2 pages
lih1405
ch7.pptx
Motivation Concepts
Chapter Seven
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Key Elements
Intensity: how hard a person tries
Direction: toward beneficial goal
Persistence: how long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
What is Motivation?
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Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.
Higher-Order Needs Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
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Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Maslow Application:
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order
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Theory X
Managers See Workers As…
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Having Little Ambition
Theory Y
Managers See Workers As…
Enjoying Work
Accepting Responsibility
Self-Directed
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Douglas McGregor said that managers hold one of two sets of assumptions about human nature: either Theory X or Theory Y. Seeing people as irresponsible and lazy, managers who follow Theory X assume the following:
1. Employees inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it.
2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened to achieve goals.
3. Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction, if possible.
4. Most workers place security above all other work-related factors and will display little ambition.
Since they see people as responsible and conscientious, managers who follow Theory Y assume the following:
1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
2. When committed to their objectives, people will exercise self-direction and self-control
3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
4. Many workers besides managers have innovative decision-making skills.
No hard evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is universally true. It is more likely that the assumptions of Theory X or Theory Y may or may not be appropriate, depending on the situation at hand.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are not Opposite Ends of the Same Thing!
Separate constructs
Hygiene Factors---Extrinsic & Related to Dissatisfaction
Motivation Factors---Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction
Hygiene Factors:
Salary
Work Conditions
Company Policies
Motivators:
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth
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David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.
Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.
Need for Power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.
Bottom Line: Individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas, and those levels will drive their behavior
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Self determination Theory/Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Self-Efficacy Theory
Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.
Hint: For this theory, think about how fun it is to read in the summer, but once reading is assigned to you for a grade, you don’t want to do it!
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Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
But, the relationship between goals and performance will depend on
goal commitment
“I want to do it & I can do it”
task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
national culture
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What is MBO?
Key Elements
Goal specificity
Participative decision making
An explicit time period
Performance feedback
Management by Objectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.
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Cascading of Objectives
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Self-Efficacy
Self Esteem, which is….
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves.
An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
Not to be confused with:
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Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting
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Four Ways of Increasing Self Efficacy (Bandura)
Enactive Mastery gaining relevant experience with the task of the job
Vicarious Modeling becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task
Verbal Persuasion becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful
Arousal increases self efficacy and it leads to energized state, so the person performs better
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Reinforcement Theory
Assumptions:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences.
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Equity Theory
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.
Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others.
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Equity Theory (cont’d)
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Equity Theory (cont’d)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person
Leave the field (quit the job)
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Justice and Equity Theory
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Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final distribution).
“Who got what?”
Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the outcome (the final distribution). “How was who gets what decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect.
“Was I treated well?”
Three types of Justice
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Ethical Values and Behaviors of Leaders
Bottom line
All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation will not occur. Thus,
Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform
And
If they perform, they will be rewarded
And
When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they care about
Expectancy Theory
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Summary and Managerial Implications
Need Theories (Maslow, McClelland, Herzberg): Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior
Goal-Setting Theory: Consider goal-setting theory, as clear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of employee productivity.
Reinforcement Theory: Powerful predictor in many work areas
Equity Theory: Consult equity theory to help understand productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables.
Expectancy Theory:offers a powerful explanation of performance variables such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.
