided in Hillsborough County, Florida. In addition,

participants were asked to indicate their age from a range of 18-24 years. In conclusion, two

subsequent questions gathered data related to income and educational level.

Locus of Control Scale

The Locus of Control Scale is a questionnaire consisting of 29 Likert questions (Rotter,

1966). It was developed by Julian Rotter to identify the two orientations of the locus of control:

internal and external. The Locus of Control Scale is designed to identify, measure, and

distinguish between both aspects of this construct. Each of the 29 items offers two options (A or

B) for responses, which measures either internal or external locus of control. One point is

awarded for each answer provided which corresponds to the answer key. A low score (1-11) is

indicative of an internal locus of control orientation while a high score (13-23) is indicative of an

external locus of control orientation. The instrument yields a numerical score with a maximum

score attainable of 23. Internal consistency estimates ranged between .65 and .79 while test-

retest reliability ranged from .49 to .83. In addition, construct validity data has been provided by

numerous studies in which the Locus of Control Scale successfully distinguished individuals

who believe they control events that happen in their lives (internal locus of control) from those

who believe that fate or luck controls what happens to them (external locus of control)

(Beckham, Spray, & Pietz, 2007; Gan, Shang, & Zhang, 2007; Lefcourt, 1982; Rubinstein, 2004;

Nasser and Abouchedid, 2006; Strickland & Haley, 1980). Moreover, these studies provided

evidence for this tool as a continually reliable and valid instrument for the current study.

Sexual Behavior Questions

In the absence of an identifiable instrument to assess the sexual risk behavior pertinent to

the current study, a simple two-item instrument identified as the Sexual Behavior Questions

(SBQ) was developed based on Sexual History Questionnaire or SHQ (Culpitt, 1998). The SHQ

was developed for assessing HIV infection risk. The instrument utilizes multiple modalities to

collect data including Likert scale, multiple-choice, numerical completion, and yes/no formats.

Culpitt submitted the SHQ to a test-retest reliability measurement during his original 1992

research utilizing 18 postgraduate students. The results found an intraclass correlation exceeding

.80 (p< .001) which is indicative of high reliability. Additional studies have found the SHQ to

have a high degree of reliability and face validity (Deltramich & Gray, 2008; Ehrhardt et al.,

2006). However, the SHQ (Culpitt, 1998) utilizes a modality not conducive to the measurement

of the target variable in the current study. Therefore, the researcher converted the categorical

modality of the SHQ into one that measured the frequency of the salient variable for the first

SBQ question.

The first SBQ question designed to measure condom use adherence provided a

percentage score ranging from 0-100%, with higher percentages indicative of higher frequency

of condom use during intercourse. A second question requiring a simple yes or no answer was

created to measure the maintenance of concurrent sexual relationships. The researcher chose to

create a question for the purpose of measuring this variable due to the absence of an appropriate

question in the SHQ and a failure to identify an instrument which fulfilled this role. The

question was designed to solely measure the presence of the behavior (concurrent relationships)

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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within the specified time-period (6 months). The simple yes or no format allowed the researcher

to gather the necessary data without unnecessary intrusion into the participant’s behavior.

Results

Hypotheses

Two hypotheses were formulated and data was gathered utilizing the Locus of Control

Scale and Sexual Behavior Questions. The resulting data was subjected to statistical

investigation utilizing two independent Pearson’s Correlational Analyses, one for the Locus of

Control Scale and another for the Sexual Behavior Questions. Hypotheses One (H1) posited that

there is a positive relationship between an individual’s locus of control and condom use

adherence in heterosexual, African American males aged 18-24 residing within Hillsborough

County, Florida in which locus of control will be positively correlated with condom use

adherence. Hypotheses Two (H2) posited that there is a negative relationship between an

individual’s locus of control and the maintenance of concurrent sexual relationships in

heterosexual, African American males aged 18-24 residing within Hillsborough County, Florida

in which the locus of control will be negatively correlated with the maintenance of concurrent

sexual relationships.

Demographic Data

One hundred and thirteen individuals submitted complete responses to the three study

instruments. Of that number, 17 were eliminated from the study due to responses indicating that

they did not meet the study inclusion criteria (two indicated that they were not heterosexual,

seven indicated that they were not African American, two indicated that they were not male, and

six indicated that they did not reside in Hillsborough County Florida). A total of 96 (n = 96)

respondents were included in the study data subjected to analysis. The complete age range of

18-24 years of age was represented in the survey responses however, the most common age of

the respondents was 23 years of age (25%) followed by 24 years of age (22%). The most

commonly reported income level was the 24–49 thousand-dollar range (59%) followed by the

12-23 thousand-dollar range (24%). The most commonly reported level of education completed

was a two-year degree or certificate (33%), followed by a bachelor’s degree (26%).

Measures

The Locus of Control Scale had a mean of 13.41, a mode of 14, a median of 14, a

standard deviation of 3.478, and a low score of 5 and high score of 20 for a range of 15. Sexual

Behavior Question 1 (SBQ1) had a mean of 67.687, a mode of 75, a median of 75, a standard

deviation of 27.875, and a low score of 0% and a high score of 100% for a range of 100. SBQ2

measured yes and no responses, which were converted to numerical values with one

corresponding with yes responses and zero corresponding with no responses; this data was then

subjected to analysis. Given the limited variance, no mean, mode, median, standard deviation, or

range was calculated for the resulting data.

Analysis

A Pearson correlation was utilized to test the relationship between locus of control and

condom use adherence over the designated time frame of 6 months. The results indicated a

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moderate positive correlation of r = 0.52 as outlined by the SAMHSA (2014)

correlational/relationship strength table. The correlation coefficient yielded a p-value less than

.01 indicating statistical significance.

For H2, a Pearson correlation was utilized to test the relationship between locus of

control and concurrent sexual relationships over the designated time frame of 6 months. The

results indicated a low negative correlation of r = -0.28 as outlined by the SAMHSA (2014)

correlation/relationship strength table. The correlation coefficient yielded a p-value less than .01

indicating statistical significance.

Statistical analyses were run on three variables from the demographic study as a means of

exploring any potential impact these variables may have had on the study outcome. Four

variables were excluded from analysis, as they were constant for all respondents. The three

variables subjected to analysis were respondent age, income level, and level of education.

Correlation coefficients and p-values were determined for all three in relation to the Locus of

Control Scale, and Sexual Behavior Questions. None of these three variables was found to be

statistically significant.

Limitations

The study presented with a number of methodological and design limitations. The

correlational design prevents the researcher from establishing a cause and effect relationship

based on the study findings. In addition, the utilization of a non-probability or volunteer

convenience sample resulted in external validity limitations in regard to the generalizability of

the results to the larger 18 to 24-year-old African American male population. Furthermore, the

anonymous internet-based survey design eliminated the option of matching subjects to groups

that could account for physical, psychological, and social traits. Several studies have identified

such traits as having the potential to effect outcomes (Mertens, 2005; Niglas, 2004; Thompson,

Kyle, Thomas & Vrungus, 2002). However, it should be noted again that data specific to age,

income level, and education level were subjected to analyses in the present study and found to

have no statistical significance. In addition, the study screening process may have been

somewhat deficient in regards to the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

The researcher failed to eliminate segments of the sample population (e.g., married men,

individuals involved in long-term monogamous relationships, or individuals who are celibate)

which could have skewed the results of the survey. Another limitation is presented by the

limited time frame on which the study focused. By limiting the data to the relatively short 6-

month period preceding the implementation of the study, the researcher eliminated the

opportunity to gather long-term data, which may have been significant to the study purpose. For

example, gathering data related to the number of concurrent relationships an individual has been

involved in over an extended period of time (e.g., 3 years) would be more effective in

determining if this behavior is an aberration or symptomatic of a long-term pattern of sexually

risky behavior. Finally, in the absence of a means of verifying the respondent’s inclusion in the

target sample population, the researcher was forced to rely on the fidelity of study participants.

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Discussion

Hypothesis One

As previously summarized, the study findings demonstrated a moderate correlation for

hypothesis number one. A positive correlation was established between locus of control and

condom use adherence. The majority of individuals whose responses identified them as having

an internal orientation were found to maintain higher percentages of condom use adherence

while those whose responses identified them as having an external orientation were found to

maintain lower percentages of condom use adherence.

The study findings align with prior research in the area of sexual behavior indicating that

individuals with an internal locus of control tend to be more informed and more likely to engage

in preventive behaviors (DiBlasio & Benda, 1990; Victor & Haruna, 2012; Visher, 1986).

However, five (5) individuals indicated an internal locus of control orientation and reported 0%

condom use adherence and no maintenance of concurrent sexual relationships. These individuals

could be representative of a segment of the sample involved in monogamous long-term (+ 6

months) relationships including married men, wherein they and their partner had ceased to utilize

contraceptives or employ safe sex practices. It is also possible that some of these individuals

could be practicing celibacy and not engaged in any sexual relationships at all.

Despite the contrary data provided by these respondents, the outcome of the data analysis

in the study aligns with previous studies conducted on locus of control and condom use

adherence in populations that were different than the population sampled for this study. It should

be noted that some research conducted on African American male populations have identified

culture specific variables which impact an individual’s perceived control (e.g. ethnic identity,

SES, and racism) and behavioral outcomes (Duncan, 2003; Duncan, 2007; Gaa & Shores, 1979;

Levine-Rasky, 2008). Some of these variables were examined in the present study as data

gathered included age, level of income, and level of education. This data was collected for the

explicit function of confirming that the respondents met the study inclusion criteria. This data

was subsequently subjected to analysis and found to have no statistical significance.

Hypothesis Two

Hypothesis Two, specific to locus of control and the maintenance of concurrent sexual

relationships predicted a negative correlation between locus of control and concurrent sexual

relationships, wherein the more external the orientation the higher the occurrence of concurrent

sexual relationships, and, the higher the internal orientation of the respondent the lower the

incidence of concurrent sexual relationships. The correlation of these variables has been

established in the literature with varying populations including cross-cultural samples of males

and females (Marston & King, 2006; Masters & Wallston, 2005). In the current study, the

relationship between the two variables was found to have a statistically significant low

correlation. It should be noted that four (4) respondents reported an external orientation, low

percentages of condom use adherence (below 50%), and no concurrent sexual relationships.

A number of scenarios exist, which could possibly account for this data. First,

respondents could be involved in a long-term relationship wherein there is condom use but

adherence is not rigorous. It is important to make clear that involvement in concurrent sexual

relationships is not necessarily indicative of an elevated number of sexual partners, as some

concurrent relationships are long-term exclusive as in the case of polyamory (U.S. Department of

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

24

Health and Human Services, 2015; Measure Demographic and Health Surveys, 2012; [DHS]).

There is also the possibility of an occurrence of what can be described as “serial monogamy”

wherein an individual has a number of consecutive relationships absent overlap as one

relationship is over before another is started (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services;

DHS, 2012). The aforementioned factors underscore the importance of continued efforts, like the

present study, in contributing to the body of literature that informs human services professionals

charged with addressing the problems associated with HIV and STI infection in high-risk

populations like African American males.

Control perception, or locus of control, has proven to be a key cognitive predictor of

mental and physical health behaviors in a number of populations (Mamlin, Harris, & Case, 2001;

Luszczynska & Schwarzer, 2005). Several studies have identified an internal locus of control as

predictive of mental and physical health behavioral outcomes (Luszczynska & Schwarzer, 2005;

Mamlin, Harris, & Case, 2001; Nasser & Abouchedid, 2006; Rabkin et al, 1990). Most of the

studies related to perceived control specific to sexual risk have focused on the predictive value of

internal control versus external control within the context of sexual attitudes, risk knowledge, or

behaviors (Spiegler & Guevremont, 2007). However, the literature is absent data specific to the

association between locus of control, sexual risk behaviors, and African Americans. The

benefits of identifying risky as well as precautionary behaviors and gaining insight into how they

correlate within the African American population includes providing data to assist human

services professionals in the development of culturally relevant and appropriate prevention

programs and intervention strategies. These strategies can then be utilized with this population in

direct care services like targeted case management, substance abuse prevention and treatment

services, mental health counseling, and social services.

A few studies (Enger, Howerton, & Cobbs, 1994; Hillman, Sawilowsky and Wood, 1996;

Mizell, 1999) suggest psychological empowerment programs which accentuate internalization of

perceptions of control through promotion of the individual as effective and capable, increase

awareness of individual factors that can impede or promote control efforts, and promote

interpersonal (ability to influence others) and social power (ability to influence social systems),

can be an effective means of positively impacting the locus of control in African American male

adolescents and young adults. The data gleamed from these efforts has significant application to

the work of human services professionals with the African American male population in a

number of areas. Areas of significance include: social services like emergency and other

community housing; residential and outpatient drug and alcohol prevention, treatment, and

counseling programs; and community mental health counseling programs.

Recommendations

The study illuminated the contributory role control perceptions and sexual risk behaviors

(condom use adherence and concurrent sexual relationships) can play in the health outcomes for

the target population. Condom use adherence and the maintenance of concurrent sexual

relationships have been established as two of the primary variables in sexual risk taking which

can lead to STI and HIV infection. Data gathered from these studies demonstrate that a number

of individuals persist in these risky behaviors in spite of the known relationship between these

variables and HIV/STI infection (Dariotis, et al, 2011; Giles, Liddell & Bydawell, 2006;

Manning, Flanigan, Giordano, & Longmore, 2009). These findings suggest a need for added

emphasis on the reduction of these behaviors through the internalization of control perceptions.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

25

One way of accomplishing this task is through the design and implementation of effective

interventions aimed at psychosocial empowerment.

First, empowerment efforts should focus on the internalization of perceptions of control

through the promotion of the individual as effective and capable. Second, efforts should be

made to increase the awareness of individual factors that can impede or promote control

perceptions focusing on eliminating or minimizing the former while accentuating and

maximizing the latter. Finally, efforts should promote interpersonal and social power through

the acquisition of social, economic, and intellectual capital. The study contributes to these

efforts by adding to the scientific literature on HIV, STI’s, sexual risk behaviors, and the

psychosocial factors that contribute to these behaviors in African American males through the

investigation of the existence of and nature of any relationship between the study variables of

locus of control, condom use adherence, and the maintenance of concurrent sexual relationships

in the target population of heterosexual, African American males, aged 18-24, residing in

Hillsborough County, Florida.

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The Ethical Standards for Human Services Professionals: Revision 2015

Linda Wark

Abstract

The ethical code of the National Organization for Human Services (NOHS), Ethical Standards

for Human Services Professionals, was first drafted and approved in the 1990’s. More recently, a

substantial five-year effort was given to preparing for and developing its first revision. The

revision process and changes to the ethical code, approved early in 2015, are highlighted in this

article. The revised Ethical Standards for Human Services Professionals was compared with the

ethical code for the HS-BCP, and differences and similarities are described. Suggestions for

future revisions processes are offered.

Introduction

During the latter part of the twentieth century and the early part of this century, there

have been great strides in the development of the human services profession (Sparkman &

Neukrug, 2016). For instance, during that time a professional association, the National

Organization of Human Services (NOHS) was formed along with a related accreditation body—

the Council for Human Services Education (CSHSE). NOHS initiated a national journal, national

conferences, and more. In addition, the first national human service credential, Human Service—

Board Certified Practitioner (HS—BCP), was developed. Finally, during the 1990s an effort,

spearheaded by NOHS and CSHSE, resulted in the first NOHS ethics code being adopted in

1996 (Di Giovanni, 2009). Over the past five years the ethics code has been revised, with the

second edition adopted in 2015. The following discusses the revision process and changes made

to the code.

Development of the Revision

Processes for revisions to ethical codes have value. They reflect the thinking of new

generations of members of professional organizations. They give opportunities for members to

influence the values of the organization. They tap into our challenging experiences with clients,

co-workers, students, and ourselves. They address omissions from previous versions. Finally,

they can cause reflection on ethical codes by practitioners, and they promote service to clients

that have integrity and thoughtfulness. The revision of the Ethical Standards for Human Service

Professionals originated in the NOHS Ethics Committee, which recognized a need to update the

standards to reflect societal changes, such as stronger attention to the use of social media and

electronic communication (Neukrug, 2010). Ultimately, the entire 1996 version of the ethical

code was examined using member surveys, town hall-style conference workshops, a task force,

and NOHS board input.

An aim of the Ethics Committee during the revision process was to reflect the views of

NOHS members as much as possible. Thus, the revision process began with a survey developed

by the Ethics Committee that was made available to all members. NOHS posted the survey

online, and an email was issued to the membership announcing the opportunity for participation.

In addition, it was made available at conferences in related workshops. Students also participated

when interested faculty from several universities brought the surveys to their classes.

The survey consisted of eight open-ended questions. Listed here, they are: 1) In your

opinion, why should we revise the current NOHS ethical code?; 2) What should be added or

Linda Wark, Department of Human Services, Indiana Purdue Fort Wayne.

Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

32

modified in the current ethical code?; 3) What should be eliminated from the current ethical

code?; 4) What should not be eliminated from the current ethical code?; 5) Are there ethically

ambiguous situations you encounter in your human services work (including internships if you

are a student) or teaching that our code might address?; 6) Are there areas of ethical practice that

seem to conflict with laws?; 7) Are there areas of ethical practice which seem to conflict with

your workplace’s policies or norms?; and 8) What ideas do you have for the organization of the

ethical code? Eighty-seven survey responses were received from members and students in human

services degree programs.

