MBA 6941 - Managing Project Teams (Project)
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proj.man-chap.17reference.pdf
C H A P T E R 1 7
E X E C U T I O N A N D C O N T R O L
D u r i n g execution, m
o s t of the w
o r k to deliver the project objectives (btuld the n
e w asset) is done,.
a n d thus m
o s t o f the expenditure m
a d e . T h e stage starts with completion of detailed plaruiing a
n d
design. A t the previous stage, sufficient design (front-end design) has b
e e n d o n e to prove the con-
cept a n d obtain financing. F
r o m the detail design a
cost estimate wrresponding to the fourth line of Tables 12.1 a
n d 12.2 ("ControP') is developed. This design m
a y require three or four times as m
u c h
effort as the front-end design developed at the'previous stage, but it is only d o n e after the project has
b e e n proved a
n d finance raised. W
o r k c a n n o w begin. Resources are selected, a
n d they plan the detail
w o r k o n a rolling -
w a v e basis. W
o r k is authorized b
y the project m
a n a g e r a n d allocated to teams or
individuals. A s w o r k is done, progress is measured to ensure the desired results are achieved, that
is, the n e w asset is delivered within the constraints o
f quality, cost, a
n d time, a
n d it will achieve the
required benefit. If there is a shortfall, appropriate recovery action is taken. This m
a y m e a n doing
nothing because the variances are small, replanning the w o r k to recover the original plan, or revising
the plan to accept the current situation. I n extremis, it m
a y m e a n ternunating the project.
In this chapter, I describe the m
a n a g e m e n t o f the execution stage. I
start b y explaining i
m p l e m e n -
tation planning, including the selection o f resources a
n d allocation o
f work. I
then describe control, including the requirements for effective control, h
o w to monitor progress a
n d analyze variances to
forecast completion, and h o w to take action to respond to deviations f
r o m plan.
77, 7 I M P L E M E N T A T I O N P L A N N I N G
A s s i g n i n g R e s o u r c e s t o t h e Project
O n e o f the recurrent questions of project m
a n a g e m e n t is, D
o y o u assign w
o r k to people or people to
w o r k ? I n o n e approach, assigning w
o r k to people, y
o u f o r m a project team; they decide h
o w best to
achieve the projects objectives, a n d assign w
o r k to themselves. T
h e risk is y
o u will find the skills of
the people in the t e a m are inappropriate for the w
o r k y o u have to do. I
n the other approach, assign-
ingpeople to work, y o u define the scope o
f w o r k a n d then f
o r m a project t
e a m of appropriate skills.
T h e risk is that the project m
a n a g e r will not b
e a technical expert, a
n d s o will b
e dictating to experts
h o w they should undertake the task. T o o v e r c o m e this d
i l e m m a , y o u develop the definition o
f the w
o r k a n d the organization in paral-
lel d o w n the b
r e a k d o w n structure. During the concept stage, y
o u define the areas o
f w o r k and the
functional areas o f the organization involved. D
u r i n g the feasibility stage, y
o u w o r k with funcrional
managers to develop the milestone plan a n d responsibility chart at the strategic level. F
r o m the
responsibility chart, y o u determine the skill types required and f
o r m a team. T
h e t e a m m e m b e r s
determine h o w they think the w
o r k should b
e d o n e a n d so define the w
o r k at the activity level. T
h e
project m a n a g e r and w
o r k-package m
a n a g e r agree a
n d authorize the w
o r k a n d assign it to the team.
H e n c e , the people to d
o the w
o r k are selected f
r o m a resource pool, w
h i c h is identified b
y plamiing
2 8 8
P R O C E S S
o g
T h e process o
f resourcing a
project includes the following steps:
1 . Identify w
h a t is to b
e achieved through the milestone plan.
2 . Identify the skills a
n d skill types required to d
o the w
o r k to achieve e
a c h milestone through the
responsibility chart. T h e skills required include technical, craft, professional, a
n d functional
skills, or managerial k n o w l e d g e .
3 . Identify the p
e o p l e available through discussion with the resource providers. It is important to
obtain people with the correct skills. T h e r e is a
danger, especially with a fixed project t
e a m , o f
selecting s o m e b o d y to d
o w o r k because h
e or s
h e is available, not because h
e or s
h e has the right
skills; or that the resource provider m a y try to provide their least c
o m p e t e n t people, a
n d retain
their best individuals within their o w n sphere. A
leading engineering c o m p a n y in the United
K i n g d o m has a
c o m m i t t e e with responsibility for scamiing the functional organization to identify
the best people to w o r k o n projects (Turner et al., 2008). T
h e r e are three reasons to ensure the
best people are identified to w o r k o n projects: for the sake o
f the organizaflon, s
o g o o d people are
developed to w o r k o n a n d m a n a g e projects; for the sake o
f their career development; a
n d to stop
selfish fitnctional m a n a g e r s f r o m holding g
o o d people in dead-end functional jobs. Y
o u should
take account o f people's true availability. A
person m a y only b
e available to a
project part-time a n d b e retained for the remainder o
f her or his time o
n n o r m a l duties.
4 . Assess the c
o m p e t e n c e o f the people available to identify a
n y shortfall in skills. E
v e n after the
selection o f people with the correct skills, there m
a y not b
e a perfect m
a t c h to requirements.