Besides the survey, NOHS members were given other opportunities to participate in the

revision process at workshops sponsored by the Ethics Committee at NOHS national conferences

(Wark, 2010; Wark, 2014; Wark & Kerewsky, 2013; Wark, Kerewsky & Hudson, 2013; Wark &

Slater, 2011). The conference workshops were summarized in refereed conference proceedings

for members who could not attend (Wark & Kerewsky, 2013; Wark & Slater 2012).

Surveys and the comments made by workshop attendees were one influence on the

revisions. In addition, a comparison with the ethical codes of other social science organizations

influenced the revisions. Finally, the Center for Credentialing and Education (CCE) ethical code

of the Human Services Board Certified Practitioner (HS-BCP) Code of Ethics (2009) provided

another comparison. In June 2014, the NOHS Board accepted the first draft from the Ethics

Committee. NOHS board members, Ethics Committee members, and, later, other member

professionals at the 2014 national conference further revised the draft. After receiving feedback

on this draft from attendees at two workshops at the 2014 conference, revisions were made, and

the NOHS board asked a task force, formed in the fall of 2014, for feedback. Changes were

implemented, and the final version was approved by the NOHS board in early 2015 (See ethics

code in its entirety within this journal).

Highlights of Changes between the 1996 and 2015 Versions

The author made a comparison between the old and new ethical code for the purpose of

highlighting and explaining changes. The 1996 version contained 54 statements. The term

statements was changed to standards, and the 2015 version contains 44 standards. Eight

standards are completely new (7, 9, 26, 32, 33, 34, 35, and 38). Ten standards are considerably

revised (5, 6, 7, 10, 16, 17, 18, 31, 39, and 41) with additions of content or important concepts.

The remaining standards have minor clarifying word changes (1, 3, 4, 13, 19, 20, 22, 27, 29, 36,

and 40) or no changes (2, 11, 12, 14, 15, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 30, 37, 42, 43, and 44). The

reader should be alerted that standards which were retained from the 1996 version have different

numbers. For example, Standard 24 was formerly Standard 33. Finally, 12 of the old standards

were completely eliminated.

The Preamble also underwent changes. The second, third, and last paragraphs of the

Preamble are completely new. The second paragraph now contains a statement of the values of

the profession. The third paragraph articulates the conflicts that may arise among the Standards

and cultural identity, certification, laws, and one’s workplace. In this paragraph, human services

professionals are also encouraged to use ethical decision-making models. Finally, the third

paragraph reminds members that ethical codes are not legal documents. The fourth paragraph

describes the potential persons who will implement the ethical code given their identity with the

profession of human services.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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The revised code still has seven sections, but two section titles have changed. The Human

Services Professional’s Responsibility to Community and Society was changed to encompass the

broader scope of this section’s standards and renamed Responsibility to the Public and Society.

The Standards for Educators was changed to the Human Services Responsibility to Students. In

this section, there is a reduction of 17 standards in the old code to eight, which reflects the

elimination of standards likely to be covered by policies and procedures in the educators’

workplaces. Although space considerations in this article do not permit an exploration of every

small change, completely new and substantially modified standards to the ethical code are

reviewed section by section.

Changes by Section

In the first section, Responsibility to Clients, Standard 7 states that professionals should

avoid imposing their values and biases on clients. Standard 9, in this section, focuses on the

impact of technology and its effect on confidentiality with a reminder to explain the impact and

any relevant laws to clients. In the second section, Responsibility to the Public and Society,

Standard 16 states, for the first time, the use of advocacy to fight social injustice and social

oppression. Standard 17 contains expanded information on the avoidance of misrepresenting

oneself to the public. Standard 18 was modified to guide educators to support their teaching with

research and scholarship whenever possible.

In Responsibility to Colleagues, the third section, Standard 19 reminds the reader of the

importance of avoiding duplication of services and of collaborating with other professionals. In

the fourth section, Responsibility to Employers, there are no new standards or prominent

revisions. In the fifth section, Responsibility to the Profession, there are four changes which will

be emphasized here. First, Standard 26 spotlights the necessary “training, experience, education,

and supervision necessary” for working with a wide variety of diverse clients and to use methods

which are the best fit for the client’s culture. Standard 31 calls for the use of evidence-based

practice when possible and to inform clients of the risks and benefits when using new or

experimental techniques. The new Standard 32 definitively underscores the importance of rigor

and ethical principles when conducting research and that such research must consider cultural

biases and account for them in research reports. Standard 33 addresses the cautious use of social

media by professionals and that they should consider how their public conduct will reflect well

on the profession.

In the sixth section, Responsibility to Self, Standard 34 challenges professionals to know

their own cultural backgrounds and biases and to pay special attention to how these personal

influences might affect work with clients. While personal growth was valued in the first version

of the ethical code, Standard 35 further stresses the maintenance of optimal growth for effective

work with clients. When “physically, emotionally, psychologically, or otherwise impaired,” the

professional must find other services for their clients. In the final section on Responsibility to

Students, Standard 38 introduces a commitment to access and inclusion for “differently-abled”

students. Standard 39 stresses the importance of educators demonstrating high standards not only

in research, but teaching and service. Finally, Standard 41, which focuses on the quality of the

field placement, also stresses the importance of protecting students who face potentially harmful

events in field placements.

The new ethical code increased the number of standards related to diversity and cultural

competence from two to five. Among the added standards, highlights included researchers being

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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advised that research is to be examined for cultural bias (Standard 32), the importance of

knowing one’s own culture (Standard 34), and ensuring effectiveness with diverse groups of

clients (Standard 26). Relatedly, Standard 16 holds members to “advocate for social justice and

eliminate oppression, and Standard 10 was altered to include “disability,” “nationality,” and

“historically oppressed groups” among the many groups for whom we strive to provide services

without discrimination.

Challenges for Human Services Professionals

As human services is a multi-disciplinary profession, more than one ethical code can

apply to NOHS members who have memberships in organizations of other professions.

Kerewsky (2013) offered suggestions for managing allegiances to more than one ethical code.

First, seek consultation from a disinterested third party. Second, consider the role undertaken by

the professional in the situation. Although two codes may conflict on a particular issue, the role

may be more aligned with one of the codes. Third, focus on how the client’s welfare can be best

served. Finally, does one of the codes have more stringent standards?

In a case in point, members of NOHS are additionally challenged if they hold the human

services certification, the Human Services – Board Certified Practitioner (HS-BCP) (2009),

because they must also refer to a second ethical code (2009). Thus, the author examined the

Human Services Board Certified Practitioner Ethical Code (2009), approved in 2009, for

differences and points of overlap. An important focus in a comparison is that the NOHS ethical

code and the HS-BCP code have two different purposes. The HS-BCP code was developed to be

enforceable and to supplement, not replace, the NOHS ethical code (Hinkle & O’Brien, 2010).

The HS-BCP code intentionally leans toward legalism, and the NOHS ethical code is considered

to be aspirational (Sparkman & Neukrug, 2014). In addition, the non-corresponding items and

standards do not create controversy making it possible for NOHS members who also hold the

HS-BCP to combine the two and follow an enlarged set of ethical standards (Note: A copy of the

comparison of the two codes can be obtained from the author).

One of the ways the Human Services – Board Certified Professional Code of Ethics

(CCE, 2009) is different from the NOHS code (NOHS, 2015) is that it concentrates on

relationships between employers and clients with no mention of students, the community, or the

profession of human services. A second way it differs is that although it admonishes against

discrimination, it does not address cultural diversity, advocacy, or social justice in other ways.

No apparent conceptual contradictions between the codes exist. However, 19 of the 27

items in the HS-BCP code (CCE, 2009) do not correspond to any of the 44 Standards of the

revised NOHS ethical code (NOHS, 2015). Thus, the human services professional who holds the

HS-BCP certification is responsible for acquiring an understanding of the HS-BCP’s view of

ethical behavior. In three of the four sections of the HS-BCP code (CCE, 2009) there is overlap

in content with the NOHS ethical code (NOHS, 2015). Some of the common items between the

two codes include the following: the professional’s use of misrepresentation is not acceptable;

clients who appear poised to hurt themselves or others must be managed; professionals must

present their abilities and qualifications, credentials, titles and degrees accurately; confidentiality

should be upheld except when legal and other exceptions permit disclosure) while helping

clients, the professional should inform them of aspects of the helping process; clients’ consent

for assistance is obtained at prior to the start of the relationship; multiple relationships should be

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

35

avoided, and, if impossible, steps to prevent harm should be taken; and sexual and romantic

relationships with current clients are forbidden.

Conclusion

Providing revisions to the Professional Standards for Human Services Professionals

(2015) was a worthwhile effort in the advancement of the Human Services profession. Among a

number of changes, it addressed new social issues such as technology and social media,

confirmed many values of organization’s members, and further addressed the social justice and

multicultural helping concerns. However, the profession will be hampered without continuous

and ongoing attention to its ethical code. One suggestion for future revision is the use of sub-

committees focused on individual sections of the code. Sub-committees with diverse

representation may serve to streamline and enhance the process. Another suggestion is to require

a shorter period of ten years between major revisions with earlier, minor revisions, to

accommodate changes to the profession or society. In addition, a mechanism could be in place

for members to make suggestions online at any time for consideration at the next revision

process. Finally, a member-driven expansion of the values statement in the Preamble is

recommended.

References

Center for Credentialing and Education. (2009). Code of ethics. Retrieved from

file:///C:/Users/Linda/AppData/Local/Microsoft/Windows/INetCache/IE/0G58ZNSO/

HSBCPcodeofethics.pdf

Di Giovanni, M. (2009). CSHSE legacy: Past, present & future. Council for Standards in Human

Services Education. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/Linda/AppData/Local/Microsoft/

Windows/INetCache/IE/F79IA770/DiGiovanni-CSHSE_Legacy.pdf

Hinkle, S., & O’Brien, S. (2010). The human services board certified practitioner: An over view

of a new national credential. Journal of Human Services, 30(1), 23-28.

Kerewsky, S. (2012). Working under multiple codes: Can I have sex with an ex-client? The Link,

31(4), 5-6.

Neukrug, E. (2010). NOHS ethical code: A time for revision? The Link, 30(2), 7-9.

Neukrug, E. (2017). Theory, practice and trends in Human Services: An introduction. Belmont,

CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

National Organization for Human Services. (1996). Ethical standards for human services

professionals. Journal of Human Services, 16, 11-17.

National Organization for Human Services. (2015). Ethical standards for human services

professionals. Retrieved from http://www.nationalhumanservices.org/ethical-standards-

for-hs-professionals

Sparkman, N., & Neukrug, E. (2014). Perceptions of the HS-BCP credential: A survey of human

services professionals. Journal of Human Services, 34(1), 24-37.

Sparkman, N., & Neukrug, E. (2016). Inclusion of “human service professional” in the standard

occupational classification system. Journal of Human Services, 36, 69-72.

Wark, L. (2010). Ethical standards for human service professionals: Past and future. Journal of

Human Services, 30(1), 18-22.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

36

Wark, L. (2010, October). Code of ethics revision. Presentation at the National Organization for

Human Services, Portland, ME.

Wark, L. (2015, March). The NOHS ethical code: Revised! Presentation at the Midwest

Organization for Human Services, Ankeny, IA.

Wark, L. (2014, October). The NOHS ethical code revision: We’re almost there! Presentation at

the National Organization for Human Services, Las Vegas, NV.

Wark, L. (2015, October). The New NOHS ethical code. Presentation at the National

Organization for Human Services, Charlotte, NC.

Wark, L., & Kerewsky, S. (2013, October). Revising the ethical standards for human services

professionals: A discussion. 2012 NOHS National Conference Proceedings, Milwaukee,

WI. Retrieved from

http://www.nationalhumanservices.org/assets/Conference/2012%20nohs%20national%20

conference%20proceedings.pdf

Wark, L., Kerewsky, S., & Hudson, T. (2013, October). Student perspectives on the revision to

the NOHS ethical code. Presentation at the National Organization for Human Services,

Baltimore, MD.

Wark, L., & Slater, J. (2011, October). Code of ethics revision. Presentation at the National

Organization for Human Services, Austin, TX.

Wark, L., & Slater, J. (2012). Revision to the NOHS ethical code: Year one. 2012 NOHS

National Conference Proceedings. Proceedings of the National Organization for Human

Services, USA, 2, 48-50. Retrieved from

http://www.nationalhumanservices.org/assets/Conference/nohs%20conference%20

proceedings%20-%202011.pdf

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

37

The Affordable Care Act and Addiction Treatment:

Preparing the Undergraduate Human Services Professional

Chaniece Winfield, Rebekah Cole, Laurie Craigen

Abstract

The steady growth of the substance abuse and addiction field in addition to the passing of the

Affordable Care Act (ACT) increases the need for competent and credentialed substance abuse

professionals. As generalists in the helping field, human services professionals would benefit

from education and sufficient credentialing in substance abuse and addiction treatment. The

authors of this article suggest that substance abuse and addiction education be considered for

inclusion at the accreditation level for human services programs. Furthermore, a discussion of

the Alcohol and Drug Counselor (ADC) international credential and its benefits and implications

for human services professionals will be presented.

Introduction

According to the U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics (2014), the field of substance abuse is

expected to grow by 31% percent by the year 2022. This expansion is fueled by the

implementation of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) of 2010, which expands the accessibility of

healthcare insurance for individuals with behavioral health needs, which include substance abuse

concerns (Karakus, 2014). As a result of this growth, the demand for substance abuse treatment

providers will increase, particularly for clients with Medicaid insurance, which is the largest

insurance provider in the United States for low-income citizens (Ali, Teich, & Mutter, 2014;

Andrews, 2014; Beronio, Glied, & Frank, 2014; SAMSHA, 2014). Despite this growth and

increased need for substance abuse treatment providers, human services accreditation standards

do not require substance abuse and addiction education as part of the required curriculum for

undergraduate human service professionals. Thus, as generalists in the helping field,

undergraduate human services professionals could potentially face issues of incompetence in this

area as a result of lack of education. This article therefore reviews recent growth and changes in

the addiction field, cites accreditation standards in human services, and suggests the

incorporation of addiction courses as part of the required curriculum for undergraduate human

services professionals. An overview of current credentialing options with suggestions for

addiction certification will also be presented. This article ultimately encourages human services

education programs to prepare competent professionals that can meet the growing demand for

addiction helpers in the field, while also preparing the human services practitioner for service

delivery changes as a result of the Affordable Care Act.

The Affordable Care Act and the Human Services Field

As the principle federal agency in charge of implementing the Affordable Care Act, the

Department of Health and Human Services has two primary goals: increase insurance coverage

and make coverage more affordable (Nordal, 2012). These goals, thus, result in increased

coverage for services specific to the addiction field which include, but are not limited to,

diagnostic testing, outpatient treatment, partial hospitalization, inpatient and outpatient

detoxification, opioid treatment, as well as short and long term residential care (Garfield, Lave,

& Donohue, 2010). This increased insurance coverage likewise results in more stringent

Chaniece Winfield, Department of Counseling and Human Services, Old Dominion University, Rebekah Cole, Capella University,

and Laurie Craigen, Boston University. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

38

expectations and requirements for providers regarding certification and licensure to be an active

provider in this network (McLellan & Woodworth, 2014). Finally, the establishment of

expectations and requirements creates the need for adequate credentialing and minimum

education requirements of professionals who provide these billable services. Because of the

expanded coverage of these services and growth in the helping field, educational institutions are

called to prepare competent professionals who can meet this need.

The Role of the Human Service Professional The U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics (2014) identified substance use and behavioral

disorder professionals as those who advise individuals who suffer from chemical addictions or

mental disorders. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (5th

ed; DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013), a mental disorder is a syndrome classified

by a clinically significant imbalance in either an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or

behavior, resulting in distress in an important area of their life. As helping professionals who

provide an array of services targeted toward improving clients’ lives, human services

professionals work in a variety of helping settings, providing supportive services to individuals

including those struggling with substance use and behavior disorder issues (Bureau of Labor

Statistics, 2011; Neukrug, 2017). According to the National Organization for Human Services

[NOHS], the field of human services is committed to improving the quality of life through both

prevention and intervention efforts. As a result, the field is constantly looking to improve its

approach to provide better services to clients and to remain accountable to the community, to

clients, and to the profession (NOHS, 2015).

Aligning with this commitment, human services professionals are employed in a variety

of settings in which they directly work with clients who are struggling with substance abuse and

addiction disorders (Hinkle & O’Brien, 2010; Neukrug, 2017). More specifically, a human

services professional may serve in the position of a drug and alcohol counselor, intervening with

someone struggling with substance abuse or supporting their family through the time of recovery

(HumanSevicesEdu.org, 2015; Neukrug, 2017). Additionally, human services professionals

provide treatment and support to help the client recover from addiction, modify problem

behaviors, and access allowable services that are now covered under the Affordable Care Act

(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011). As practitioners in addiction treatment, it is vital that human

services professionals abide by the ethical codes of their profession with regard to practicing

within their scope of knowledge.