Figure 17.1 illustrates h o w this c
a n b e plotted. Y
o u plot the competencies required to undertake
the project against s o m e c o m p e t e n c y m o d e l . This m
a y b e khe P
M I P M B o K (Projeck M
a n a g e m e n t
Institute, 2013), t h e I P M A I C B (International P
r o j e c t M a n a g e m e n t A s s o c i a t i o n , 2 0 0 5 ) or national
equivalent (Association for Project M a n a g e m e n t , 2008), or the c
o m p a n y ' s o w n c o m p e t e n c e
m o d e l for project m
a n a g e r s (Turner et al., 2008). Y
o u then plot the competencies o
f the c
h o s e n
t e a m m e m b e r s . Figure 1
7 1 s h o w s that t
e a m m e m b e r 1 covers a
r o u n d one-half o
f the required
c o m p e t e n c e a n d t e a m m e m b e r 2 m o s t o f the rest. T
h e y h a v e a small area o
f overlap, but there is
also a small area w
h e r e neither o
f t h e m m e e t s the need. T
h i s c a n b e o v e r c o m e b y appointing a
third person to the t e a m or b
y giving the t
w o t e a m m e m b e r s training.
5 . Identify a
n y trdining regLaired to o
v e r c o m e the deficiency in skillleveIs. Training m
a y b e in
the f o r m o f o p e n or b
e s p o k e courses, o
r on-the-job coaching. I
n Fig. 17.1, t
e a m m e m b e r 1 c a n
Competency pro&le T e a m m e m b e r 1
T e a m m e m b e r i can
~
m M l & 2
~
T e a m m e m b e r 2 can
~ T M l & 2
aid the development ~
short- s
aid the development exceed
~ of team m
e m b e r 2
~
fall ~
of team m e m b e r 1
~
need
~ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ . . ~
~ . ~ ~ ~
C o m p e t e n c y
Competency profile requirements
T e a m m e m b e r 2
of project
'ledhnical competencies tiehaviorai competencies
Contextual competencies C o m p e t e n c y dimensions
F I G U I t ~ 17.1
Matching the competence of team members to the needs of the project schedule.
E X E C U T I O N A N D C O N T R O L
2 8 9
provide on-the-job g u i d a n c e to t
e a m m e m b e r 2 w h e r e his o
r her c
o m p e t e n c e is greater a
n d
vice versa.
6 . Negotiate with the resousce providers. T
h r o u g h o u t this process, y
o u m u s t negotiate with the
line m a n a g e r s o f the people-
w h o will d
o the w
o r k , s o they willingly release their people. If the
resource providers will n o t cooperate, .the m
a n a g e r c a n bring pressure to beaz via the sponsor.
H o w e v e r , e v e n then they m
a y not cooperate a
n d m a y block their people w
o r k i n g o n the project,
s o it is best to w
i n the resource providers' support. This c
a n b e d o n e b y gaining their c
o m m i t m e n t
to the projects goals, a n d b y helping t
h e m understand h
o w the project is o
f benefit to t
h e m ,
7. E n s u r e appropriate facilities a
n d e q u i p m e n t are available. Facilities m
a y include office space,
meeting r o o m s , security arrangements, a
n d transport. E
q u i p m e n t m a y include computers, c
o m -
puter software (including w o r d processing, spreadsheets, a
n d project m
a n a g e m e n t information
systems), telephone, Internet access, a n d e-mail.
P l a n n i n g a n d S c h e d u l i n g Activities
H a v i n g identified the people to d
o the w
o r k , the t
e a m c a n then define the details o
f the w
o r k to b
e d o n e a n d assign w
o r k to themselves for execution. T
h e detail w
o r k should b
e planned o
n a roliing-
w a v e basis, as it is only w
h e n y o u are about to stazt the w
o r k that y
o u h a v e all the information
required to plan activities in detail, I n this w
a y , y o u c a n also allow people to plan their o
w n w o r k .
I did suggest in Sec. 8.4 that y
o u c a n create a
preliminary activity definition through w o r k-package
s c o p e statements for early estimating.
T h e r e are five steps in planning a
n d scheduling activities:
1 . Define activities required to reach a
milestone. W h e n selecting activities, the t
e a m should c
h o o s e
o n e s that are controllable; that is, they should
• P r o d u c e a measurable result. It m
u s t b e possible t
o d e t e r m i n e w h e n a n activity is finished. It
is n o g o o d dividing a
w o r k p a c k a g e into five activities, e
a c h equal to 2
0 percent o
f the w
o r k .
In those circumstances the last activity often takes 8 0 percent o
f the effort.
• H a v e average duration roughly equal to the fr
e q u e n c y o f review (3ec. 9.1).
2 . Ratify the p
e o p l e involved. T
h e people to d
o the w
o r k h a v e b e e n c h o s e n as described above.
H o w e v e r , o n c e the activities have been~defined, it m
a y b e necessary to review the t
e a m to ensure
it contains all the necessary skills a n d n o redundant skills (Fig. 17.1).
3 . Define roles a
n d responsibilities. T
h e involvement o
f e a c h t e a m m e m b e r i n the activities is then
identified. A responsibility chart c
a n b e a useful tool for this (Fig. 9.6).
4 . Estimate w
o r k content a
n d durations. T
h e w o r k content a
n d durations are estimated b
y applying
the processes u s e d o n the w
o r k-package level.
5 . Schedule; the activities within the w
o r k p a c k a g e . Finally the activitres are scheduled within the
w o r k p a c k a g e to deliver the milestone o
n time. This c
a n b e d o n e manually, or b
y building the
activities into a nested n
e t w o r k (Fig. 17.2) or bar chart (Fig. 17.3).
If y o u adopt rolling-
w a v e planning, estimates o
f w o r k content a
n d duration at the activity level
will b e m a d e at a
later stage than those at the w o r k-package level, after sanction has b
e e n obtained.
S o m e people aze uncomfortable with this, fearing that the aceivity esfimates will turn out to b
e dif-
ferent f r o m — u s u a l l y higher t
h a n — t h e w o r k-package estimates.
W h a t should h
a p p e n , o f course, is that the r
a n g e o f possible outturns for the total project. after
activity estimating s h o u l d fall within t
h e r a n g e after w
o r k - p a c k a g e e s t i m a t i n g ( F i g . 15.2).