Ethical Standards of Human Services Professionals The Ethical Standards for Human Services Professionals describe the human services

professional’s responsibilities to clients, to the public and society, to colleagues, to employers, to

the profession, to self, and to students (NOHS, 2015). As each of these standards focuses on

promoting the wellbeing of the client, human services professionals must possess the skills

needed to meet the specific needs and the challenges that each client presents. This knowledge

base is emphasized in Standard 27, which emphasizes that human services professionals should

only practice within their scope of knowledge and expertise (NOHS, 2015). In addition, Standard

31 mandates the use of best practices in the field to meet the needs of clients, encouraging

members of the field to continually seek out effective, evidence-based approaches in their work

with clients (Neukrug, 2017; NOHS, 2015). It is important to recognize that evidence-based

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

39

approaches are not synonymous with evidence-informed approaches. Evidence-based approaches

are supported by documented scientific evidence or study, while evidence-informed approaches

are guided by research and evaluation. However, they do not require scientific research or

rigorous evaluation to prove positive results or success (Fox, 2014; Nevo & Slonim-Nevo, 2011). Given the ethical mandates related to servicing substance abuse clients in an evidenced-based,

competent manner, human services professionals must be trained in the area of assessment,

referral, and best practices for working with this population. Misdiagnosis and mistreatment

result in ethical violations and consequences not only for the client, but for the professional and

the field as well.

Human Services Education: Accreditation and Research

In addition to the NOHS ethical codes, The Council for Standards in Human Service

Education (CSHSE) sets curriculum and programmatic standards for human services education.

CSHSE includes standards for human services programs at the associate, baccalaureate, and

Masters’ level. Revised in 2013, these standards are informed by external research in the field,

national research on human services education programs, and they have been aligned with the

transforming field of human services since the early 1970s. Divided into General Program

Characteristics and Curriculum, each of the standards is general in scope, attempting “to strike a

balance between clearly stated principles and enough flexibility to avoid constraining natural

diversity among programs” (Center for Credentialing and Education, 2015). Given this statement

by CSHSE, it is not surprising that a review of standards at all levels yielded no specific mention

on addiction and/or substance use/abuse (CSHSE.org, 2015). Thus, in order to fully examine the

relationship between human services and addiction, a review of research into this relationship

was facilitated.

Research in Addiction and Human Services Education

Substance abuse is a serious public health concern that calls for the assistance of trained

human services professionals (Hagen & Kisubi, 2011). Yet, there has been very little published

on the inclusion of substance abuse in human services curriculum at the associates,

baccalaureate, or Masters’ level. A review of the sponsored publication by the Council of

Standards in Human Service Education (CSHSE) discovered articles that reference the subject of

substance abuse/addiction. DiGiovanni’s (2009) monograph, entitled Council for Standards in

Human Service Education Legacy: Past, Present, and Future, includes a list of each of the

required programmatic standards for accreditation, relevant documents, examples from

accreditation self-studies, and an applicable national community support skill standard. With

regards to examples from self-studies, DiGiovanni likewise noted the themes of faculty expertise

in addiction as well as the inclusion of curriculum that addressed salient community issues such

as addiction. Based on this publication, it appears that substance abuse/addiction is integrated

into some of the human services curriculum for accredited programs and/or programs seeking

accreditation. However, additional information is needed to determine how often and to what

extent the substance abuse curriculum is integrated into human services education. Additional

information is also needed regarding the number of programs that employ program faculty with

substance abuse/addiction experience/training. A second monograph published by the CSHSE,

Best Practices in Human Services: A Global Perspective by Hagen and Kisubi (2011), also

mentions the topic of substance abuse/addiction. In fact, there are over a dozen references to

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

40

substance abuse and/or addiction within this featured monograph. However, these references do

not specifically address how substance abuse/addiction is integrated into human services

education.

Moreover, an additional review was conducted within the last ten years of publications

from the Journal of Human Services, formerly known as Human Services Education. These

publications did not note any articles specific to substance abuse. The most similar title related to

an article on behavioral addiction in the 2014 edition of the Journal of Human Services.

However, the Journal of Human Services Monograph, a special edition from 2015, published

two separate articles related to substance abuse: one on substance use in adolescents (Leak &

Neal, 2015) and another on drug rehabilitation programs (Brown, 2015). Based on the review of

applicable research in this area, it can be concluded that while substance abuse and addiction is a

pervasive issue affecting our society, there is little published about the applicability of this role to

human services professionals and/or educators. The lack of a requirement of substance abuse

education, as well as minimal research into the relationship between the human services

professional and substance abuse treatment, creates a clear need for human services professionals

in substance abuse settings to pursue education and credentialing in this area.

The Human Services Profession and Credentialing

In 2008, a collaborative effort between the Center for Credentialing and Education

[CCE], the Council for Standards in Human Services Education [CSHSE], and the National

Organization for Human Service [NOHS] resulted in the development of the Human Services--

Board Certified Practitioner (HS--BCP) credential (Hinkle & O’Brien, 2010; Neukrug, 2017). In

its development, the goal of this national credential was to provide integrity, value and quality

for the credential holder, their employers and the consumer (Hinkle & O'Brien, 2010). As a

result, this credential established education, experience, and continuing education requirements

for human services professionals in order to enhance their professional identity and further

define the field.

Continuing Education with HS-BCP

The HS-BCP requires professionals to maintain their credential with 60-clock hours of

relevant continuing education (CE) during the five-year certification cycle, with at least six

specific hours related to ethics. HS-BCPs can gain continuing education in 12 competency areas

that align with the Council for Standards in Human Service Education (CSHSE). These 12

competency areas include: ethics in helping relationships, interviewing and intervention skills,

group work, case management, human development, social and cultural issues, social problems,

assessment/treatment planning, intervention models/theories, human behavior, social welfare and

public policy, and research, program evaluation and supervision. These standards are broad in

nature and do not specifically address substance abuse/addiction. While there is value in training

a generalist practitioner, this general focus might also create an additional opportunity for lack of

competence in a specific area of the behavioral health field. While substance abuse/addiction

could fall within several of these competency areas for HS-BCPs interested in maintaining their

credential, the lack of specification of substance abuse/addiction leaves this area of competency

to be reliant on the professional's own cognizance.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

41

Human Services and Addiction Credentialing

According to Garfield et.al. (2010), many addiction services provided under the

expansions from the Affordable Care Act will need to be provided by a certified or licensed

professional for reimbursement purposes. For undergraduate human services professionals

serving Medicaid clients, this certification is vital in order to provide addiction services under

this act. Unfortunately many certifications and licenses appropriate to service Medicaid clients

such as those that can be found in the fields of Counseling or Psychology are only accessible

after a graduate level of education in these respective disciplines (APA, 2006; CACREP, 2015;

Neukrug, 2017). While the human services field has recently established its own certification, the

HS--BCP (Center for Credential & Education, 2009; Hinkle & O’Brien, 2010; Sparkman &

Neukrug, 2014), this credential does not allow professionals to be reimbursed for Medicaid

services, creating an alarming gap between the human services professional and the progression

of the helping field. As a supplement to the HS-BCP, human services professionals are

encouraged to pursue credentialing that will enhance their professional identity as human

services professionals while also allowing them to meet the impending growth and demand of

the addiction field.

Alcohol and Drug Counselor Certification One such certification is the alcohol and drug counselor (ADC) credential, which is an

international certification offered through the International Certification and Reciprocity

Consortium [IC&RC] (IC&RC, 2015). Established in 1981, it is the largest credential in the field

of addiction-related behavioral health care, with over 20,000 credential holders worldwide.

(IC&RC, 2015). According to the IC&RC (2015), the alcohol and drug counselor credential is

offered in more than 63 countries, U.S states, and territories as a reciprocal credential. As an

international certification, the Alcohol and Drug Counselor (ADC) credential not only allows for

billing of Medicaid insurance in some states, but can also be obtained with an undergraduate

level of education in human services (IC&RC, 2015).

As a Medicaid billable credential, the alcohol and drug counselor (ADC) credential has

specific requirements with regard to substance abuse education, supervision, and experience for

undergraduate human services professionals. Because it is an international credential, eligibility

for the alcohol and drug counselor (ADC) credential is determined by its individual member

boards for that jurisdiction based on the aforementioned areas (IC&RC, 2015). However,

consistent with each jurisdiction is required substance abuse and addiction education in the

specific domains of (1) treatment planning, (2) collaboration and referral, (3) counseling, (4)

professional and ethical responsibilities, and (5) screening, assessment, and engagement, which

are the basis for the examination content (IC&RC, 2015). Furthermore, each member board

requires a specific amount of experience, which can range from 2,000-6,000 hours of substance

abuse practice based on the education level of the applicant. It is during this time that applicants

must also obtain 300 hours of clinical supervision from a supervisor that meets board regulations

regarding licensure and supervisory training. After successfully completing these requirements,

each applicant must pass a competency exam specific to the educational and supervision

domains.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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Implications for Human Services Programs and Professionals

Considering the growth and change in the helping field toward better holistic care

specifically as it relates to substance abuse and addiction treatment, the need to establish ongoing

competency in human services professionals is vital (Molfenter, 2013). The Affordable Care Act

greatly enhanced the ability of individuals with substance use concerns to obtain insurance

coverage and as a result, increased access to behavioral health care (Beronio, et. al. 2014). This

change in the helping field supports the holistic approach to client care by encouraging not just a

focus on socioeconomic, physical health, or vocational services but also mental health and

addiction needs (Molfenter, 2013). The ethical standards for human services professionals state

that human services professionals are aware of the limit and scope of their professional

knowledge and only practice within their area of competency (NOHS, 2015). This change in the

behavior health field creates the potential to limit or detract from the growth of the human

services field as a result of lack of education in addiction and substance abuse.

In order to meet the demand of developing competent human services professionals, the

field could benefit from change on the accreditation level. Students who graduate from

accredited programs are more knowledgeable about core issues in human services, as accredited

human services programs undergo a rigorous process to meet the standards of CSHSE (Neukrug,

2013\7). As a result, implications arise for CSHSE to review its accreditation standards with

consideration given to incorporating substance abuse and addiction education as part of its core

curriculum. Establishing this change on the accreditation level ensures consistency among

human services education programs, as accreditation standards often become standards that

determine eligibility for certification or licensure.

When addressing areas specific to addiction education, CSHSE is encouraged to consider

content areas identified by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

[SAMSHA] (2000), which focuses on competency and being knowledgeable in evidence-based

practices in its TAP 21 publication Addiction Counseling Competencies. The National Addiction

Studies Accreditation Commission (NASAC), which is the only accrediting body for addiction

programs on all levels higher education (NASAC, n.d), adopted these subject areas as the

evaluation standard for accreditation. Consistent with this evaluation standard, topics specific to

transdisciplinary foundations (SAMSHA, 2000) such as understanding addiction, treatment

knowledge, application of treatment skills and professional readiness would be of benefit to

human services programs. Additionally, experiential activities specific to building

transdisciplinary foundations include opportunities to engage in clinical documentation for case

studies, mock treatment groups facilitated in class by a competent instructor, as well as hands on

projects that would assist in reducing stereotypes while building empathy for this population are

recommended. The authors of this article suggest the following activities: abstinence projects,

attendance at local community based support groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous, or service

learning and volunteer activities with organizations that service the addiction population projects.

CSHSE is also encouraged to not only focus on understanding addiction and

transdisciplinary foundation but also on practice dimensions, which is the second competency

area identified by SAMSHA (2000) in its TAP 21 publication. Educational institutions could aim

to focus on developing competence in practice dimensions such as treatment planning, clinical

evaluation, referral and service coordination, documentation, as well as professional and ethical

responsibilities with substance abuse and addiction clients. Experiential activities such as in-class

mock treatment team meetings using hypothetical case studies, projects that provide

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

43

opportunities to develop treatment plans with a focus on treatment, and referral and service

delivery are also suggested. Finally, activities and exercises that provide opportunities for ethical

decision-making and clinical evaluation are recommended.

ADC and Human Services Professionals

Although the human services field has enhanced its professional identity through the

development of the Human Services--Board Certified Practitioner (HS--BCP) credential (Hinkle

& O’Brien, 2010), the application of this credential in Medicaid funded addiction service is

limited. As many human services professionals are employed in the addiction field (Hinkle &

O’Brien, 2010), the passing of the Affordable Care Act limits their ability to practice in this

growing area of behavior health due to inadequate credentialing and education. Thus, in order to

enhance their professional identity as generalists in the helping field, undergraduate human

services professionals in the addiction field are encouraged to seek additional certification.

Because the alcohol and drug counselor (ADC) credential can be achieved with a bachelor’s

level education, and allows for professional practice with Medicaid clients in some states

(IC&RC, 2015), obtaining this credential would be of benefit to undergraduate human services

professionals both nationally and internationally.

Future Implications

Given the importance of being knowledgeable in best practices related to substance abuse treatment, human services programs are encouraged to make substance abuse courses a

requirement for graduation. At a broader level, the topic of substance abuse could be included as

a required curriculum standard as mandated by the CSHSE. Then, human services students will

be more prepared to be competent and trained professionals in this growing area of concern.

Human services faculty should likewise focus their research on best practices for helping clients

struggling with substance abuse and for teaching these best practices to human services students

in the classroom. As more evidence-based articles are published related to the human services

role in this area, more much needed material will be available to include in human services

curriculums.

Current human services faculty in the field are called to consider the gap in their current

programs and the need to fill this gap with quality substance abuse education. Program faculty

are encouraged to advocate within the profession to review accreditation standards and to

promote the inclusion of substance abuse education as a core tenant in Human Services

undergraduate programs. In addition, the National Organization for Human Services is strongly

advised to consider these implications on a national scale as they ultimately relate to the

organization’s mission statement. Given the implementation of the Affordable Care Act and the

current need in the field to address the growing issue of substance abuse, change should be

considered soon so that the Human Services field can heed the call and meet the needs of this

population in our society. Conclusion

With the increased demand for substance abuse treatment services and the

implementation of the Affordable Care Act, human services professionals would benefit from

being fully prepared to meet the needs of clients struggling with substance abuse. Unfortunately,

with current educational preparation requirements, human services professionals are not prepared

in this area. Therefore, the human services professional is encouraged to take steps to incorporate

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

44

best practices for working with this population into the core human services curriculum. These

measures would prepare human services professionals to become certified and accredited as

experts in this arena. Ultimately, as the profession works to better itself to better meet client

needs, the field becomes more ethically sound and better prepared to continue to evolve as our

society does the same.

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Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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Introducing Mindfulness and Contemplative Pedagogy

as an Approach to Building Helping Skills in Human Services Students

Breanna Banks, Tony Burch, Marianne Woodside

Abstract

In this article, we describe the development and implementation of contemplative pedagogy in

human services education. Our focus is on mindfulness and related practices as a key

contemplative pedagogical approach for human services education. We propose several methods

of inclusion of mindfulness that begin with small integrations of this pedagogy and ends with a

thoroughly integrated approach. To illustrate, we offer an example of how the human services

educator can incorporate mindfulness into a basic helping skills course.

Introduction A key aspect of educating helping and human services professionals is helping students

gain the skills to develop helping relationships and build rapport with clients (Council for

Standards in Human Services, 2013). Human services educators, such as Neukrug (2017) and

Woodside and McClam (2015), emphasized the importance of learning these skills, and they

presented the ways specific skills enhance the helping process. In this paper, we build the case

for the importance of teaching basic helping skills in human services education and suggest

mindfulness as new pedagogy to support student learning.

The Council for Standards in Human Services’ national standards explicitly stated that

human services programs will teach students how to deliver direct services using case

management, intake interviewing, and individual and group counseling; all of which require the

establishment of a sound helping relationship (CSHS; 2013; Woodside & McClam, 2015). In

addition, the National Organization for Human Services’ Ethical Standards for Human Services

Professionals (2015) offered several ethical standards that support the development of these basic

helping and relationship skills to deliver effective services to clients. Further, using meta-analytic

research, Weinberger (2015) suggested that there exists evidence that the common factors of

effective therapeutic work strengthens the helping relationship and is the most consistent

predictor of client success. This work highlights the importance of instilling this skill set in

human services students (Weinberger, 2015).

Regardless of the recognized importance of teaching students helping skills, both

educators and students acknowledge the challenges of teaching and learning said skills.

According to human services educators Adcock et al. (2006), “Human service educators have

long struggled with how to provide students with effective helping skills required of entry level

human service professionals” (p. 340). These same authors continued their discussion by stating

human services educators find it challenging to develop activities and experiences that assist

developing students’ interpersonal skills (Adcock et al., 2006). In an effort to articulate the

challenges of teaching human services students basic helping skills, McClam and Woodside

(2010) presented a set of questions that students ask when learning said skills. These include:

How do skills fit into the helping process? How important is a first impression? What should I

share about myself? How do I get another person to trust me? to name a few (McClam &

Woodside, 2010). Adding to our understanding of the students’ experiences learning these skills,

Furman, Taylor, and Badinelli (2008) created poems that reflected the thoughts and feelings of

Breanna Banks, Department of Counseling, Adler University. Tony Burch and Marianne Woodside,

University of Tennessee. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

48

student reflective writings, including phrases such as “I want to have the right answers/ I want to

lead my client though their processing/ I’ve learned that it does not work that way” (p. 128).