If tha estimates consistently fall outside the range o f those prepared at the w
o r k-package level, then
the esrimating data used for the latter n e e d to b
e i m p r o v e d . It is therefore important to feed the results
b a c k to the estimators s
o that they c
a n i m p r o v e their data.
If it is not possible to schedule the activities to deliver the milestone o n rime (subject to the allowable
error), then the delay to the plan m u s t b e subjected to c
h a n g e control. T
h e c h a n g e can b
e to declaze a
variance b e t w e e n the current schedule a
n d the baseline, or if the delay is severe, to update the baseline.
._:__
2 9 0
PROCESS
F I G U R E 1 7 . 2 N e s t e d networks.
Allocating W o r kWh e n w o r k is being done, it is allocated to the team via w
o r k-to lists, A
work- to list is a list of
activities to'which a person or resource is assigned. T h e activities m
a y be listed b
y
1. W o r k packrige. T
h e persons or resources are given the activity schedules for all w
o r k packages o
n which they are working, as a
responsibility chart or estimating sheet.
2. Time period. T h e y are given a listing of the activities they are assigned to for a
given period of time f
r o m all w
o r k packages they are working on. T
h e period is typically the current control
period and o n e or t
w o periods into the future. T
h e w o r k-to list contains
• All activities stazted but not fuiished • All activities due to start in the period
T h e w o r k-to list m
a y b e in the f
o r m of a
responsibility chart (Fig. 9,6) or output f r o m a computer
system (Table 17.1). It is n o w quite c
o m m o n for the output to b
e sent f
r o m the master plan to the
individual's workstation electronically, and it will subsequently b e c o m e their time sheet. T
h e w o r k-
to list m a y contain the following informarion:
Activity n u m b e r and n
a m e
• Baselined dates and duration
• Current estimate/actual dates and duration
• E s t i m a t e d w o r k c o n t e n t
• W o r k - t o d a t e
• B a r c h a z t o f b a s e l i n e d d a t e s
• B a r c h a r t o f c u r r e n t e s t i m a t e / a o t u a l d a t e s
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
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~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ p ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ,
. ~ ~ m ~ ~ ~ ~ 7 L i I ~ Y l 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1
~ o ~ m~~ill
~ ~ i ~ ~ i r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ n n n
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~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ai~i~~~ ~ ~ u ~ ~ n ~ ~ n ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ u ~ n ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
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~ ~ ~ e ~ e o ~ ~ e o e ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ e
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~ ~ o c e n ~ ~ ~ ~ n ~ ~ ~ ~ u n n ~ ~ ~ ~ n ~ e
A~~AOeA~eoeoeo~eo~Aeooeo~A~~
Azn
2 9 1
E X E C U T I O N A N D C O N T R O L
2 9 3
A t the e
n d o f the control period the w
o r k -to list will b
e c o m e a turnaround d
o c u m e n t (Sec. 17.2)
through w h i c h the project t
e a m reports progress. T
h e processes o
f drawing u
p the activity schedules,
including t h e m in the master plan, a
n d issuing w
o r k-to lists are s
h o w n in the procedure for monitar-
~ ~
ing a n d control (Fig. 16.1).
~a ~ 77.2
C O N T R O L L I N G P R O G R E S S
w ~
Everything I h a v e covered u
p to this point h
a s brought u
s to the point w
h e r e w e are d
o i n g w o r k . A s
the w o r k is d
o n e , w e m u s t ensure w
e achieve the planned results; that w
e deliver the n
e w asset a
n d
h desired changes a
n d performance i
m p r o v e m e n t to the desired s
p e c cation, a
n d within the cost a
n d
am" time at w
h i c h it w
a s thought to b
e worthwhile, Furthermore, as the project output is c
o m m i s s i o n e d ,
w e m u s t ensure it delivers the expected benefits w
h i c h w e r e used to justify the m
o n e y spent. W
e c a n
~ ̀
b e sure that this will not occur in a
haphazard fashion. T h e structured process b
y w h i c h w e c h e c k
progress, an d take action to o
v e r c o m e a n y deviations f
r o m plan is control. A
s w e h a v e seen several
~ ~
times u p to n
o w , there are four essential steps to the control process (Fig. 11.2):
~ ,.~
1 . P l a n future w
o r k a n d estimate performance.
2 . M o n i t o r a n d report results.
~ .c ~
3 . C o m p a r e results to the plan a
n d forecast future results.
~ w
4 . P l a n a n d take effective action to recover the original plan or to m
i n i m i z e the variance.
T h e b o o k s o far has dealt with the fast step. I
n the remainder o
f this chapter, I
deal with the other ~
N ~, ~
~ three steps in turn. I
start b y explaining the requirements for effective control.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
w w w w
Effective C o n t r o l
ybj ~
l ~ h l ~ l ~ [ ~ [ ~ ~ ~
~ D N N N N N N N M
;~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ,Q; ~
~ ~
F o r control to b
e effective, e
a c h step in this four-step process m
u s t b e effective.
w w w w w w w ~ ~
~ ,,, ~„ ~„
o N r n o ~ r n N N N N m
E,fjective Planning. I have discussed the requirements o
f effective p
l a m u u g throughout the b
o o k . I n
my ,~ ~ U
. 0 . A ~ N ~ N
particular, the plans m u s t b e comprehensive a
n d frozen into a
baseline to provide a fixed measure for con-
y ~'
a~J w w w w w w w ~ ~
trol. If the plans are updated frequently, without the application o f strict change control, then there will
b e n o measure for control. T
h e project will always b
e o n time, because the plans h
a v e just b
e e n updated.
b T e a m m e m b e r s m a y develop n
e w activity schedules, but the project m
a n a g e r m u s t authorize t
h e m befare
;~ x b
~ ~ ~ » ~ o ~
N ,
they are included in the master plan. W o r k is d
o n e against current w
o r k-to lists, issued regulazly.
a
o ~
,,, ~ ~ ~ v, ~n V, o
.-. F
sffective Reporting. T h e r e are six requirements for effective reporting.
b 1. Reports should b
e m a d e against the plan.