In response to the importance and challenges of teaching basic helping skills, human

services educators have suggested new ideas for teaching basic helping skills. For example,

Crowe and Villalba (2012) used sociodrama to infuse multicultural aspects of helping, Esposito

(2009) suggested engaging student actors as mock clients to increase the authenticity of the

helping experience, and Wark (2008) offered classroom exercises that enhance decision making

to improve the development of basic skills. In addition, Furman et al. (2008) proposed using

helping triads to bring real issues into skill development and asking students to engage in

reflective writing to develop insights in helping, McClam et al. (2007) introduced service

learning into a skills class to enhance practice, and Duggan et al. (2007) suggested implementing

a web-based environment to enhance skill development.

While the human services literature suggested that the helping relationship and solid

rapport are vital for client progress and the CSHS (2013) national standards required that helping

relationships and skills courses integrate theoretical framework, content knowledge, and

applicable skills rooted in a conceptual framework and underlying philosophy, Weinberger

(2015) posited there is currently no conclusive evidence regarding the “best” way for helping

students to learn how to build these relationships. However, an emerging body of research

supports the notion that several factors related to the helper’s internal experience, such as the

capacity to feel empathy for a client, an attendance to the here and now, the ability to quiet

internal mental chatter, and an attitude of openness and acceptance, impact the development and

maintenance of the helping alliance (Cacciatore & Flint, 2012; Cacciatore, Thieleman, Killian, &

Tavasolli, 2015; Childs, 2010; Wong, 2013). In addition, the CSHSE standards also stated the

importance of the development of awareness of these internal phenomena for human services

students, e.g., the “conscious use of self” (2013, p. 10). Therefore, we suggest that contemplative

pedagogy, namely the use of mindfulness training, with its emphasis on cultivating self-

awareness and emotional attunement through deliberate attention to the present moment,

supports the process of assisting students to gain these skills and dispositions that allow them to

develop rapport, understand clients, and build client trust, all of which facilitate the helping

process. Griswold (2010), Christopher and Maris (2010), and Ponton (2012) provided

preliminary empirical support. As many human services programs introduce students to these

skills early in their professional development, we propose using the basic helping skills course as

the venue for embedding contemplative pedagogy into human services training.

Here, we note Holt and Catone’s (2014) and Lahikainen and Soysa’s (2014) contribution

to the literature surrounding integrating mindfulness into human services, and as we build on

their work we have three goals. First, we describe the development and implementation of

contemplative pedagogy in human services education. Second, we focus specifically on

mindfulness and related practices as key contemplative pedagogical methods for human services

programs. Third, we propose a model that presents levels of mindfulness work, from beginning

with small integrations of this pedagogy and ending with a thoroughly integrated approach for

incorporating mindfulness-based contemplative pedagogy into core human services coursework.

Within a long-standing and traditional religious context, Plante (2010) indicated that

contemplative practice represents a joining of eastern and western approaches to ways of being.

Plante also suggested that contemplative practitioners subscribe to the constructivist notion of

emphasizing methods of questioning and exploration through meditation, contemplative prayer,

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

49

mindfulness, prayerful reading, and compassionate action rather than the pursuit of pre-existing

knowledge. During the last thirty years, members of the health and helping professions

recognized the value and use of contemplative practices and expanded its practice to improve

physical and mental health (Hayes, Stroshal, & Wilson, 1999; Kabat-Zinn, 2013; Linehan, 2014).

Within the human services profession, evidence suggests contemplative practice benefits clients

suffering from mental health issues such as chronic stress, post-traumatic stress, affect

dysregulation, general anxiety disorder, borderline personality disorder, depression, and self-

harm ([Granato, Wilks, Miga, Korslund, & Linehan, 2015; Jindani, Turner, & Khalsa, 2015;

Mind and Life Education Research Network (MLERN), 2012]. In addition, contemplative

practice may also benefit human services professionals in that it includes the maintenance of

therapeutic presence, professional identity development, wellness and self-care (Griswold, 2010;

Christopher & Maris, 2010; Ponton, 2012).

An emerging use of contemplative practice that relates specifically to teaching, especially

in post-secondary education, is contemplative pedagogy. Grace (2011) described the goal of this

type of pedagogy to cultivate “…inner-awareness through first-person investigations” (p. 99).

Contemplative pedagogy, similar to contemplative practice, includes a range of activities,

experiences, and assignments such as silent meditation, mindfulness activities, compassion

practices, listening, reflection writings, creativity exercises, and expressive movement (Goh,

2012; Haynes, Irvine, & Bridges, 2013). Grace (2011) and others (Cacciatore, Thieleman,

Killian, & Tavasolli, 2015; Griswold, 2010; Lahikainen & Soysa, 2014; Wong, 2013) described

contemplative pedagogy as a promising approach to the teaching and learning of undergraduate

and graduate students, and in particular students in the helping professions.

Contemplative Pedagogy for Future Helping Professionals Scholars suggested that a contemplative approach to education may create a more

comprehensive educational experience (Grace, 2011; Haynes et al., 2013). For instance, Miller

(2012) encouraged educators to attend to spiritual awareness as a means to encourage students to

be fully present in the classroom experience. In addition, human services educators’

contemplative awareness of the Jungian concept of synchronicity, which aims to make meaning

in seemingly unrelated coincidences, may also help in creating meaning for students (Cho,

Miller, Hrastar, Sutton, & Younes, 2009). Finally, Wong (2013) suggested a contemplative

approach may enhance the attention and appreciation of moment-to-moment interaction with self

and others in the classroom.

Of particular importance to educating human services students are the enhancements to

relationship building skills contemplative pedagogy provides. First, Wong (2013) suggested

continuously encouraging students to draw their attention back to the present moment is possibly

the most immediate means for the human services educator to embed the skills and outcomes

related to contemplative practice, such as enhanced self-awareness and increased emotional

attunement to self and others. Second, Gockel et al. (2013) found that students educated using

contemplative practices may also feel more confident in their own abilities to form therapeutic

relationships. Third, researchers Cacciatore et al. (2015) and Christoper and Maris (2010)

suggested that these educational strategies assist in students’ development of empathy, perhaps

the most critical component of relationship building.

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Mindfulness: A Contemplative Approach to Human Services Student Development While contemplative practice and pedagogy may take multiple forms, one form in

particular has recently experienced an increasing presence in the empirical literature:

mindfulness (Cacciatore & Flint, 2012; Cacciatore et al., 2015; Childs, 2010; Christoper &

Maris, 2010; Ponton, 2007). Kabat-Zinn (2013) proposed that mindfulness is a practical

component of several Eastern spiritual traditions including Buddhism, yoga, and Qigong, but

now exists beyond the realm of religion in Western healing disciplines. Researchers have not

always agreed on an operational definition of mindfulness. Examples include mindfulness as

awareness practice (Kabat-Zinn, 2013), an acceptance of internal and external experiences

(Bishop et al., 2004) and a set of interventions producing outcomes (Hayes, Stroshal & Wilson,

1999, p. 161).

We conceptualize mindfulness as a three-part process developed by Banks and Burgin

(2014): a) Awareness/Attention - one-pointedness, present moment, emphasis on noticing mental

and physical phenomena as they arise and fall away; b) Attitude - acceptance and compassion for

self and others; non-judgmental stance toward the things that are discovered through enhanced

awareness of the present moment; gentle allowing; c) Intention – purpose to reduce suffering and

dissatisfaction in self and others, deliberate effort to translate insight gained though

awareness/attention and attitude into behavior. Each of these core components of mindfulness

relate directly to the work of the helper across discipline and theoretical orientation,

attitude, and intention in our descriptions of the levels and in Table 1.

Table 1: Course Content and Learning Activities per Level of Integration Levels of Integration

Content Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

1. Basic skills

overview:

o Helping relationships Major theoretical

approaches of helping

skills

o Basic skills: attending, reflecting,

paraphrasing,

summarizing,

nonverbals, minimal

encouragers, open-

ended questions, etc.

o Mindfulness skills: awareness,

acceptance,

attunement, non-

judgment, meditation,

etc.

o Helping structure: opening and closing a

session, time

management

o Multicultural and ethical consideration

o Read basic skills text and PowerPoint

presentations

o Review ethical codes from various helping

professions and

multicultural identity

development theory

summaries

o Read and present one journal article about

mindfulness in helping

o Classroom discussion

o Includes all Level 1

activities

o Read Mindfulness for

Beginners: Reclaiming

the Present Moment--

and Your Life (Kabat-

Zinn, 2011)

o Read selected chapters from

basic skills text, Mindfulness-

Based Treatment

Approaches: Clinician's

Guide to Evidence Base and

Applications (Baer, 2005),

Introduction to Insight

Meditation, and PowerPoint

presentations

o Review ethical codes from

various helping professions

and multicultural identity

development theory

summaries

o Right speech discussion groups

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Levels of Integration

Content Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

2. How to practice

mindfulness and

deliver mindful

helping skills

o In-class skills demonstration

o In-class and assigned skills video

demonstrations

o 5-minute guided mindfulness practice

to open and close class

o Triad skills practice (helper, client,

mindful observer)

o In-class skills demonstration

o In-class and assigned skills and guided

mindfulness

demonstrations

(insight and loving

kindness)

o 5-minute guided mindfulness practice

to open and close class

o Attendance at once- weekly local

mindfulness

(meditation, yoga, tai

chi, etc.) group

o Triad skills practice (helper, mindful

client, mindful

observer)

o In-class mindfulness-based

skills demonstration

o In-class and assigned skills

and guided mindfulness

demonstrations (insight and

loving kindness)

o 5 to 10-minute guided

mindfulness practice to open

and close class

o In-class mindfulness

activities (sitting, walking,

eating, yoga, etc.)

o Daily mindfulness or

meditation practice

commitment (15 mins/day)

o In-class mindfulness retreat

o Attendance at once-weekly

local mindfulness

(meditation, yoga, tai chi,

etc.) group

o Download mindfulness bell

app or set other periodic

mindfulness reminder

o Triad skills practice (mindful

helper, mindful client,

mindful observer)

3, How to use

mindfulness in

assessment of own

execution of skills

and how to observe

own experience as a

mindfulness

practitioner

o Taped mock sessions o Personal tape

transcript review

o Reflection paper on personal tape review

o Completion of Five Factor Mindfulness

Inventory (Baer,

Smith, Hopkins,

Krietemeyer & Toney,

2008)

o Completion of Hopes and Skills table and

goals list

o All Level 1 activities o Maintain weekly

mindfulness journal

o Taped mock sessions

o In-class interpersonal process

recall (IPR) tape review

o Reflection paper on IPR tape

review

o Completion of Five Factor

Mindfulness Inventory (Baer,

et al., 2008)

o Completion of Hopes and

Skills table and goals list

o Maintain weekly mindfulness

journal

4. How to enhance

mindful self-

awareness as helper

in the skills delivery

process

o Reflection paper with instructor and peer

feedback

o Interpretation of Five Factor Mindfulness

Inventory (Baer et al.,

2008) results

o Personal barriers paper

o All Level 2 activities o Summary of

mindfulness journal

o All Level 1 and 2 activities

o In-class summative right

speech discussion

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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Mindfulness in the Helping Process Banks and Burgin (2014) provided evidence that suggests helper mindfulness positively

impacts the helping relationship. Ponton (2012) stated that mindfulness may serve as a means to

allow and enhance the helper’s ability to generate empathy for clients to assist helpers in being

“intentionally aware of the present moment as it emerges,” (p. 191), while Cacciatore and Flint

(2012) suggested that it may facilitate the helper’s focus on the client by quieting the helper’s

internal dialogue thus allowing the helper to attune to the client in the here and now. Further,

Childs (2010) suggested mindful presence with the client fosters attitudinal changes in the

helper, thus lending to openness, curiosity, and acceptance.

Mindfulness Used in Training Helping Professionals and Human Services Students Mindfulness has recently had an increasing presence in the human services pedagogical

literature; taking multiple forms and resulting in a variety of outcomes related to student

development, such as reduced stress, increased levels of self-awareness, and improved capacity

to engage in classroom activities. (Cacciatore et al., 2015; Gockel et al., 2013; Goh, 2012; Wong,

2013). Wong (2013) found that when incorporated into social work education, mindfulness may

serve as a means to enhance helpers' capacity to relate to their clients and value the present

moment. For students in a death education class, Cacciatore et al. (2015) indicated that

mindfulness allowed them to cope better with their own emotions, and thus were able to engage

better with emotionally challenging course topics. Goh (2012) indicated that mindfulness

education may also improve basic attending skills such as active listening by helping students to

better identify and ameliorate habits, which impede their ability to effectively attend to clients.

While increasing evidence exists for incorporating mindfulness-based contemplative

pedagogy into human services, only one group of researchers has examined the process of using

mindfulness in teaching helping skills. Gockel et al. (2013) explored mindfulness in social work

training by incorporating brief mindfulness training into a helping skills course. This intervention

consisted of 10 minutes of technique training (e.g., meditation, awareness, stretching, guided

imagery, etc.) and five minutes of in-class discussion over 10 weeks. Gockel et al. (2013)

indicated improved mindfulness and self-efficacy, and qualitative outcomes included students’

report that training was useful to their development and stated mindfulness was helpful in

achieving training outcomes. Students believed mindfulness facilitated learning, with follow-up

outcomes demonstrating that students used mindfulness in their professional practice as an

intervention with clients and as a method to reduce anxiety on job.

As the literature suggests, mindfulness-based contemplative pedagogy brings a multitude

of potential benefits to human services students (Cacciatore et al., 2015; Gockel et al., 2013;

Goh, 2012; Wong, 2013). While helpers work to develop their capacity and competence in the

helping relationship throughout their careers, we suggest the foundation for this process is

formed during the basic helping skills course.

Contemplative Pedagogy in Action: Building Skills Mindfully As we discussed in the introduction of our paper, human services educators commonly

agree about what are core helping skills that students must acquire during their training

(Neukrug, 2017; McClam & Woodside, 2010; Woodside & McClam, 2015). Topics in this class

can range from greetings (e.g., introductions; beginning a session), listening and attending skills

(e.g., rapport, gathering information, silence, closing a session, empathy, and nonverbal), and

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

53

responding skills (e.g., summarizing, questions, paraphrasing, reflecting feelings or meaning).

McAuliffe and Eriksen (2010) indicated that many educators use experiential learning, such as

role-plays, video-taping, and helping sessions with peers as primary ways of helping students

learn these skills.

As students begin their study of human services and practicing these new skills, they

exhibit conflicting emotions of enthusiasm and anxiety (Stoltenberg & McNeill, 2011; Neukrug,

2017; Woodside, Cole-Zakrzewski, Oberman, & Carruth, 2007; Woodside, 2017). In a study

conducted by Woodside et al. (2007), students indicate how little they know of professional

helping and even question the modes of helping they used prior to entering human services

education, such as advice giving. In addition, these students are motivated to learn and perform

well, yet they fear evaluation. They want to focus on the client in the moment, but instead, focus

on their performance (Egan, 2014; Stoltenberg & McNeill, 2011). McAuliffe and Eriksen (2010)

recommended the following for teaching these novice helpers: structuring curriculum material,

sequencing skills from simpler to more complex, presenting learning in small lessons,

encouraging experiential learning, providing continuous feedback, and suspending early grading

of skill development.

When educators integrate mindfulness in a more comprehensive way, researchers

indicated shifts in the way they approached helping and how they thought about helping (Goh,

2012; Wong, 2013). Wong (2013) suggested using mindfulness and other contemplative practice

to help students understand critical social work, or the analysis of power related to culture and

diversity and social work practice. Goh (2012) found that after she introduced mindfulness and

reflection into her teaching of basic skills, students became more aware of three “bad habits”

related to limited listening (i.e., mind wandering, multi-tasking, and thinking ahead) and

developed strategies for overcoming these “bad habits.” We link the findings of Goh (2012) and

Wong (2013) to “transformative learning,” described by Cranton (2006) that incorporates

learning in three ways: a change in the way students consider themselves, a shift in what

students’ believe and value, and a reconsideration in what they do. Sweitzer and King (2013) and

Woodside (2017) affirmed the importance of human services education and the importance

helping transform human services students into helping professionals.

Support for the incorporation of mindfulness-based contemplative pedagogy into human

services higher education exists from both theoretical (Grace, 2011) and empirical vantage points

(Cacciatore et al., 2015; Haynes et al., 2013; Lahikainen & Soysa, 2014). This existing work

suggests that the helping process is deeply informed by the helper’s mode of relating to self and

others. Examples of this include present-moment awareness and attunement, a compassionate

orientation and attitude, and dedication to life-long self-exploration and knowledge (Cacciatore

& Flint, 2012; Childs, 2010; Ponton, 2012; Schuster, 1979). In the following section, we use the

helping skills course as a practical illustration for the implementation of mindfulness-based

contemplative pedagogy into human services education.

Implementation We present a three-tiered model of mindfulness integration into a basic helping skills

course (see Table 1). This model includes a conceptualization for how to incorporate

mindfulness into human services pedagogy in a practical, theoretically sound way. The tiers

represent “levels of integration,” or the extent to which the educator could incorporate

mindfulness into developing, delivering, and assessing a helping skills course. The levels of

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

54

integration increase the emphasis on mindfulness practice and philosophy as the “vehicle” for

enhancing basic skills for helping. While we believe it would be possible to use any of the course

levels presented as the build for the helping skills course, we also propose that course levels two

and three could serve as elective or advanced skills courses. We encourage human services

educators to use discretion for “goodness of fit” of each of the levels into respective programs, as

well as to implement, evaluate, and compare outcomes across these levels.