T o ensure people are interpreting the reports in the s
a m e
'g „ y ~,
{ w a y , the reports should b
e m a d e against the plan. E
x a m p l e 3.6 describes a
case in w h i c h the project
~ ~ '~
~
o m a n a g e r a n d t e a m m e m b e r s w e r e working o
n different plans. T
h e t e a m m e m b e r s w e r e m a k i n g ver-
~ o'a
q ~ ' a ~ ~
~~ ~
bal reports a n d reporting satisfactory progress. T
h e project m
a n a g e r could not understand w
h y they
<q ~ o ~ ~ ~
~ w e r e not achieving his milestones. T7unaround d
o c u m e n t s are a
tool for.reporting against the plan. y o '~ ~' a
p ° m •~ u`~
2 . There should b
e defined criteria f
o r control.
Likewise it is important to h a v e defined criteria. I
f o
A ~ ' : ~ :~' :~' ~
~ ~ '~
o people are asked to m
a k e a d h o c reports, they tend to report the g
o o d n e w s a n d hide the b
a d n e w s .
v ~ ~, g
g ~ ~ o "tea
If asked to report against a set of closed questions, they will usually a
n s w e r honestly. If they
~ b ~ ~ m A w Q c~ ~
report dishonestly, it will b e c o m e obvious at the s
e c o n d o r third reporting period. D
e f i n e d criteria
are given below. .".~
c N ~^ ~' "~ ̀
~ ~ 00 °i
3 . T h e control-tools should b
e s i m le a
n d
iendl . T e a m m e m b e r s should s
e n d as little t
i m e as
P
Y
p m .
~ ~ v`~'i v"'i v"'i vii vii vii v"'i v"'i
'fi' possible filling in reports. If submitting reports takes a
n excessive time, people rightly c
o m p l a i n
they are being distracted f r o m productive w
o r k ( E x a m p l e 17.1). Simple, friendly tools m
e a n s
single -page reporting nested in the w o r k b r e a k d o w n structure (
W B S ) and reports against the plan
2 9 2
- -
- -
___ _ -
_ _
_
- -
yin
`
2 9 4 ` P R O C E S S
E X E C U T I O N A N D C O N T R O L
2 9 5
with defined criteria requiring n u m e r i c or yes/no answers. Reports are often filed against w
o r k-
to lists. T h e s e aze turnaround d
o c u m e n t s . T h e w o r k -to list contains space for the report, a
n d is
returned at the e n d o f the reporting period (Table 17,1).
F~cample 17.1 Simple, Friendly Tools
I u s e d to w
o r k o n a m m o n i a plant overhauls, e
a c h a 4 - w e e k project. E
v e r y day, supervisors c
a m e
to a 1-hour control meeting in the m
o r n i n g , a 2 -hour meeting in the afternoon, a
n d spent 1
h o u r
after w o r k completing daily returns. T
h e y quite reasonably c
o m p l a i n e d that they should s
p e n d
m o r e time o
n the patch motivating their workers.
4 . Reports should b
e m a d e at defined intervals.
lust as it is necessary to report against defined
criteria, it is also necessary to report at defined intervals. Y o u should n
o t ask people to report only
w h e n there is s
o m e t h i n g to discuss. P
e o p l e hate to volunteer failure, s
o they will n
o t ask for help
until it is too late to recover. If people k n o w that they m
u s t report both g
o o d n e w s a n d b a d at
defined intervals, then they will report m o r e freely a
n d accurately. T
h e frequency o
f the reporting
period d e p e n d s o n
• T h e length o
f the project
• T h e stage in the project
• T h e risk a
n d c o n s e q u e n c e o f failure
O n a year -long project, y
o u m a y report fortnightly at the activity level. In azeas of h
i g h risk,
y o u m a y report m
o r e often. T
o w a r d the e
n d y o u m a y report w
e e k l y or e
v e n daily.
5 . Reports should b
e discussed a
t forr~zal meetdngs.
T o b e effective the reports m
u s t b e m a d e a n d
discussed at f o r m a l meetings. Passing the t
i m e o f d a y at the coffee m
a c h i n e is part o
f effective
t e a m building, b
u Y n o t o f effective control. T
o k e e p the meetings short a
n d effective, the discus-
sion should focus o n identifying problems, a
n d responsibility for solving t
h e m , but the meeting
should not attempt to solve the problem.
6 . T h e reports should stimulate creative discussions.
T o link into the next steps o
f control, the
reports m u s t generate creative discussion, s
o the t
e a m c a n identify w
h e r e variances are occurring
a n d w a y s o f taking effective timely acrion.
Effective Reviews. U s i n g the data, the t
e a m determines whether the project is b
e h a v i n g as pre-
dicted a n d if not, calculates the size a
n d i m p a c t o f the variances. T
h e t w o quantitative m
e a s u r e s o f
progress are cost a n d time, a
n d s o they receive the greatest attention. T
h e t e a m uses the reports to
forecast time a n d cost at completion, a
n d calculates a
n y differences b
e t w e e n these figures a
n d the
baseline. It m a y simply b
e that w
o r k is taking longer a
n d vesting m
o r e than predicted; or delays or
additional effort m a y b e caused b
y variances in quality, people failing to fulfill their responsibility,
externally i m p o s e d delays, or changes in scope. Therefore, the variances in time a
n d cost cari point
to a n e e d to control o
n e or m
o r e o f the dive functions o
f project m
a n a g e m e n t . T h e defined criteria,
formal meetings; a n d creaflve discussions aze k
e y to this process.