Levels of Integration Level one: introductory/technical. In this primary level, the course closely resembles

most other basic helping skills courses. The instructor uses a general skills textbook, provides

regular skills demonstrations, has students act in frequent skills practice role plays, and assigns

some self-reflective work. However, the instructor supplements the foundational skills teaching

practices with introductory mindfulness techniques and information. Here the students learn the

basic steps to do mindfulness and are considered engaged recipients of mindfulness practice. In

addition, all mindfulness-related activities are initiated and guided by the instructor. Students are

not expected to engage in mindfulness practice outside of class, but are provided enough basic

information and technique to do so if they choose. For example, the instructor could use the first

and/or last five minutes of each class leading the class in a brief mindfulness activity, followed

by a brief discussion of how the activity relates to themselves or the work they will do with

clients. To implement this specific practice, the instructor would guide students through a brief

guided meditation in which students are gently coached to focus primarily on the physical

sensation of their breath. Instructors would tell students to mentally note when a thought,

emotion, or physical sensation arises, and to gently return their focus to their breath. Upon the

closure of the brief meditation, the instructor would guide students in a brief discussion about

their experience during the meditation with questions like, “What did you notice

physically/mentally/emotionally?” Other activities to include in Level One be brief reflective

free-writing in which the instructor asks students to first contemplate a newly learned skill and

the idea of performing that skill, then to write down any thoughts or emotions that arise. This

could also be translated to an art-based technique, in which students are provided paints or

makers and asked to translate their experience in a visual way. Especially important with art-

based techniques, instructors should encourage students to employ a non-judgmental stance

about their and their peers’ artistic work. Therefore, the instructor needs a basic understanding of

mindfulness practice and its use in the helping process, but extensive knowledge beyond this is

not necessary.

Level two: integrative/theoretical. The overall purpose of the Level Two course that

integrates mindfulness is to train students to become “mindful helpers.” Here, the instructor

should continue to use a basic helping skills textbook and maintain close adherence to

programmatic and field-based standards. Through enhanced text and lectures focused on

mindfulness, students learn mindfulness skills and assumptions as a theoretical basis for the

helping process. For example, the instructor provides training on different types of mindfulness

as they are described in both secular and Eastern spiritual traditions. For example, the instructor

would use Reclaiming the Present Moment--and Your Life (Kabat-Zinn, 2011) as a core text in

the class, in addition to readings on Buddhist forms of mindfulness, loving kindness [e.g., Loving

Kindness: The Revolutionary Art of Happiness (Salzburg, 1995)] and insight meditation [e.g.,

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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Insight Meditation: A Step-by-step Course on How to Meditate (Salzburg & Goldstein, 2002). In

Level One, the instructor uses typical skills teaching techniques such as role plays,

demonstrations, case illustrations, etc., but does not integrate mindfulness tenets or techniques

into the processing of these class activities. Here, the instructor will use similar activities, but

will more fully embed mindfulness skills into lecture and course discussion. In addition to

assigning readings in these texts and building their content into lecture, the instructor would also

lead and participate in in-class mindfulness activities described therein. For example, as a means

to cultivate mindfulness on loving kindness, upon assigning students to read a case illustration,

the instructor would first ask the students to pay careful attention to any emotions that arise as

they read through the case. The instructor would ask students to intentionally bring to mind their

definition of compassion. Upon the completion of reading the case, the students sit in quiet

contemplation on how they experienced compassion for the client, as well as pieces of the

client’s experience that they found difficult to generate compassion for. The instructor then leads

a discussion with a focus on how compassion can be instrumental in conceptualizing and

delivering skills with various clients. At this level, students learn how to use mindfulness as they

are provided more instruction both in class and in self-directed, experiential learning formats.

Students perform as assisted pursuers of the practice using the experience to incorporate

mindfulness into their skills work. Formal methods of evaluating mindfulness are incorporated

into the Level 2 course (e.g., completion rates and thoroughness of entries in mindfulness

journal). Instructors should use discretion regarding if and how mindfulness development relates

to grading. Instructors of a Level Two course preferably have formal experience and/or training

in mindfulness practice or mindfulness-based helping approaches, but could also develop their

mindfulness skills along with the students throughout the duration of the course.

Level three: holistic/philosophical. Mindfulness philosophy and practice are the

pedagogical and technical foundations for the Level Three skills course. Whereas Levels One

and Two use mindfulness as a supplement to skills training, Level Three embeds mindfulness

and mindfulness-based techniques as the vehicle for skills acquisition. Here the instructor

teaches skills predominantly from mindfulness-based helping approaches (e.g., Dialectical

Behavior Therapy, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction,

etc.). Therefore, the instructor would likely not use a typical helping skills textbook, but rather

works published by experts in mindfulness-based helping approaches (e.g., Linehan, 2014;

Kabat-Zinn, 2013; Hayes et al., 1999). To gain a depth of understanding of mindfulness history

and philosophy, students would also be assigned original Buddhist and related readings and

required to discuss how the tenets therein relate to the helping process. The texts mentioned in

Level Two could suffice here, however, embedding mindfulness-focused content from the

Dhammapada, the traditional text containing the teachings of the Buddha, could enhance

students’ historical and contextual understanding of mindfulness. Further, all in-class practice

activities maintain a focus on using or enhancing mindfulness-related skills and qualities, with

the instructor giving heightened attention to using language specifically related to mindfulness-

based approaches throughout (e.g., Interpersonal Process Recall tape review, right speech

discussion). Similar to Level Two, but to a higher degree, students cultivate a mindful way of

being by engaging in mindfulness practice outside of the classroom. This would include a

required experiential component of joining a loving kindness, insight, or Zen meditation group

that meets at least once per week. Because of the intensity of mindfulness integration, instructors

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

56

should offer alternative skills courses for those students who do not prefer this approach or

consider Level Three to be an advanced or elective course. Instructors for the Level Three course

should have a high level of expertise in mindfulness practice personally and professionally.

Discussion and Implications for Practice in Human Service Education A primary focus of this article was to introduce mindfulness as an innovative and

evidence-informed pedagogical strategy in human services education. We suggest that there are

multiple and adaptable ways of integrating mindfulness into human services student learning and

development, especially at the course-level. While preliminary research indicates positive

outcomes for students from each level of integration, immense opportunity exists to evaluate the

effectiveness of contemplative pedagogy into human services education (Cacciatore et al., 2015;

Wong, 2013).

We also suggest that this strategy has the potential to promote student wellness and

professional self-care. Wellness denotes good health both mentally and physically, and includes

an intentional effort to gain this positive state or maintain it. Historical ways to assess wellness

have related to medical strategies such as a nourishing diet and appropriate exercise (Kumar &

Clark, 2012) and currently reflect an expansion of lifestyle medicine (Rippe, 2013). Beyond the

notion of “lifestyle medicine,” wellness can involve creativity, coping and stress management,

social relationships, spirituality, and identity (Lawson & Myers, 2011). Students’ sense of

wellness related to coping increases with reduced stress and anxiety related to school and work

with clients (Bonifas & Napoli, 2014; Gockel et al., 2013). Students involved in mindfulness

pedagogy have also demonstrated a reduction of negative physical symptoms, an increase in

calmness and centeredness (Bonifas & Napoli, 2014), and a sense of safety in supervision

(Andersson, King, & Lalande, 2010).

Introducing mindfulness practice into pedagogy also appears to be linked to wellness in

the areas of self-care. In fact, an emerging pedagogy so named “self-care pedagogy” has become

an important focus of curriculum within the helping professions. Self-care practices reflect the

targeted support students need, especially when learning about and providing trauma-focused

care (Adams & Riggs, 2008) and working with clients’ experiences of death and dying

(Cacciatore et al., 2015). In these events, Cacciatore et al. (2015) suggested that mindfulness

practice may increase students’ engagement in self and create an increased sense of professional

responsibility for their own self-care.

Anticipated Challenges When considering integrating mindfulness into a helping skills course, we suggest

considering the following challenges. First, multicultural dimensions of embedding mindfulness

and other contemplative strategies into a curriculum should be considered. While the use of

mindfulness has extended beyond its traditional Eastern spiritual foundations, some students may

feel uncomfortable engaging in this practice for personal religious or other cultural reasons.

Therefore, we suggest that educators discuss these cultural implications early in the class and

include a disclosure statement about the purpose of mindfulness into course syllabi. Second,

while many of the mindfulness practices in this approach require little to no formal training, the

educator should have some experience and/or training in the practice and philosophy of

mindfulness before attempting these integrative approaches. The type and level of training

available to educators varies widely, but might include completing secular mindfulness training

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

57

such as MBSR (Kabat-Zinn, 2011) and even becoming certified to deliver such a training.

Educators may also pursue informal mindfulness or contemplative training in the form of local

meditation groups (secular or non-secular) or yoga classes. These trainings may help the

educator who is anywhere from novice to expert mindfulness practitioner to continue to hone the

skills of concentration, compassion, and insight that are so integral to contemplative practice.

Third, we have not included specific approaches or suggestions for how this integrative approach

might align with the professional standards of different helping professions. Before

implementation, we suggest a careful review of programmatic professional standards to ensure

all learning outcomes and standards are addressed in these courses. Finally, students may

encounter discomfort or distress during mindful and other reflective work. We encourage

educators to disclose this potential risk to students and to provide appropriate resources as

necessary (e.g., university counseling center, professional consult, formal meeting with faculty,

etc.) (Goh, 2012; Wong, 2013.)

Conclusion

In this work, we endeavored to build upon that presented by Holt and Cottone (2014) and

Lahikainen and Soysa (2014) regarding bringing mindfulness into the human services profession.

While the incorporation of mindfulness into the helping process and relationship is at this point

not a novel concept, human services educators would be wise to continue to consider ways to

embed mindfulness into the training process of future human services professionals. As

presented earlier, ample evidence exists that claims the benefits of mindfulness not only for the

clients that human services professionals serve, but for the professionals (and professionals-in-

training) themselves.

As the popularity of mindfulness in the helping and layman communities has increased

dramatically over the past decade, we suggest that human services professionals and educators

work to develop a discerning eye for “pop” mindfulness, and include only evidence-based

mindfulness techniques and practices into their helping and educational work (e.g., Kabat-Zinn,

2013; Linehan, 2014). This will allow educators to introduce creative and innovative ways to

enhance client and student development in an ethical, scientifically supported way. Further,

while mindfulness is an increasingly secular process, we encourage human services educators

and their students to only adopt the dimensions of mindfulness with which they are culturally

comfortable and competent.

In closing, the purpose of this work was to propose a theoretically-based leveled model of

incorporating contemplative pedagogy into human services training via a mindfulness-based

helping skills course. We plan to build upon this work with a series of process and outcomes

evaluation studies. We intend to systematically assess the process of building and delivering each

of the three course levels, while also examining the short- and long-term impact of the varying

degrees of mindfulness integration on student learning outcomes. We invite our fellow educators

and researchers to implement and evaluate this model in efforts to continue to build evidence-

based methods of contemplative pedagogy for human services training.

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Connecting Human Services Students with Professional Experiences

Rebecca Bonanno, Tracy Galuski, Thalia MacMillan

Abstract

Faculty members developed an online course to assist and support adult students interested in

human services as they engaged in professional development opportunities in their communities.

The course, called “Professional Experiences in Community and Human Services,” helped to

connect students who were new to the field of human services with conferences, training, and

other events, enabling them to explore the profession in a structured and reflective way.

Introduction

Rationale for the Course

Students, particularly those who are new to the field of human services, need outside-of-

the-classroom experiences to expose them to the expectations, values, and goals of the

profession. With the increasing numbers of nontraditional undergraduates on college campuses

today, specifically those who are financially independent and working full or part-time (National

Center for Education Statistics, 2014), it is crucial that human services educators recognize that

not all students have the time and flexibility to engage in all aspects of professional

development—such as experiential or service learning and/or engagement with their future

profession. Nontraditional students face competing responsibilities, as well as economic and

situational barriers to degree completion such as the cost and accessibility of childcare and

transportation (Hardin, 2008; Ross-Gordon, 2011). At a college in the State University of New

York system that serves 20,000 nontraditional undergraduates annually, human services faculty

have found an innovative way to connect students to professional learning experiences in their

communities through the guidance of an online course.

Prior to developing the course, three faculty members identified a need among

nontraditional human services students to gain real-world exposure to the values, norms, and

practices of the human services profession. Some students who were new to the profession in

some capacity, either through changing careers or areas of interests, were not able or prepared to

undertake field experiences but could still benefit from some type of interaction with the

professional world. The idea emerged to help connect them with professional organizations,

seminars, and workshops in their own communities as a precursor to a service learning

experience. These opportunities would allow them to form pre-professional relationships

(network), learn practical knowledge and skills that would prepare them for future careers, and

become familiar with the opportunities in and expectations of their particular fields of interest.

Nontraditional learners, though likely to be highly intrinsically motivated to enhance their

skills and develop both personally and professionally (Bye, Pushkar & Conway, 2007), may lack

the knowledge needed to enter a new field. A study of adults seeking career counseling found

that many lacked information about careers and scored low on measures of their ability to

identify their own interests, talents, and goals (Lucas, 1999). The course developers believed that

connecting students with human services organizations and professionals in a time-limited and

structured way would support their growth in the qualities needed for successful career change.

Further, the course would provide students with a space to reflect on these experiences, with the

Rebecca Bonanno, Tracy Galuski, and Thalia MacMillan, Center for Distance Learning, SUNY Empire State College.

Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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support of classmates and an experienced instructor, and to connect experiences to their

individual learning and career goals.

Development of the Course

The asynchronous online course, called Professional Experiences in Community and

Human Services, was available for students over several semesters. The class sizes were small,

ranging from one to five students. The course was broken up into five topical modules with each

module lasting three weeks, and the students were asked to move through the modules as a group

over the 15-week semester. Each module included an outline and content pages called

perspectives which included content related to the fields of Aging, Disabilities, Early Childhood,

and Human Services. The content pages were followed by a written assignment and an open

discussion forum where the instructor facilitated a discussion to help the students gain a wider

perspective of the helping professions.

The course objectives required students to explore agencies and professional

organizations in their chosen field, and then attend and participate in a training or conference

opportunity offered by these organizations. After engaging in the professional development

activity, students shared their experiences with their classmates through online PowerPoint

presentations and discussions.

The instructor used a combination of assessment techniques in the course. Formative

assessment, in the form of narrative feedback, was provided in order to identify the student's

learning needs, help them improve the quality of their work, and assure overall success.

Summative assessment of student learning and participation was provided at the end of each

module in the form of numerical grades.

Delivering the Course

Two key techniques were utilized in the delivery of the online course to students. The

first was the creation of a positive atmosphere in which students could develop supportive

relationships with their instructor and with one another. This was especially important in

modeling for the students the skills of networking and building professional relationships. The

primary means through which students established and maintained relationships was online

discussion boards. Discussion board stem questions were used to promote student reflection on

their own professional interests and experiences. Instructors encouraged students to be creative

in their reflection. For example, several students posted pictures on the discussion boards to

illustrate what shaped their interests in this new area. The reflective discussions fostered a great

deal of engagement among the students as they realized that they shared a common interest,

learning goal, or quandary about the future.

The second strategy was guided exploration; specifically, exploring new areas with safe

boundaries. The instructor began each module with content pages that would present a topic to

the students. For example, the topic of organizations and agencies provided definitions and

examples within the field in order to show the range of options. Under the guidance of the

instructor who approved all of their interest areas, students were then asked to complete an

annotated bibliography assignment whereby they needed to explore on the internet and find two

professional organizations that supported their field and at least eight agencies in their field. The

discussion board for this module then asked students to discuss the organizations and agencies

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that they found, the process that they used to identify the organizations, challenges experienced,

and what they learned from the assignment.

In another module, students were tasked with seeking out professional development

opportunities such as conferences, workshops, or volunteer experiences that would help them

explore and engage with a sub-area of the human services. In preparation for choosing an

opportunity, they completed scaffolded assignments in which they researched the professional

expectations, organizations, and norms of the field they chose to explore. The students spoke

with the instructor about what field they were interested in; together they were able to choose

experiences that would both enrich them professionally and fit into their hectic schedules. The

module culminated with a reflection on attending the professional development opportunity

explaining what they learned regarding expectations of the field, what they would do differently

in the future, and what they learned that they had not already known. Through an iterative

process of bringing new information, reflection, and questions back to the class for discussion,

students were guided and supported in accommodating their knew knowledge.

Throughout the course, no students engaged in the same professional experience, as they

had varying interests. Once completed, the students returned to the course discussion boards and

other activities to share their experiences and ask one another questions. Several students

commented that they liked this opportunity to learn about additional areas of interest with their

classmates, including the types of human services organizations that exist, the professional

expectations within the field, and opportunities that may be available to them in the future. Many

called the course a “journey into the world of human services” that the instructors hope will

continue.

Implications for the Human Services Field

Further development of the course will include exploring additional ways for the students

to engage, network, and collaborate with each other, the instructor, and the profession. Though

the course instructors and developers were initially concerned that the class size would be too

small, they found that the small size enabled the instructor to mentor each student in their

professional development area of interest.