Effective Action. T o close the controlloop, the t
e a m m u s t take effective action to o
v e r c o m e a n y
variances. This m a y m e a n revising the plan to reflect the variances, b
u t hopefully it m
e a n s taking
timely effective action to stop t h e m f r o m getting w
o r s e a n d preferably reducing or ~limivating t
h e m .
G a t h e r i n g D a t aTh e first step in the control process is to gather data o
n progress. T
h e s e are usually collected at the
activity level but m a y b e collected at the w
o r k -package or task level. W
h e n collected at a
l o w e r level,
the data c a n b e aggregated to report at a
higher level, T h e u s e o f these data in the control process is
described below. I said a
b o v e that data are m
o s t effectively gathered against defined criteria using turnaround
d o c u m e n t s a n d w o r k -to lists issued at the start o
f the reporting period a
n d u s e d at the e
n d o f the
period to gather data. T u r n a r o u n d d o c u m e n t s provide reports against the plan, defined criteria, a
n d
simple, friendly tools. T h e y c a n also b
e used as the focus for f
o r m a l meetings. I
find it effective to
ase a data projector to project the turnazound d
o c u m e n t onto a
whiteboazd. T h e t e a m c a n fill in the
d o c u m e n t o n the boazd in a
g r o u p meeting. T
h i s process encourages creative discussions to identify
a n y problems, but also enables the meeting to b
e kept short. Figure 17.4 is a
m a n u a l turnaround doc-
u m e n t e n c o m p a s s i n g the activity schedule f
r o m Fig. 9.6. Table 1
7 . 2 contains acomputer-generated
turnaround d o c u m e n t . Figure 17.5 is a
turnazound d o c u m e n t at the milestone level.
T h e required time a
n d cost data c
a n b e gathered using people's time sheets. A
t the start o
f the
w e e k , individuals are given blank t
r m e sheets listing the activities they should b
e w o n t i n g o n d a y b y
day; they enter the a m o u n t o f t i m e spent w
o r k i n g o n e a c h activity, a
n d at the e
n d o f the time period
they enter the a m o u n t o f t i m e left to w
o r k o n e a c h activity:
• T h e first Mime h
e or she b
o o k s time against a
n activity is actual start.
• T o t a l t i m e b o o k e d gives effort to date.
• Effort remaining is entered at the e
n d o f the period.
• W h e n this is zero, y
o u c a n l o o k b a c k to find the last t
i m e h e or s
h e entered t
i m e against the activity
for actual completion.
• Forecast completion c
a n b e extrapolated f
r o m effart to date a
n d effort remaining.
C a l c u l a t i n g P r o g r e s s
T h e data gathered are u
s e d to calculate progress o
n ail seven project m
a n a g e m e n t funcrions: time,
cost„ quality, project organization, stakeholder satisfaction, scope, a n d risk. I
n pazticular, with the
first t w o w e try to forecast the final outturn, the t
i m e a n d cost to completion, as this gives better
control than reporting the actual t i m e a n d cost to date. T
h i s concept is part o
f the f
o r w a r d-looking
control. This is a n important principle o
f project m
a n a g e m e n t — y o u c a n control only the future, n
o t
the past. T h e only value o
f the past is to give y
o u information to help y
o u control the future. B
u t y o u
cannot u n d o the past; all y
o u c a n influence is the future, a
n d s o it is the future q
o u n e e d to control,
Y o u drive b
y focusing o
n the road ahead, not b
y constantly looking in the rearview mirror. T
h u s w e
try to forecast t i m e a n d cost to completion.
Forecasting T i m e to Completion.
T i m e is the simplest funcflon to monitor, a
n d that is perhaps w
h y
it receives the greatest attention. All y o u h a v e to d
o is to schedule the rest o
f the project in the s
a m e
w a y y o u scheduled it inirially. Tracked bar
-charts a n d milestone tracker charts (Fig. 13.15) help in
this process. If critical milestones h a v e b e e n delayed, or if the critical path has b
e e n delayed (
a n d n o
other path has b e c o m e " m o r e critical"), then likely the project has b
e e n delayed b
y that a
m o u n t . If
the t e a m has maintained a
n up-to-date n
e t w o r k for the project, that c
a n b e used to forecast the c
o m -
pletion date for the project in exactly the s a m e w a y it w
a s u s e d to predict the e
n d date initially. T
h e
record o f effort to date versus effort remaining c
a n also b
e u s e d to control time in o
n e o f three w
a y s :
B y revising estimates o
f duration. If there is a
consistent estimaring error, this will b e indicated
b y a trend. T
h e estimates o
f duration c
a n b e revised accordingly.
B y indicating the cause o
f delays. Table 17.3 s
h o w s four possible o
u t c o m e s o f duration a
n d effort.
B o t h m a y b e o n (or u
n d e r ) budget, in w
h i c h case all is well. T
h e project m
a y b e o n t i m e but effort
is over budget, in w l v c h case there m
a y b e m i n o r errars but the t
e a m is coping, perhaps b
y w a r k -
i n g u n p l a n n e d overtime. T
h e project m
a y b e late bnt n
o additional effort has b
e e n e x p e n d e d . T h e n
the cause o f the delay m
u s t b e d u e to external factors—perhaps other people failing to fulfill their
responsibilities, late delivery o f s o m e materials, or the project t
e a m m e m b e r s h a v e b e e n occupied
o n w o r k o f higher priority (to them). If both t
i m e a n d effort are over budget, then the cause m
a y
b e serious estimating errors, r
e w o r k d u e to p
o o r quality, or r
e w o r k d u e to change. A
trend wi11 indicate the first as described above, a
n d s o y o u will n
e e d to monitor effort a
n d duration over
several reports. Y o u c a n see f
r o m Table 17.3 h
o w the complete set o
f control data c
a n help itritiate
discussion over the likely causes o f delays, a
n d help in their elimination.