Other human service programs, particularly those with large populations of nontraditional

students, can benefit greatly from this type of course. Just as skills and knowledge are gradually

developed in students, this course has taught us that service learning needs to follow that same

pattern. The course provided students with a structured and guided first step into the field of

human services. With the connections made through the course—both with classmates and with

professionals in human services organizations—students now have a foundation upon which they

can begin to build or expand careers. The authors encourage human services faculty to explore

similar ways of connecting nontraditional students with professional experiences that will help to

prepare them for future field experiences and careers.

References

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nontraditional undergraduate students. Adult education quarterly, 57(2), 141-158.

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Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

64

Lucas, M. S. (1999). Adult career changers: A developmental context. Journal of Employment

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Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

65

Applying John Dewey’s Theory of Education to Infuse

Experiential Learning in an Introduction to Human Services Course

Michael T. Kalkbrenner, Radha J. Horton-Parker

Abstract

Teaching an introductory human services course is challenging, as educators must provide an

overview of effective practice in a highly diverse field. Researchers conducted a review of all of

the prior editions of the Journal of Human Services (JHS) to identify previous research on

experiential learning strategies in human services education. This brief note examines the

pedagogical practice of experiential learning and the application of John Dewey's theory for

successfully training students in an Introduction to Human Services course.

Introduction

Human Services (HS) professionals are generalists who assume a variety of roles while

working with clients in widely diverse settings (Neukrug, 2017). Teaching the Introduction to

Human Services course can be challenging, as educators are faced with the task of providing an

overview of a diverse field that requires hands-on learning (Haynes, 2005; Neukrug, 2017).

Experiential learning has been found to be effective in meaningfully facilitating students’ deeper

understanding of content in such courses (McAuliffe, 2011). The purpose of this brief report is to

provide an overview of how John Dewey’s (1933) theory of experiential learning that was used

as a theoretical framework to teach the Introduction to Human Services course.

The current researchers first began investigating the breadth of literature about

recommendations for implementing experiential learning pedagogy in human services education

by conducting a review of all published editions of the Journal of Human Services (JHS),

formerly referred to as Human Services Education. The purpose of this search was to determine

the breadth of existing research related to experiential learning strategies that can be applied in

the Introduction to Human Services Course. The researchers found that active learning pedagogy

in human services dates back almost 30 years.

The importance of incorporating active learning pedagogy into HS education first

appeared in JHS with Brittingham and McKinney’s (1987) discussion detailing the benefits of

infusing active learning strategies into HS education. Researchers emphasized the importance of

hands-on classroom activities for preparing students to translate theory into practice (Brittingham

& McKinney, 1987). During the following 25 years, a variety of articles about active and

experiential learning were published in JHS (Desmond & Stahl, 2011; Hagen, 1996; Hagen,

1992). Particular emphasis was placed upon methods and pedagogies for incorporating service

learning and cooperative learning into HS education (Desmond & Stahl, 2011; Hagen, 1996;

Hagen, 1992). However, there did not appear to be any previous research in JHS that specifically

addressed a theoretical framework for integrating experiential learning pedagogy into HS

education.

John Dewey's theory of education has been referred to as "perhaps the most influential

account of learner-engaged, experienced based education” (McAuliffe, 2011, p.15). Dewey

hypothesized that the major purpose of education was to facilitate students’ development of

reflexive thinking in order to promote the betterment of society (Dewey, 1933). When faced with

a problem, reflexive thinkers have the cognitive capacity to evaluate the situation from multiple

Michael T. Kalkbrenner and Radha J. Horton-Parker, Department of Counseling and Human Services,

Old Dominion University. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

66

perspectives and to critically evaluate information (McAuliffe, 2011). Dewey (as cited in

McAuliffe, 2011) believed that experiential education was essential, as students develop

reflexive thinking skills by engaging in cooperative learning activities which require critical

thinking and considering multiple courses of action.

Implications for HS: Applying Dewey’s Theory

in an Introduction to Human Services Course

John Dewey’s theory of experiential learning was utilized as a theoretical framework to

teach a 15-week Introduction to Human Services course at a Research-Intensive university. The

remainder of this brief report includes an explanation of how the major components of Dewey’s

theory were utilized as a theoretical framework for teaching the introductory HS course. The

course was structured around Dewey’s two key notions of Interest & Effort and Receptivity vs.

Activity (Dewey, 1897; Dewey, 1933; McAuliffe, 2011).

Interest and Effort

Dewey believed that students must first be interested in a topic before they will dedicate

effort and motivation to the learning process (Dewey, 1897; Dewey, 1933). Based on Dewey’s

notion of interest and effort, students in the introductory course were assigned a reflection paper

that required them to make an active effort to go out into the field and interview a HS

practitioner. Students were then given a series of reflection questions to help them process their

experience. The reflection questions were designed to trigger students’ interest and effort in

engaging with the field of human services. For example, students were asked to write about how

they believed each of the five situational factors that are outlined by Neukrug (2017), “economic,

geographical, health, social, and cultural” (p. 310), had impacted the occupation of the HS

professional that they interviewed. This reflection assignment allowed students to actively learn

about the field of HS while applying the five situational factors in the field.

Receptivity vs. Activity

Receptivity in learning is the process by which students passively receive knowledge

(McAuliffe, 2011). For example, students passively receive information as they listen to a

lengthy lecture. Dewey hypothesized that students learn more effectively and have the most

powerful deep learning experiences when they are actively involved in the learning process, as

opposed to when they passively receive information (Dewey, 1897; Dewey, 1933). Based on

Dewey’s notion of receptivity, the instructor of the Introduction to Human Services course

included experiential learning activities in each class. For example, students participated in the

team teach-back activity during the first day of class. The team teach-back activity involves

students collaboratively working in small groups to come up with creative strategies to teach

their classmates about a course-related topic (McAuliffe, 2011). Students were divided into small

groups where they were randomly assigned to review two of the 13 roles and functions of HS

professionals outlined by Neukrug (2017), then teach these two back to the class. This activity

effectively facilitated students’ active engagement in the course as they first learned new

material, and then came up with creative strategies to teach the material to their classmates. For

example, one group created a wheel of fortune game where their classmates enthusiastically

identified action verbs that were related to the job description of an outreach worker.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

67

Students participated in a variety of different experiential learning activities during each

class throughout the remainder of the semester. The experiential activities that were used in each

of the 15 modules for this course were adapted from Neukrug's (2017) text, which includes

multiple experiential activities for each topic that is covered in the introductory course,

including: case scenarios, ethical dilemmas, reflection exercises, and role plays.

Steps in Experiential Learning

As students’ receptivity, interest, and effort are cultivated, Dewey hypothesized that

learners progress through the following five conditions or phases of experiential learning:

indeterminate situations, intellectualizations, working hypothesis, reasoning, and action (Dewey,

1925; McAuliffe, 2011). Modules in the Introduction to Human Services course were

specifically tailored to facilitate students’ learning and to promote their curiosity in alignment

with each of Dewey’s phases of experiential learning.

Consistent with Dewey's theory, in the first stage, students encountered indeterminate

situations as they were exposed to vague, unfamiliar tasks or problems that had no single correct

answer (Dewey, 1925; McAuliffe, 2011). Every activity required that students reflect on the

situation and brainstorm several courses of action before deciding on a resolution. During one

class, for example, in small groups students were randomly assigned one of the “ethical and

professional vignettes” where they were exposed to scenarios where the best course of action

was unclear (Neukrug, 2017, p.25). Students then progressed into the intellectualization stage as

they realized that their previous ways of knowing were not sufficient to address the problem. For

example, students appeared to begin making the transition from dualistic to relativist ways of

thinking as they encountered ethical dilemmas that could not be resolved by their previous

schemas. During the intellectualization phase, students began to think about the problem that was

posed in the experiential learning activity in new and more complex ways (Dewey, 1925;

McAuliffe, 2011). Throughout the activity, students became increasingly comfortable sitting

with ambiguity as they accepted the notion that there is often times degrees of uncertainty when

seeking the best possible course of action in the context of a case study or ethical dilemma. To

help students become comfortable with ambiguity, the instructor encouraged students to have a

dialogue about how there were conflicts between the laws, values, and ethics in each scenario.

Students then actively came up with strategies for resolving these ethical dilemmas using

the “Ethical Standards of Human Services Professionals” (Neukrug, 2017, p. 316). Creating

strategies for resolving the ethical dilemma indicated that students had reached Dewey’s working

hypothesis stage which involves generating potential strategies for addressing a problem or

situation (Dewey, 1925). More specifically, students collaboratively brainstormed a variety of

possible solutions to ethical dilemmas through verbal dialogue and written reflections. Each

group then presented their strategies to the rest of the class. Collaboratively, students entered

Dewey’s reasoning stage where they brainstormed the consequences of possible courses of

action for addressing the problem. Learners entered the final action phase as they implemented

or tested their new hypotheses. Through active role plays, students practiced implementing their

newly generated solutions to ethical dilemmas. For example, the task in one group’s ethical

vignette was to decide how to address a situation where a co-worker was making racist and

offensive remarks (Neukrug, 2017, p.25). Students practiced role playing a variety of active

listening and assertive communication skills as they rotated role-playing the practitioner, co-

worker, and observer. After each role play, students processed the effectiveness of the skills that

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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they practiced. Students began to adopt the perspective that resolving ethical dilemmas was a

process rather than a dichotomous competency.

Recommendations for HS Education & Conclusion

John Dewey’s theory of experiential learning was utilized as a theoretical framework for

teaching a 15-week Introduction to Human Services course. The results of students’ formative and summative course evaluations indicated that the experiential learning activities facilitated a

deeper understanding of the course topics. To conclude, the authors recommend that instructors

of Introduction to Human Services courses incorporate Dewey’s theory into their pedagogies and

use texts that include a multitude of experiential activities to promote powerful learning in

students. Future research is needed to investigate the implications of using Dewey’s theory of

experiential learning to teach other HS courses. The implications from the current brief report,

however, suggest that Dewey’s theory may offer a valuable theoretical framework for infusing

experiential learning, and thus resolve the conundrum of how to make an Introduction to Human

Services course truly meaningful and relevant to practice.

References

Brittingham, B., & McKinney, L., K. (1987). Needed discussion and action in human services

education. Human Services Education, 8(1), 1-5.

Desmond, K. J., & Stahl, S. A. (2011). Implementing service learning into human service

education. Journal of Human Services, 31(1), 5-16.

Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the

educative process. Boston, MA: D.C. Health.

Dewey, J. (1925). Experience and nature. J. A. Boydston (Ed.). The later works of John Dewey

(Vol. 1). Carbondale & Edwardsville, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Dewey, J. (1897). The psychology of effort. The Philosophical Review, 6(1), 43-56.

Hagen, J. W. (1992). Use of cooperative learning in an introduction to human services course.

Human Service Education, 12(1), 37-45.

Hagen, J. W. (1996). Student perceptions of cooperative learning in human service

education. Human Service Education, 16(1), 47-56.

Haynes, S. (2005). The introductory course: A conundrum. Human Service Education, 25(1), 75-

79.

McAuliffe, G. (2011). Handbook of counselor preparation: Constructivist, developmental, and

experiential approaches (HCP). Alexandria: VA: Association for Counselor Education

and Supervision and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Neukrug, E. (2017). Theory, practice, and trends in human services: An introduction (6th ed.).

Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

69

Inclusion of “Human Service Professional” in

the Standard Occupational Classification System

Narketta Sparkman-Key, Edward Neukrug

Abstract

The human services field has continued to grow, and today, it is considered one of the major

social services professions. Despite its establishment, the Standard Occupational Classification

(SOC) continues to exclude the term “human service professional” from its classification system.

This manuscript encourages advocacy for such inclusion.

Introduction

Over the past few decades, there has been tremendous growth and development of the

field of human services (Neukrug, 2017). Despite this growth, inclusion of the term “human

service professional” by government sources, such as the Standard Occupational Classification

(SOC) system, has not been realized. This article briefly describes the development of human

services, identifies recent research that underscores the belief that human services is a unique

profession, and suggests advocacy for inclusion of the term “human services professional”

within the SOC.

The Establishment of the Human Services Profession

The 1960s saw a great increase in the kinds and numbers of social service agencies in the

United States (Zelizer, 2014) and a concomitant need for highly trained professionals.

Recognizing this need, Dr. Harold McPheeters of the Southern Regional Education Board

(SREB) obtained a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health to develop mental health

programs at community colleges in the South (Diambra, 2001; McPheeters, 1990). These

became the first associate-level human service degrees in the United States, and McPheeters is

often referred to as the “founder” of the human service field (McPheeters, 1990).

With an increased need for highly trained mental health practitioners, the mid-1970s saw

the importance of offering a bachelor’s degree in human services. Since that time, graduate

programs have also arisen (Diambra, 2001; Neukrug, 2017). Today, close to 900 associate,

bachelor, master’s, and doctoral level human service programs can be found across the country

(The College Board, 2016).

The emergence of the human service degree and profession led to the development of a

number of professional associations and services. In 1975, the National Organization for Human

Service Education (NOHSE) was founded and is now known as the National Organization for

Human Services (NOHS) (DiGiovanni, 2009). In 1979, NOHS launched the Journal of the

National Organization of Human Service Educators, later called the Journal of Human Services.

Four years after the establishment of NOHS, an affiliate association, the Council for Standards in

Human Service Education (CSHSE), was formed “to give focus and direction to education and

training in mental health and human service throughout” (CSHSE, n.d., History section, para. 5).

With the support of NOHS and CSHSE, the first ethics code in human services was

approved by NOHS in 1996. Recently revised (NOHS, 2015), this code covers 44 standards that

address a broad range of human service professional responsibilities. In 2009, in consultation

with CSHSE and NOHS, the Center for Credentialing in Education (CCE) established its first

Narketta Sparkman-Key and Edward Neukrug, Department of Counseling and Human Services,

Old Dominion University. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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credential: the Human Services—Board Certified Practitioner (HS—BCP). Today, CCE has

credentialed thousands of HS—BCP (Sparkman & Neukrug, 2014).

Today, the field of human services is unique in its training, unique in its ability to service

a wide range of clients, and unique in how it applies its skills to clients (Neukrug, 2017). The

generalist ideology sets human services apart from other fields, and in contrast to undergraduate

training in psychology, criminal justice, and sociology, human service education requires

extensive field placements that give students real-life experiences. As opposed to other, non-

applied degrees, human service students are ready to work when they graduate (Martin, 2014).

Recognition by the Standard Occupational Classification

Despite the establishment of the human service field over the past fifty years, the SOC

continues to exclude the term “human service professional” from its classification system (U.S.

Department of Labor, n.d.). Exclusion results in the term not being included in other

governmental resources, such as the Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) and Occupational

Information Network (O*NET). It ultimately limits the ability to find accurate career specific

information on the field.

To address this problem, the authors of this article, and one other researcher, determined

the Holland Code of members of NOHS to further establish the uniqueness of the human service

professional (Neukrug, Sparkman & Moe, in press). The Holland Code is a well-recognized

classification system for identifying job personality profiles. Using the O*NET Profiler-Short

form, members of NOHS were emailed. 355 respondents were shown to have a Holland Code of

“SA,” with I, E, C, and R being significantly lower than A, although pairing SA with I, E, or C

would be reasonable (i.e., SAI, SAE, or SAC). This code is similar to, but different from, a

number of related mental health professionals (e.g., mental health counselors (SIA); mental health

and substance abuse social workers (SIA); psychologists (SIA); marriage and family therapists

(SAI); child, family, and school social workers (SE); substance abuse and behavioral disorder

counselors (SAI), and others) (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.).

In an effort to advocate for the inclusion of “human service professional” in the SOC, the

researchers sent a manuscript that described the development of the human service profession

along with the results of the Holland Code study. Unfortunately, the researchers were told that

the term “social and human service assistant” encompassed what the human service professional

does at work, and the SOC revision committee would not consider adding the suggested term

(National Center for O*NET Development, personal communication, March 9, 2016).

It is our belief that the revision committee’s decision was ill-informed. This is because

the term “social and human service assistant” asserts that the “paraprofessional” does not need a

degree beyond a high school diploma and also suggests the helper is not an independent

practitioner at agencies (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). This identification clearly does

not match the current definition of “human service professional.” In addition, the Holland Code

of “social and human service assistant” is CSE (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.). As stated

previously, this code is significantly different from that found in our research. CSE is more

consistent with those who do assistant and supportive clerical tasks (U.S. Department of Labor,

n.d.). The use of the term “social and human service assistant” by the U.S. Bureau of Labor

Statistics, and non-acknowledgement of the term “human service professional,” creates

confusion for those interested in pursuing a career in human services.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

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Recognition of the term “human service professional” would alleviate this confusion and

be beneficial to the field in numerous ways. For instance, it would denote a human service

professional as separate from a social and human service assistant, thus immediately separating it

from a career that assumes a paraprofessional identity and has high school diploma as its needed

degree. Second, it would establish a mechanism whereby associations, such as NOHS and

CSHSE, would become more visible, as they would likely be referenced in the SOC and its

affiliates. Third, it would allow the public to understand who the human service professional is

and what he or she does. Fourth, it would allow for easy and reputable access for those seeking

information about degrees and careers as a human service professional. Finally, it would be one

of the most important ways to acknowledge that the field exists. Like its social service cousins—

social workers, counselors, and psychologists—human service professionals would also have

their place in highly recognized government publications.