T h r o u g h the e
a r n e d value calcailc~tion. T
h e schedule variance, calculated as part o
f the cost c
o n -
trol process (Sec. 12.4), will indicate whether the project is o n average a
h e a d or b
e h i n d schedule.
SFtHA ACTIVITY SCHEDULE REPORT
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FIGiIRE 17.4 Manual turnazound document encompassing the acflvity schedule.
___— —. __ __,.~
TABLE 17.2 Computer-Generated Turnazound Document and Time Sheet
Orig Rem Sched Sched Actual Actual M 'hi W Th F WE Work Act no. Descripfion dur (d) dur (d) start finish start finish (h) (h) (h) (h) (h) (h) rem (h)
S31 Identify jobs 5 Feb. 2 Feb. 6 Feb. 2 Feb. 6 -- S32 Specify skills 15 Feb. 9 Feb. 27 Feb. 9 Feb. 25 6 6 6 18 0 S33 Specify experience 15 5 Feb. 9 Feb. 27 Feb. 9 6 8 7 21 6 S34 Specify personality 15 6 Feb. 9 Feb. 27 Feb. 9 Feb. 26 5 6 3 3 17 0 S35 Determine competence 5 5 Feb. 23 Feb. 27 Feb. 23 Feb. 23 8 8 0 S36 Essential competencies 5 5 Feb. 23 Feb. 27 Feb. 24 Feb. 24 8 8 0 S37 Deternune assessment 5 5 Feb. 23 Feb. 27 Feb. 25 Feb. 25 8 8 0 S38 Consultation 20 20 Maz:2 Maz:27 S39 Approve final version 1 1 Mar. 30 Maz: 30
2 9 8
P R O C E S S
E X E C U T I O N A N D C O N T R O L
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F I G U R E 17.5
11~mazound document at the milestone level.
T A B L E 17.3
Determining the Cause of Delays b y Comparutg Effort and Complefion Dates
Effort Duration o
n T i m e
Late
A s predicted
N o problem
External delays Responsibilities not fulfilled
Over budget Minor estimating errors
Esrimating errors Minor changes Major quality problems
Forecasting C o s t to Completion.
I s h o w e d in Sec, 1
2 . 4 h o w to u
s e the cost data gathered to fore-
cast the cost at completion:
Forecast cost at completion = a c t u a l cost to date +forecast cost remaining
This adheres to the principle o f forwazd-looking control. I
described this m o r e fully in Sec. 12.4. T
h e
S curve (Fig. 12.8) provides a
highly visual representation o f the progress to date.
Controlling Quality. D a t a gathered c
a n s h o w w h e r e deviations h
a v e occurred f
r o m the specifl-
cation. T h e s e quality variances m
a y b e identified as part o
f the quality control process ar m
a y b e
noticed b y t e a m m e m b e r s .
Controlling Organization. Similazly, the data gathered m
a y indicate w
h e r e the project organiza-
tion is not performing as planned. This m a y specifically b
e caused b
y people not fulfilling their roles
o r responsibilities as agreed u
p o n in the responsibility chart. Table 17.3 also s
h o w s h o w the control
process c a n indicate the i
m p a c t o f these organizational delays o
n t i m e a n d cost.
Satisfaction o f Stakeholders.
This is difficult to monitor but is the second -to-last step in the stake- holder e
n g a g e m e n t process (Fig. 10.2). Y
o u n e e d to w
o r k closely with the stakeholders a
n d in that
w a y try to j
u d g e their satisfaction. Y
o u c a n also c
o n d u c t marketing surveys, or just ask t
h e m directly
if they are happy.
Controlling S c o p e . T h e data gathered c
a n indicate that c
h a n g e s in s
c o p e h a v e occurred. T
h e s e
especially will h a v e a n i m p a c t o n the t
i m e a n d cost o
f a project (Table 17.3). C
h a n g e s in scope aze
usually inevitable. H o w e v e r , they should b
e rigidly controlled, a
n d this requires a
c h a n g e control
procedure. C h a n g e control is a
six-step process:
1 . L o g the change.
2. Define the change.
3 . Assess the i
m p a c t o f the change. S
e e m i n g l y simple c
h a n g e s c a n h a v e far-reaching consequences.
4 . Calculate the cost o
f the change. This is not just the direct cost but the cost o
f the impact.
5 . Define the benefit o
f the change. This m
a y b e financial or nonfinancial. T
h e latter includes safety.
6 . A c c e p t or reject the c
h a n g e based o
n marginal investment criteria. A
return o f 4 0 percent per
a n n u m is possible for marginal criteria c
o m p a r e d to 2
0 percent for the project as a
whole.
If this procedure is applied rigorously, m a n y c h a n g e s d o not get past step 3. Table 17.3 is a
f o r m
to aid this process.
M o n i t o r i n g Risk.
Finally y o u n e e d to monitor risk. Y
o u should review the risk register (Table 14.4)
regularly, focusing o n those risks that m
a y occur in the neaz future. Consider whether anything has
h a p p e n e d to raise or l
o w e r the likelihood or c
o n s e q u e n c e o f a risk, a
n d so whether it has c
h a n g e d
in its ru~lcing in Fig. 14.1.
3 0 0
P R O C E S S
E X E C U T I O N A N D C O N T R O L
3 0 7
T a k i n g A c t i o n
T A B L E 17.4
Change Control F o r m
Pioject: Milestone: Activity: - Description of change: Impact of change: Cast of change: Value of change:
N a m e
Proposed by: ............
Checked by: ............
Approved by: ............
Signature Date
O n c e w e h a v e identified that a
project is deviating f r o m plan, w
e m u s t take appropriate action. T
h e
earlier action is taken, the better, because it is cheaper to recover or abort the project should it prove nonviable.
R e c o v e r i n g a Project.