Conclusion Since the 1960s, the human service profession has evolved into a major field that

includes professionals at all levels, professional associations, and a myriad of related

professional services. The time is ripe for the profession to be included in the SOC. Researchers

on the Holland Code of human service professionals, other interested human service

professionals, and the boards of NOHS and CSHSE must take the next step and aggressively

advocate for such inclusion. This important step in the development of the profession will denote

full acceptance of human service professionals in the professional community.

References

Council for Standards of Human Service Education. (n.d.). About CSHSE: The CSHSE history.

Retrieved from http://www.cshse.org/about.html

Diambra, J. F. (2001). Human services: The past as prelude. In T. McClam & M. Woodside

(Eds.), Human service challenges in the 21st century (pp. xvii–xxii). Birmingham, AL:

Ebsco Media.

DiGiovanni, M. (Ed.). (2009). Council for standards in human service education legacy: Past,

present, and future [Monograph]. Chicago, IL: Council for Standards in Human Service

Education.

Martin, M. (2014). Introduction to human services: Through the eyes of practice settings (3rd

Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.

McPheeters, H. (1990). Developing the human services generalist concept. In S. Fullerton & D.

Osher (Eds.), History of the human services movement [Monograph Series, Issue No. 7]

(pp. 31-40). Council for Standards in Human Service Education.

National Organization of Human Services. (2015). Ethical standards for human service

professionals. Retrieved from http://www.nationalhumanservices.org/ethical-standards-

for-hs-professionals

Neukrug, E., Sparkman, N., Moe, J. (in press). The Holland Code of human service

professionals: An examination of National Organization for Human Services members.

Journal of Employment Counseling.

Neukrug, E. (2017). Theory, practice, and trends in human services: An introduction (6th ed).

Belmont, CA: Cengage.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

72

Sparkman, N., & Neukrug, E. (2014). Perceptions of the HS—BCP credential: A survey of

human service professionals. Journal of Human Services, 34(1), 24-37.

The College Board. (2016). College search: Human services. Retrieved from

https://bigfuture.collegeboard.org/college-search

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2015). Occupational outlook handbook: Social and human

service assistant. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-

service/social-and-human-service-assistants.htm

U.S. Department of Labor. (n.d.). Standard occupational classification. Retrieved from

http://www.bls.gov/soc/

Zelizer, J. E. (2014). The fierce urgency of now: Lyndon Johnson, congress, and the battle for

the great society. New York, NY: Penguin Press.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

73

Creating an Interdisciplinary Human Services Program

Nicole Kras

Abstract

The field of human services is interdisciplinary in nature. Creating an interdisciplinary human

services program provides college faculty the opportunity to present students with a variety of

perspectives and encourages them to make meaningful connections between disciplines. This

case example provides an illustration of how a small college created an interdisciplinary human

services program.

Introduction

In recent years there has been an increase in interdisciplinary programs in higher

education (Stone, Bollard, & Harbor, 2009), and this approach to program design is common in

the field of human services. In fact, human services has been described as “uniquely approaching

the objective of meeting human needs through an interdisciplinary knowledge base” (National

Organization for Human Services, 2016, para. 1). There are several strengths of an

interdisciplinary perspective in program design, such as showing students how to move beyond

disciplinary boundaries and demonstrating “an increase in flexibility and innovation when

dealing with complex issues” (Stone, Bollard, & Harbor, 2009, p. 323). These strengths can be of

great significance when preparing human services students for their future careers.

Designing a successful interdisciplinary program requires faculty collaboration and a

strong leader who can facilitate this collaboration (Stone, Bollard, & Harbor, 2009). When

adopting this approach, it is important that all faculty involved support and work together on a

shared program vision. Some components of interdisciplinary programs may include team

teaching, developing an intellectual community focused on interdisciplinarity, and offering a

pedagogy aimed at achieving collaboration (Spelt, Biemans, Tobi, Luning, & Mulder, 2009). The

following is a case example of how the faculty and administration at a small college in

Connecticut designed an interdisciplinary human services program.

Case Example

The mission of our human services program is to take an interdisciplinary approach to

educating and preparing students for their careers. We believe taking an interdisciplinary

approach is important because students will be working in various locations and with diverse

populations. By taking this approach, we can expose students to a variety of perspectives and

experiences in the field of human services. The partnership between departments and faculty

demonstrates to the students the importance of collaboration between professionals in order to

meet the needs of the individuals they serve. This relationship also provides various faculty

perspectives from their areas of expertise. Since we are a small college, it also provides us the

opportunity to work with larger departments that offer other degree programs. The following are

some ways that our program is embracing an interdisciplinary approach.

The bachelor degree human services students take general education and human services

courses, as well as directed electives in psychology, sociology, and criminal justice. The faculty

Nicole L. Kras, Department of Human Services, Lincoln College of New England.

Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

74

and academic advisors work with students to focus on specific areas of interest that will benefit

them in their human services careers. Students in the bachelor’s degree program also have the

option of selecting one of three concentrations: criminal justice, community health, or

development.

The criminal justice concentration draws upon courses focusing on corrections, juvenile

justice, correctional counseling, and legal rights of victims. The general curriculum, plus these

courses, prepare students to work in careers related to probation or corrections and

residential/non-residential treatment facilities. These courses are taught by professors with

backgrounds in law, law enforcement, and corrections.

The community health and outreach concentration prepares students to work at

organizations that focus on community health services such as dental care, diabetes education,

preventative screenings, and women’s health. Courses in this concentration focus on community

health, holistic approaches, nutrition, marketing, and health psychology. These courses are taught

by nutritionists, professionals in the health care field, and psychologists.

The concentration in development prepares students to manage human services

organizations and focuses on organizational development and fundraising. Courses offered in

this concentration focus on management, marketing, grant writing, and fundraising. These

courses are taught by business professionals.

Taking an interdisciplinary approach to designing our human services program aligns

with The Council for Standards in Human Service Education (CSHSE, 2013) standards for

general program characteristics and curriculum. For example, the bachelor degree standards ask

for a description of the program’s interdisciplinary approach to knowledge, theories, and skills

included in the curriculum (Standard 2.e). The standards also call for faculty with a strong and

diverse knowledge base (Standard 6) and for the curriculum to provide an interdisciplinary team

approach to problem solving (Standard 19.f). The core of our human services program is

designed based on these interdisciplinary CSHSE standards.

Our human services program is only one example of how an interdisciplinary program

can be designed. We are consistently updating our program based on current research in related

fields, as well as feedback from students, faculty, site supervisors, and our advisory board. As

our program evolves, we will continue to look for ways to incorporate our interdisciplinary

approach into all areas of program design. We believe this is the most effective approach to best

meet the needs of our students as we prepare them for careers in the human services field.

References

Council for Standards in Human Services. (2103). National standards: Baccalaureate degree in

human services. Retrieved from http://www.cshse.org/pdfs/Standards-Baccalaureate.pdf

National Organization of Human Services. (2016). What is human services? Retrieved from

http://www.nationalhumanservices.org/what-is-human-services.

Spelt, E., Biemans, H., Tobi, H., Luning, P., & Mulder, M. (2009). Teaching and learning in

interdisciplinary higher education: A systematic review. Education Psychology Review,

21, 365-378.

Stone, T., Bollard, K., & Harbor, J. (2009). Launching interdisciplinary programs as college

signature areas: An example. Innovative Higher Education, 34, 321-329.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

75

Gaining Understanding of Human Services

Professionals: A Survey of NOHS Membership

Narketta Sparkman-Key, Alyssa Reiter

Abstract

Through a survey of the National Organization for Human Services (NOHS), this article

examines the demographics, credentials, and interest in becoming involved in the human services

profession as well as in advocacy efforts for human services issues. It is hoped that the findings

will be used to further define the nature of the human services professional, to expand

recruitment efforts by NOHS, to assist in conference planning, and to help define curriculum

standards within human services accreditation.

Introduction

The National Organization of Human Services (NOHS) focuses on embracing, engaging

and expanding membership within the organization to support its mission “to foster excellence in

human service delivery through education, scholarship and practice” (National Organization of

Human Services [NOHS], n.d., “About Us,” para. 1). In recent years, NOHS has been at the

forefront of establishing the field of human services and branding the identity of human service

practitioners, educators, and students (Sparkman & Neukrug, 2014). However, NOHS was once

an organization in which membership consisted solely of educators. Over a 30-year span, it has

expanded to include practitioners and students (NOHS, n.d.). As reported by the NOHS

membership chair, a recent account of members has indicated significant growth in membership

over the last few years (personal communication, February 12, 2016).

Today, NOHS is home to 1,771 members, including 1,246 student members, 333

educators/practitioners, and 176 organizational members (personal communication, February 12,

2016). As a result of the growth in membership, the current governing body of NOHS thought it

was important to assess its membership in order to gain insight that would lend information to

expand professional development opportunities, guide conference focus, form committees, guide

marketing, recruit members, and understand the needs of those served by NOHS (NOHS Board,

personal communication, June 6, 2014). It was then implied that this information would be

useful in advocating for the field and provide a foundation for further research that seeks to

clarify the identity of human services professionals.

Methodology The current membership chair and advocacy chair of NOHS, with input from the entire

NOHS board, developed a survey to assess the demographics of their membership, suggestions

for advocacy, areas of experience with advocacy, and interest in service within NOHS (NOHS

Board, personal communication, August 20, 2014).

Instrument Questions were developed based on demographic categories identified within the United

States Census (U.S. Census Bureau, n. d.) and demographics found in previous survey research

studies (Neukrug & Sparkman, 2014). Additional questions were added to address NOHS

membership specific information, such as interest in organizational service and Tau Upsilon

Narketta Sparkman-Key and Alyssa Reiter, Department of Counseling and Human Services,

Old Dominion University. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

76

Alpha Honors Society affiliation. The questionnaire was piloted by soliciting a select group of 10

NOHS members, and alterations were made based on feedback from that group. The executive

board of NOHS provided primary human subjects approval of the survey. The questionnaire

consisted of 23 items that assessed age, gender identity, sexual/relational orientation,

race/ethnicity, geographic location/regional affiliation, education, field of study as well as

advocacy interest, experience with advocacy, and suggestions for how to improve NOHS

advocacy efforts. Additionally, the questionnaire assessed whether participants held a

professional credential in their respective fields, had membership in Tau Upsilon Alpha (TUA),

and had interest in national service in NOHS. A final item asked for additional comments.

Data Collection Researchers collected data via the Internet using Survey Monkey. Registered current

members were emailed the link to the questionnaire on four separate occasions from November

2014 to October 2015. The questionnaire was also available on the organization website under

the secure “members only” tab, allowing for current members to participate. In addition, new

members were emailed the questionnaire after membership was confirmed. Announcements

were also made at the NOHS conferences to members to encourage participation in the emailed

study. Participants had the option of opting out of the survey at any time and consent was

obtained prior to participants beginning the survey.

Of 1771 members, 440 individuals participated for a response rate of 24.34%, which

surpassed the needed response rate of 316 for a 95% confidence rate and 5% margin of error.

The response rate is about average with other sociological email surveys (Shih & Fan, 2009).

Findings Participants reported their ethnic/cultural heritage, having the option of making more

than one selection. Of the respondents, 52.44% (n = 226) were identified as White, 39.91% (n =

172) as Black or African American, 8.82% (n = 38) Hispanic or Latino, and 5.81% (n = 25) as

Asian, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, or American Indian or Alaska Native. 6.51% (n =

30) identified as having multiple ethnicities or racial identities.

Respondents ranged in age from 17-72 years old with 32.19% (n = 141) identifying as

46-55 years old, 23.52% (n = 103) as 36-45, 16.44% (n = 72) as 25-35, 5.02% (n = 22) as 18-24,

4.11% (n = 18) as 66-75, and .46% (n = 2) as under 18. Master's degree was the highest degree

earned by 27.59% (n = 109) of the respondents, followed by 22.53% (n = 89) with a bachelor's

degree, 20.25% (n = 80) with a doctorate, 16.71% (n = 66) with an associate's degree, and

12.91% (n = 51) of participants with a high school diploma or GED.

Participants were asked to identify their professional identity and 58.6% (n = 258)

selected more than one profession. However, the majority of members, 91.96% (n = 389), are

currently in the human services field. Additionally, 31.91% (n = 135) were in the counseling

field, 24.82% (n = 105) in social work, and 16.31% (n = 69) in psychology. Some also noted

additional fields they were in: 36.96% (n = 17) specified education, 34.78% (n = 16) medical

field, 17.39% (n = 8) business, and 6.52% (n = 3) criminal justice. An additional 4.35% (n = 2)

of participants indicated they were unemployed or did not specify their career field. Respondents were asked to indicate whether they were credentialed in their field, and

47.83% (n = 208) indicated that they were. Additionally, 50.29% (n = 210) responded that they

were not credentialed or the question was not applicable to them. Some participants, 1.88%

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

77

(n=8.27), did not respond to this question. NOHS members with the Human Services Board

Certified Practitioner (HS-BCP) credential comprised 17.05% (n = 59) of responses.

Respondents with counseling-related certifications (Licensed Professional Counselor, Marriage

and Family Therapist, Chemical Dependency Counselor Assistant, Licensed School Counselor,

Licensed Mental Health Counselor, Certified Rehabilitation Counselor, National Certified

Counselor, Certified Substance Abuse Counselor) were 11.88% (n = 41), Social Work related

credentials (identified by respondents as Licensed Clinical Social Worker, Master Social Work

and Clinical Social Worker) were 6.96% (n = 24), and psychology related certification and

licensure (Licensed Psychologist, Licensed Clinical Psychologist, Licensed Clinical

Psychotherapist) made up 1.74% (n = 6) of responses. In addition, 6.09% (n = 21) of NOHS

members reported that they were credentialed in a field other than human services, counseling,

social work, and psychology. Some such fields were nursing, EMT, insurance, religious

leadership, and teaching. Those with dual certification or licensure accounted for 4.06% (n = 14)

of responses.

Geographically, most respondents—41.85% (n = 154)—reside in the Southern region of

the United States. This is followed by 21.20% (n = 78) residing in the Midwest region, 17.66%

(n = 65) in the Western region, 12.23% (n = 45) in New England, and 7.07% (n = 26) in the

Northwest. All states, with the exception of Montana and Utah, were represented within the

survey responses. Aside from the United States, one participant indicated their country of origin

as Japan and two indicated their country of origin as Canada. A great portion of respondents,

45.69% (n = 191), indicated they lived in an urban area, 30.62% (n = 128) indicated they live in

a suburban area, and 23.68% (n = 99) in a rural area.

When asked to identify their gender, the majority marked female (80.37% [n = 352]) and

19.63% (n = 186) male. Over ninety percent (99.77%; n = 485) reported they did not identify as

transgender and .23% (n = 5) did not respond. In regards to sexual/relational orientation, 89.12%

(n = 344) identified as heterosexual, 3.37% (n = 13) as bisexual, 3.11% (n = 12) as lesbian,

2.59% (n = 10) as gay, and the remaining 2.85% (n = 11) identified as either asexual, pansexual,

questioning, or queer.

In relation to participation in Tau Upsilon Alpha Honors Society (TUA), 17.03% (n =

46) reported that they were members of TUA. When asked about their interest in working more

closely with NOHS by serving on committees, 46.33% (n = 183) indicated an interest in serving

on a NOHS committee and 63.67% (n = 212) of those mentioned were specifically interested in

participating in advocacy activities. Of all respondents, 17.36% (n = 46) indicated that they

would like to see the organization advocate for issues related to “community services.” This was

followed by homelessness (13.58%; n = 36), abuse (9.81%; n = 26), mental health (6.42%; n =

17), and youth related issues (5.66%; n = 15). Those that replied indicated that activities

involving youth and children (10.10%; n = 20), family services (5.56%; n = 11), and education

(5.56%; n = 11) were most important.

Respondents were also asked how NOHS could improve their current advocacy efforts.

Respondents largely expressed that they did not have much knowledge of NOHS’s current

advocacy agenda and as a result could not address what could be improved (51.69%; n = 92).

However, 24.16% (n = 43) of the respondents indicated that NOHS should focus their efforts on

increasing visibility of the organization and increasing awareness of the field of human services.

6.18% (n = 11) would also like to see improved communication between the organization and its

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

78

members, and 6.74% (n = 12) would like the organization to provide more resources for both

members and their clients.

Discussion The demographic information presented in this discussion has specific implications for

NOHS and for the field of human services. First, this information provides understanding of the

organization’s membership, which can be used in marketing and advertising to increase

membership, visibility of the association, and awareness of NOHS. In particular, the survey

highlights the importance of recruitment of underrepresented populations, especially males,

ethnic minority groups, and those human service professionals living in regions other than the

South. Second, by identifying credentials of members, it allows the membership to provide

targeted professional development activities for its members. Third, the survey tells us what

kinds of advocacy efforts the organization should most likely to focus upon. In particular, it

suggests community services, homelessness, mental health issues, and youth issues are of

particular interest to its members. Relative to advocacy, the survey suggests that members are not

familiar with those efforts NOHS is now taking, and that in general, the association should

increase its communication with its members. All of these efforts could improve the visibility of

the profession and enhance the quality of services received by clients. Additionally, this

information can be useful to those human service programs seeking accreditation through

Council for Standards in Human Services Education, which accredits human services education

programs (Council for Standards in Human Services Education [CSHSE], 2011, “About

CSHSE”, para. 1). This study provides understanding of human service professionals’ identity,

education and credentialing that can serve as a baseline when addressing standard 6: “The

combined competencies and disciplines of the faculty for each program shall include both a

strong and diverse knowledge base and clinical/practical experience in the delivery of human

services to clients” (Council for Standards in Human Services Education [CSHSE], 2011,

“National Standards,” para. 6). Finally, the information presented in this study provides a

platform for future research aimed toward exploring diversity and advocacy within the field.