T h e response to the variances c
a n b e easily m
a n a g e a b l e or u
n m a n a g e -
able a n d reactive. T
h e m o s t effecrive approach d
e p e n d s o n the circumstances. T
h e r e aze cases that
d e m a n d a n i m m e d i a t e response. H
o w e v e r , in m
o s t cases there is time to reflect a
n d recoup. A
siruc- tured approach to p
r o b l e m solving (Fig. 1.6) is the best m
e a n s o f recovery, H
e r e , Idescribe asix-step
version for planning recovery: Stop.
Regardless o f the
size o f the
variance a n d its
impact, everyone should
pause. Unfortunately, the m
o s t c o m m o n reaction is to seek a
n instant r
e m e d y . S o m e c o m m o n solutions s
u c h
as adding m o r e resources or saclting the project m
a n a g e r m a y d o m o r e h a r m than g
o o d . W h i l e this
reaction is understandable, it is often w r o n g because o
f the emotional state o
f the t
e a m . S o m e r i m e s
stock responses c a n initiate feedback loops that actually m
a k e the situation w
o r s e ( ~ m e r et al.,
2010). K e e p cool, c
a l m , a n d collected. R
e m e m b e r the first l
a w o f holes: if y
o u f m d yourself in a
hole, stop digging ( E x a m p l e 17.2).
L o o k , Listen, a
n d Z.earn.
It is important to undertake a thorough review with all t
e a m m e m b e r s
a n d the client present. Effective recovery m
u s t b e based o
n a clear understanding o
f the cause o
f the
divergence a n d possible w
a y s o f o v e r c o m i n g it. Seeking v
i e w s o n w h a t w e n t w r o n g a n d w h a t action
the t e a m proposes is important in rebuilding c
o m m i t m e n t .
D e v e l o p Options a
n d Select a
Likely Course. E x p l o r e every a
v e n u e a n d develop a
range o f
solutions. Establish decision criteria s o opflons c
a n b e evaluated against agreed u
p o n conditions. If
necessary, return to the original financial evaluations, recost a n d retime e
a c h option, air t
h e m with
the client, a n d then select o
n e that m
e e t s the decision criteria.
Wzr~ Saipport fo r the C
h o s e n Option.
It is important that there is support f r o m all those involved.
T h e r e is hard w
o r k ahead, a
n d u n c o m m i t t e d t e a m m e m b e r s will falter at the first hurdle.
Act: O n c e the agreed u
p o n course o
f action h
a s b e e n accepted, every effort m
u s t b e m a d e to
i m p l e m e n t it. Deviations f
r o m the agreed u
p o n plan will only a
d d to the confusion a
n d m a k e the
situation worse. Continue to Monitor.
M o n i t o r the i
m p a c t o f a n y actions to ensure they h
a v e the desired effect.
If they d o not,. then the recovery process m
u s t b e repeated.
E x a m p l e 17.2
If Y o u F i n d Yourself in a
H o l e , Stop D
i g g i n g
I w a s w o r k i n g for a
n I T vendor a
n d c a m e across a
g r o u p o f salespeople w
h o s e e m e d to b
e running a
r o u n d like headless chickens. S
o I asked t
h e m w h a t the p
r o b l e m was. T
h e y said they
w e r e trying to prepare a
bid for a n o r d e r
- w h i c h , if they w
o n it, w
o u l d m a k e t h e m the largest
supplier for a certain line o
f e q u i p m e n t in E
u r o p e . B u t they said they w
e r e m a k i n g n o progress
a n d l o o k e d as t
h o u g h they w
o u l d n o t c o m p l e t e the bid o
n time. I
suggested they treat the bid as a project a
n d s p e n d 3 d a y s in a
start-up w o r k s h o p with m
e . T h e y said they h
a d n o t i m e to s
p e n d
in a start-up w
o r k s h o p with m
e ; they h
a d a bid to prepare. I
asked t h e m if they w
e r e g o i n g to
b e successful. T
h e y said at the rate they w
e r e going, n
o ! S o I asked w
h a t h a d they to lose, a
n d
in fact they m i g h t save themselves heart attacks. S
o they c
a m e a n d spent 3
d a y s with m
e i n a
start-up w o r k s h o p , successfitlly w
o n the bid, a
n d b e c a m e the largest supplier in E
u r o p e o f that
line o f equipment.
O p t i o n s f o r A c t i o n
T h e r e are five basic options for taking action.
F i n d a n Alternative Solution.
This is b y far the best solution. T
h e plan is recast to recover the
projects objectives in a w a y that h
a s n o i m p a c t o n the quality, cost, time, or scope. It m
a y b e that
t w o ackivities w
e r e planned sequentially, because they share the s
a m e scazce resource. If the first is
delayed for other reasons, it m a y b e possible to d
o the s
e c o n d activity first, a
n d hopefully w
h e n it is
complete, it will then b e possible to d
o the other.
Corrapromise Cost.
This m e a n s adding resources either as
overtime or as additional people, machines, or material to recover the lost time. This is usually the instant reaction to project delays. H o w e v e r . Brooks's l
a w ( 1 9 9 9 ) states
A d d i n g resources to a
late software project m a k e s it later still.
S o actually adding people c
a n h a v e the opposite o
f the desired effect. T
h e rationale is that e~st-
i n g people m
u s t take t
i m e out to bring the n
e w people u
p to speed. If y
o u w a n t to a
d d people, y
o u
n e e d to carve out a
bit o f the project a
n d give it to t
h e m , rather than increase the n
u m b e r o f people
w o r k i n g o n a bit o
f the project already u
n d e r w a y .
C o m p r o m i s e T i m e . This m
e a n s allowing the dates to slip. This m
a y b e preferable, depending o
n whether cost or t
i m e is the m
o r e important constraint o
n the project. This, decision should h
a v e b e e n
m a d e during feasibility a
n d ' c o m m u n i c a t e d to the project t
e a m as part o
f the project strategy. B
e care-
ful about running activities in parallel, or "crunching the n e t w o r k : "h i r n e r et al. (
2 0 1 0 ) describe a
case w h e r e overlapping activities cause interference b
e t w e e n t h e m , a n d that through feedback loops
caused m u c h greater delay.
C o m p r o m i s e S c o p e . This m
e a n s reducing the a
m o u n t o f w o r k done, w
h i c h in turn m
e a n s taking
less o n time to achieve s
o m e benefit. Nofice I
did not s a y c o m p r o m i s i n g the quality. T
h e latter is very
risky o n c e the initial specification h
a s b e e n set, a
n d should therefore b
e discouraged.
A b o r t the Project. ,This is a
d i ~ c u i t decision. H
o w e v e r , it m
u s t b e taken if the future costs o
n the
project aze not justified b y the expected benefits. Project t
e a m s aze often puzzled that their r
e c o m -
m e n d a t i o n to terminate a
project is ignored; a decision w
h i c h s e e m s obvious is avoided, a
n d g o o d
m o n e y is poured after b
a d , depriving other projects. It takes courage to abort a
project. D u r i n g their
lives, projects. acquire c
h a m p i o n s a n d supporters. Senior people m
a y h a v e b e c o m e associated with
its success a n d feel if the project fails, it m
a y d a m a g e their reputation. T
h e r e is often a
feeling that " w i t h a little m
o r e m o n e y a n d a bit o
f luck the project c
a n b e turned around." T
h e fact is that o
n c e
a n organization m
a k e s a n emotional c
o m m i t m e n t to a
project, the organization finds it very hard to a b a n d o n . A n o t h e r a z g u m e n t often put forwazd to support a
failing project is that "as w e h a v e already
spent s o m u c h o n it, w
e should finish it:' Unfortunately, this a
z g u m e n t is fallacious: future costs
m u s t b e justified b
y the expected benefit n
o matter h
o w m u c h h a s b e e n spent s
o faz. After 10,000
A m e r i c a n s h a d b a e n killed, the g
o v e r n m e n t justified the continuation o
f the V
i e t n a m w a z b y saying,
" O u r b o y s shall not h
a v e died in vain:' S
o 2 0 , 0 0 0 m o r e A m e r i c a n s w e r e killed, a
n d eventually the
3 0 2
P R O C E S S
E X E C U T I O N A N D C O N T R O L
3 0 3
S U M M A R Y
United States withdrew, a n d people realized the a
r g u m e n t h a d b e e n fallacious. Unfortunately I
h a v e
heard people justify the continuation o f the w
a r in Afghanistan b
y saying, "
O u r b o y s shall not h
a v e
died in vain;' A n d s o it goes. If the project's o
u t c o m e is still important to the organizarion, it m
a y b e
m o r e effective to abort aproject,.-learn f
r o m it, a
n d stazt afresh.
1 . T h e process o
f resourcing a
project includes the following steps: • Identify w
h a t is to b
e achieved.
• Identify the skills a
n d skill types required.
• Identify the people mailable. • Assess their competence.
• Identify a
n y training required.
• Negotiate with the resource provider. E n s u r e appropriate project facilities are available.
2 . T h e five steps o
f activity planning are as follows:
• Define the acfivities to achieve a
milestone or w o r k package.
• Ratify the people involved. • Define their roles a
n d responsibilities.
• Estimate w
o r k content a
n d durations.
• Schedule activiries within a
w o r k package.
3 . After the activity schedule is created, it is entered into the master plan, a
n d at appropriate inter-
vals w o r k is allocated to people. B
o t h steps m
u s t b e authorized b
y the project manager.
4 . Work.is allocated to people via w
o r k-to Lists b
y • T i m e period
• W o r k p a c k a g e
S . T h e four steps in the control cycle are as follows:
• P l a n future performance.
• M o n i t o r achievement against plan.
• Calculate variances a
n d forecast outturn.
• T a k e action to o
v e r c o m e variances.
6 . F o r control to b
e affective, e
a c h step in this cycle m
u s t b e effective, R
e q u i r e m e n t s for effective
planning h a v e already b
e e n described, a
n d in particular they are stated in the five principles o
f project m
a n a g e m e n t at the e
n d o f C h a p . 3.
7 . Requirements for effective reporting include these: • Reports against the plan • Definedcriteria for control • Simple, friendly tools
• Reporting at defined intervals • F o r m a l review meetings
• Creative discussions
8 . T h i s c a n b e achieved b
y gathering data using turnaround d
o c u m e n t s , w h i c h c a n b e u s e d to gather
data to control the five objectives: • T u n e
• C o s t
• Quality
• Organization
• S c o p e
9 . T i m e is controlled b
y recording progress o
n the critical or near-critical paths, or b
y c o m p a r i n g
the cost o f w o r k actually completed to that planned to h
a v e b e e n completed. T
o d o this, the fol-
l o w i n g progress data are collected:
• Actual stazt/finish • Revised starUfuush
• Effort to date • Effort remaining
• Costs to date
• Costs remaining
1 0 . C o s t is controlled b
y c o m p a r i n g costs incurred to the planned cost o
f w o r k act~ially completed.
T o d o this, the s
a m e data are required. Costs are said to b
e incurred w
h e n the expenditure is
c o m m i t t e d , not w
h e n the invoices are paid, because at that t
i m e the plan c
a n still b
e recovered.
1 1 . W h e n the divergence o
f achievement f
r o m the plan b
e c o m e s too great, the project m
u s t b e recov-
ered. T h e 1 0-step p
r o b l e m-solving cycle c
a n b e applied to find the solution to plan recovery.
Possible courses of action include • Rearranging the plan • C o m p r o m i s i n g time
• C o m p r o m i s i n g cost
• C o m p r o m i s i n g scope
• Aborting the project