Though limited in scope, this study adds to the body of knowledge regarding the identity

of the human service professional by adding to our understanding of the education, credentials,

demographics, and interests of those within the NOHS membership. Additionally, the study has

provided useful suggestions for the utilization of findings in the recruitment of NOHS members,

conference planning, and expanding communication within the organization. Finally, this study

provides information for program faculty to help them understand the varied kinds of educational

backgrounds that may be indicative of faculty who typically work in human service education.

The information found in this study is important in further clarifying the field and solidifying its

position among other helping professions.

References

Buse, K., Bernstein, R. & Bilimoria, D. (2014). The influence of board diversity, board diversity

policies and practices, and board inclusion behaviors on nonprofit governance practices.

Journal of Business Ethics, 133(1), 179-191. doi:10.12783/issn.2328-2967/56/S1/6 Council for Standards in Human Services Education. (2011). About CSHSE. Retrieved from

http://www.cshse.org/about.html.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

79

National Organization of Human Services. (n.d.). About us. Retrieved from

http://www.nationalhumanservices.org/about-us-page.

Neukrug, E., & Sparkman, N. (2014). Perceptions of the HS-BCP credential: A survey of human

service professionals. Journal of Human Services, 34(1), 24-37. Shih, T., & Fan, X. (2009). Comparing response rates in email and paper surveys: A meta-

analysis. Educational Research Review, 4(1), 26-40, doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2008.01.003

U. S. Census Bureau. (n. d.). Race. Retrieved from

http://www.census.gov/topics/population/race.html Woodside, M., & McClam, T. (2015). An introduction to human services (8th ed.). Belmont,

CA:Cengage Learning.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

80

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

81

Review of College for Convicts:

The Case for Higher Education in American Prisons

Shoshana D. Kerewsky, Deanna Chappell Belcher

Book Review

With College for Convicts: The Case for Higher Education in American Prisons,

Christopher Zoukis (2014) enters the ongoing national debate on rehabilitation versus

punishment for people convicted of crimes. Specifically, he argues that prison education

programs benefit both convicts and society. His particular areas of focus, as well as the questions

left unexplored, provide a basis for useful critical discussion with students, educators, and

administrators.

One of the book’s chief assets is its accessibility. Human services students who are not

following the ongoing and intensifying national debate about prison reform (for example, who do

not know that prisoners once had access to Pell Grants, then did not, and now might again) will

find Zoukis’s (2014) overview helpful. The book includes an historical overview of prison

education, a discussion of barriers to education faced by both individual convicts and prison

systems, examples of successful programs and partnerships, and resources. His practical

suggestions include approaches used in other countries as well as appendices providing concrete

information, such as sources for prisoners to obtain free and inexpensive books. Zoukis

incorporates references to a great many studies on issues such as the relationship between lack of

education and recidivism, the cost of education versus reincarceration, and the impacts of

educational attainment on both prison functioning and community crime rates. This material will

be extremely helpful for human services students wrestling with these ideas for the first time.

Since human services students and professionals may work with prisoners and people with

previous convictions, both in detention or transition settings and in the general client population,

their increased awareness of these issues will provide an important context for their clients’

experiences and needs. The book should also prove useful for educators and administrators

considering partnerships with prison education programs and developing relevant field study

placements for students.

Zoukis (2014) is currently incarcerated; his book is likely to move and inspire college

students to consider their relative privilege and to challenge their assumptions about people who

are incarcerated. In this regard, the book also serves as a personal, humanizing document, both

through Zoukis’s account of his own story and those of other incarcerated people (including

older people and those serving life sentences). These sections bring the statistics and Zoukis’s

arguments for prisoner education alive.

Zoukis (2014) sometimes loses this personal connection in paragraphs and sections of

dense statistical reportage. Instructors may need to help students find a good balance between

important questions, such as how a community benefits economically when it educates former

offenders, and students’ recognition of shared humanity with the people being discussed.

Students with past convictions may seek entry to human services programs in order to

contribute to the community or help those similar to themselves; Paulson, Groves, and Hagedorn

(in press) note that community college human services programs may not be permitted to

exclude people with criminal backgrounds from enrollment due to open enrollment admissions

Shoshana D. Kerewsky and Deanna Chappell Belcher, Family & Human Services Program, University of Oregon,

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Shoshana D. Kerewsky at [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

82

policies. In their anonymous survey of 90 enrolled college human services students, 1/3 reported

at least one conviction (17 reported misdemeanors; 13 reported felonies). Given the potential

presence of students who are former prisoners in the human services classroom, the instructor’s

active guidance of the discussion will be crucial for maintaining respectful dialogue and a

welcoming attitude. Paulson, Groves, and Hagedorn also provide a useful discussion of human

services programs’ admissions and conduct gatekeeping considerations related to potential

students with a history of convictions. Classroom and faculty/staff conversations may serve as a

productive starting point for discussions regarding goodness of fit for different careers in human

services.

One of the educational partnerships Zoukis (2014) references is the Inside-Out Prison

Exchange Program, which fosters conversation and learning between incarcerated people and

college students. Inside-Out students regularly describe their experiences as life changing and

extremely meaningful. This is not, as Zoukis states, because undergraduates are trained to teach

in correctional institutions, but because they are open to the experience of learning side by side

in a correctional setting in a group composed of half students who are incarcerated and half

traditional college students. The equalization of power and mutual learning is an important

aspect of the Inside-Out program, making it a superb learning experience for human services

students. Being equals with individuals who are incarcerated allows students to see issues of

incarceration and education in a new light. They come to respect and admire their “inside”

classmates, which surprises many of them and inspires them to step outside the mindset of being

a savior whose role is to help or uplift the prisoners. This is an important component of social

justice education and critical thinking for our undergraduates.

Zoukis (2014) is not highly or explicitly critical of the underlying assumptions behind the

denial of education to incarcerated people. It would be useful for instructors to help students

examine the current and historical political forces that have led to the U.S.’s contemporary prison

industrial complex. In this regard, Zoukis may be taught as one component in a constellation of

readings that include Davis’s (2003) Are Prisons Obsolete? and Alexander’s (2012). The New

Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness.

References

Alexander, M. (2012). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness.

New York, NY: The New Press.

Davis, A. Y. (2003). Are prisons obsolete? New York, NY: Seven Stories Press.

Paulson, J., Groves, L., and Hagedorn, L. A. (in press). Advocacy in action: Supporting human

services students with a criminal justice history. In S. D. Kerewsky (Ed.), Fitness for the

human services profession: Preliminary explorations Alexandria, VA: Council for

Standards in Human Service Education.

Zoukis, C. (2014). College for convicts: The case for higher education in American prisons.

Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

83

Book review: Herman, J. (2015). Trauma and recovery:

The aftermath of violence-from domestic abuse to political terror.

Justin Spiehs, Kayla Waters

Book Review

Judith Herman, M.D., is a researcher and clinician who specializes in trauma studies and

working with survivors of trauma. Her vast experience is evident in the way that the book paints

a vivid portrait of the impact of trauma on the lives of survivors. The book is easy to read,

sometimes as hard to put down as a good novel. Yet, it is densely packed with research and

clinical insights. The book consists of a main body published in 1992, an afterword added in

1997, and an epilogue added in 2015.

Part 1 reviews extensive research on various trauma types, from military combat and

imprisonment, to Nazi concentration camps, to child sexual abuse and domestic violence. One of

the greatest accomplishments of the book is that the research is woven together in a way that

cross-validates the experiences of each group. By identifying a common, predictable pattern of

symptoms across diverse sufferers, she allows the socially powerful (e.g. soldiers, POWs) to lend

credibility and respectability to the socially disempowered (e.g. childhood incest and domestic

violence survivors). Part 1 also calls for new diagnostic criteria for symptoms of trauma, which

has somewhat come to fruition with the new DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. Herman displayed great

foresight having written about this need back in 1992.

Part 2 presents a sequential 5-stage model of trauma recovery: 1) A Healing Relationship,

2) Safety, 3) Remembrance and Mourning, 4) Reconnection, and 5) Commonality. The first two

stages stress the importance of the therapeutic relationship as the healing agent. Herman pays

very careful attention to transference, counter-transference, and vicarious traumatization in

working with survivors. Herman’s presentation and normalization of these issues help prepare

the clinician to be mindful of risks to client and self, promoting appropriate use of supervision

and deliberate self-care. The third stage involves the telling of the trauma narrative (at the

survivor’s discretion). The fourth stage is existential and attachment-based in nature;

reconnection (to others or a social cause) helps survivors find a new sense of meaning in life.

The fifth stage focuses on group work with the underlying assumption that universality of

experience helps survivors know that they too can heal. Herman’s description of the 5-stage

model draws on her vast clinical experience and review of the literature and offers many insights

and recommendations for effective practice with survivors. One of the more profound insights is

the importance of the sequencing of the stages. Herman offers a clear argument for developing a

therapeutic relationship and establishing basic safety/grounding skills (e.g. de-escalation of

triggered physiological arousal and dissociation) before inviting the client to share the trauma

narrative.

The later additions provide updated literature reviews and information on timely topics

such as more recent wars and military sexual trauma. The Epilogue includes a passionate reveal

of the institutional betrayal survivors must contend with when “those in positions of authority, by

their acts of omission and commission, effectively take the side of the perpetrators in their midst”

(p. 255). It is a call to social action that should resonate with the human services community.

Justin Spiehs and Kayla Waters, Department of Human Services, Washburn University.

Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to [email protected].

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

84

She also discusses holistic approaches such as body-oriented therapies, and the integration of

yoga and Pilates into trauma work. The Afterword and Epilogue are excellent, but the book

would be improved if they were woven into a re-write of the main text, rather than tacked-on to

the end. A full revision of the 1992 text might also yield a more hopeful tone to Part 1, which can

be overwhelmingly gloomy when one realizes that many human services students and

practitioners are trauma survivors. It should be possible to include research on resilience and

post-traumatic growth while still respecting the gravity of the psychological injury suffered by

trauma survivors. On a positive note, the grave nature of the book can help students understand

the importance of beginning self-care and personal healing before entering trauma work.

For the advanced audience, this book is strongly recommended without reservation. It

should fit within the curriculum of any graduate program preparing future clinicians to work with

trauma survivors in a variety of human services fields, including victim/survivor services,

counseling, and advocacy work, as well as corrections, addictions, military, etc. One author (J.S.)

found the content to be invaluable in his graduate level clinical preparation to work with

survivors of sexual violence. In particular, the psychodynamic, social, and political implications

of sexual violence that Herman discusses were incredibly helpful for validating many of the

clinical experiences he encountered as an intern therapist. The level of accuracy this book

portrays is quite stunning. He has not come across any text since that has been more accurate,

insightful, and helpful than this book is for preparing clinicians.

However, the other author (K.W.), reviewing the book from a background in

undergraduate teaching, has some concerns about its use with a more general audience, such as

undergraduate students from human services, criminal justice, sociology, nursing, and other

areas that include victim/survivor services classes. First, the book requires some background

knowledge; terms like depersonalization and introjection are not defined for the reader. More

importantly, a beginning or general audience may be taken aback by the author’s explicit agenda

to use the book to promote the cause of feminist therapy without ever really describing what it is

and what it means. An advanced audience educated in feminist theory will likely appreciate this

perspective, but some undergraduate students may be distracted by a few early statements in the

book, such as Herman’s description of the book as “a collective feminist project” (p. vii), her

quoting of Brownmiller suggesting that rape is “a conscious process of intimidation by which all

men keep all women in a state of fear” (p. 30), or Herman’s own assertion that presently “there is

war between the sexes” (p. 32). To use this book with a more general or beginning audience

would require careful preparation of students, or else some of them may feel marginalized,

alienated, or even attacked within the first chapter. That being said, the book provides excellent

information on many aspects of trauma, including confusing areas like dissociation, suppression,

repression, and delayed recall. It also provides a clear foundation for understanding the

sometimes baffling and frustrating symptoms of traumatic stress in a way that makes them

meaningful and predictable. For both clinicians and other helpers, the information in this book

will improve understanding, communication, and services for survivors of trauma.

Reference

Herman, J. (2015). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence-from domestic abuse to

political terror. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

85

Guidelines for Authors

The Journal of Human Services (JHS) is a national refereed journal. Manuscripts judged by the

editors that fall within the range of interest of the journal are submitted to reviewers without the

names and identifying information of the authors. The principal audiences of JHS are human

service faculty members, administrators, practitioners, and undergraduate and graduate students.

Sample areas of interest include teaching methods, models of internships, faculty development,

career paths of graduates, credentialing, accreditation, models of undergraduate and graduate

study, clinical issues in human service treatment, and supervision of human service practitioners.

JHS publishes three types of submissions: 1) articles, 2) brief notes, and 3) critical reviews of

instructional materials and scholarly books of interest to human service educators.

Directions for each type of submission include the following:

1. Articles. Manuscripts for articles should not exceed eighteen (18) typed pages. The page limit

includes all pages of the manuscript excluding the title page (i.e., abstract, reference pages,

tables, and graphs). Manuscripts may not exceed this page limit. Following the title page,

include an abstract of not more than 100 words. This statement should express the central idea of

the article in non-technical language and should appear on a page separate from the text.

2. Brief Notes. Submissions appropriate for this format include brief reports of research projects

or program innovations. Manuscripts should not exceed four (4) double-spaced typed pages; it is

recommended that the results and implications occupy at least half of the brief note. A 50-word

capsule statement should accompany the note.

3. Critical Reviews. JHS accepts reviews of textbooks, other instructional materials, and

scholarly books of interest to human service educators and practitioners. Manuscripts should not

exceed three (3) typed pages unless two or more related books are included in one review, in

which case manuscripts should not exceed five (5) typed pages.

The following instructions apply to all three types of submissions:

1. Manuscripts should be well organized and present the idea in a clear and concise manner. Use

headings and subheadings to guide the reader. Avoid the use of jargon and sexist terminology.

2. Manuscripts should be typed in 12-point type with margins of one inch on all four sides. All

materials should be double spaced including references, all lines of tables, and extensive

quotations.

3. All material should conform to the style of the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the

American Psychological Association.

4. Avoid footnotes wherever possible.

Journal of Human Services Fall/2016

86

5. Tables should be kept to a minimum. Include only essential data and combine tables whenever

possible. Each table should be on a separate page following the reference section of the article.

Final placement of tables is at the discretion of the editors.

6. Figures (graphs, illustrations) must be supplied in electronic format and must be in black and

white with a minimum of gray shading. Use of submitted figures or a re-rendering of the figures

for clarity is at the discretion of the editors.

7. Two (2) copies of the manuscript must be electronically submitted (Microsoft Word or text

file versions only). The first version should include, on a separate page, the title of the article, the

names of the authors, their professional titles, and their institutional affiliations. The second

version must be free of any identifying information. Articles’ titles and headings should be as

short as possible.

8. Check all references for completeness; make sure all references mentioned in the text are

listed in the reference section and vice versa. Please include doi numbers when relevant.

9. Manuscripts are edited for consistency of grammar, spelling, and punctuation. In some cases,

portions of manuscripts may be reworded for conciseness or clarity of expression.

10. Manuscripts are accepted for review with the understanding that they represent original work

and are not under review by another publication.

NOTE: All manuscripts must meet the specifications detailed above or they will be

returned to the authors before review for publication.

Send two (2) electronic Microsoft Word or text file versions of the manuscript, one with and one

without identifying information, as well as inquiries concerning the publication via e-mail to:

Editor

Journal of Human Services (JHS)

[email protected]

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National Organization for Human Services

Journal of Human Services

A Journal of the

National Organization for Human Services

Volume 34, Number 1 ● Fall 2014

ISSN 0890-5428

National Organization for Human Services

Journal of Human Services

A Journal of the

National Organization for Human Services

Volume 34, Number 1 ● Fall 2014

ISSN 0890-5428

Journal of H um

an S ervices • Volum

e 36, N um

ber 1 ● Fall 2016

How do you measure student success?

� e HS-BCP exam provides us with data on student performance in distinct areas of our curriculum. We use the results for our annual evaluative data to determine if we are

meeting our outcome objectives. “

–Susan Kinsella, Ph.D., MSW, HS-BCP Dean, School of Education and Social

Services Saint Leo University

The Human Services-Board Certifi ed Practitioner Examination (HS-BCPE) independently verifi es a student’s human services knowledge. It was created through the collaboration of human services subject matter experts and normed on a population of professionals in the fi eld. The HS-BCPE covers the following areas:

Access objective results on your student’s knowledge of human services principles and measure the strength of your

human services program. Learn more:

http://www.cce-global.org

™

How do you measure student success?

1. Assessment, treatment planning and outcome evaluation

2. Theoretical orientation/interventions 3. Case management, professional

practice and ethics 4. Administration, program development/

evaluation and supervision

National Organization for Human Services

Journal of Human Services

A Journal of the National Organization

for Human Services Volume 36, Number 1 ● Fall 2016

ISSN 0890-5428

63263_NOHS_covers_nk.indd 1 9/20/2016 7:30:25 AM