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Chapter 8 Communication
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Understand the communication process.
2. Compare and contrast different types of communication.
3. Compare and contrast different communication channels.
4. Understand and learn to overcome barriers to effective communication.
5. Understand the role listening plays in communication.
6. Learn how ethics can play a role in how messages are communicated as well as how
they are perceived.
7. Learn how verbal and nonverbal communication can carry different meanings among
cultures.
You’ve Got Mail…and You’re Fired! No one likes to receive bad news, and few like to give it. In what is heralded as
one of the biggest human resources blunders in business, one company found
a way around the discomfort of firing someone face-to-face. A total of 400
employees at the Fort Worth, Texas headquarters of Radio Shack Corporation
got the ultimate e-mail message early one Tuesday morning. The message
simply said, “The work force reduction notification is currently in progress.
Unfortunately, your position is one that has been eliminated.” Company
officials argued that using electronic notification was faster and allowed more
privacy than breaking the news in person, and additionally, employees
received generous severance packages. Organizational consultant Ken Siegel
disagrees, proclaiming, “The bottom line is this: To almost everyone who
observes or reads this, it represents a stupefying new low in the annals of
management practice.” It’s unclear what, if any, the long-term effect will be for
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Radio Shack. Many wonder if this will hurt Radio Shack’s ability to recruit and
retain talent in the future. It isn’t just Radio Shack that finds it challenging to
deal with letting employees go. Terminating employees can be a painful job for
many managers. The communication that takes place requires careful
preparation and substantial levels of skill. Some organizations are even
outsourcing the job to “terminators” to handle this difficult task for them.
Using language that softens the blow of a termination has also grown in
popularity. Here are just a few ways to say you’re about to lose your job
without saying you’ve been fired:
Career alternative enhancement program
Career-change opportunity
Dehiring staff
Derecruiting resources
Downsizing employment
Employee reduction activities
Implementing a skills mix adjustment
Negative employee retention
Optimizing outplacement potential
Rectification of a workforce imbalance
Redundancy elimination
Right-sizing employment
Selecting out manpower
Vocation relocation policy
So if anyone ever uses one of these phrases to fire you, take heart, you’re not
unemployed. You’re simply “in an orderly transition between career changes
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while undergoing a period of non-waged involuntary leisure during your
temporary outplacement.” [1]
Sources: Adapted from information in Joyce, A. (2006, September 10). Fired
via e-mail, and other tales of poor exits. Washington Post, p. F01. Retrieved
July 1, 2008, from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/content/article/2006/09/09/AR2006090900103.html; Hollon, J.
(2006, September 11). You’ve been deleted: Firing by e-mail. Workforce
Management, p. 42.
8.1 Understanding Communication
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
1. Define communication.
2. Understand the communication process.
Communication is vital to organizations—it’s how we coordinate actions and
achieve goals. It is defined in Webster’s dictionary as a process by which
information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of
symbols, signs, or behavior. We know that 50% to 90% of a manager’s time is
spent communicating, [1]
and communication ability is related to a manager’s
performance. [2]
In most work environments, a miscommunication is an
annoyance—it can interrupt workflow by causing delays and interpersonal
strife. But, in some work arenas, like operating rooms and airplane cockpits,
communication can be a matter of life and death.
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So, just how prevalent is miscommunication in the workplace? You may not be
surprised to learn that the relationship between miscommunication and
negative outcomes is very strong. Data suggest that deficient interpersonal
communication was a causal factor in approximately 70% to 80% of all
accidents over the last 20 years. [3]
Poor communication can also lead to lawsuits. For example, you might think
that malpractice suits are filed against doctors based on the outcome of their
treatments alone. But a 1997 study of malpractice suits found that a primary
influence on whether or not a doctor is sued is the doctor’s communication
style. While the combination of a bad outcome and patient unhappiness can
quickly lead to litigation, a warm, personal communication style leads to
greater patient satisfaction. Simply put, satisfied patients are less likely to
sue. [4]
In business, poor communication costs money and wastes time. One study
found that 14% of each workweek is wasted on poor communication. [5]
In
contrast, effective communication is an asset for organizations and individuals
alike. Effective communication skills, for example, are an asset for job seekers.
A recent study of recruiters at 85 business schools ranked communication and
interpersonal skills as the highest skills they were looking for, with 89% of the
recruiters saying they were important. [6]
On the flip side, good communication
can help a company retain its star employees. Surveys find that when
employees think their organizations do a good job of keeping them informed
about matters that affect them and when they have access to the information
they need to do their jobs, they are more satisfied with their employers. [7]
So
can good communication increase a company’s market value? The answer
seems to be yes. “When you foster ongoing communications internally, you
will have more satisfied employees who will be better equipped to effectively
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communicate with your customers,” says Susan Meisinger, president and CEO
of the Society for Human Resource Management. Research finds that
organizations that are able to improve their communication integrity also
increase their market value by as much as 7%. [8]
We will explore the definition
and benefits of effective communication in our next section.
The Communication Process
Communication fulfills three main functions within an organization, including
coordination, transmission of information, and sharing emotions and feelings.
All these functions are vital to a successful organization. The coordination of
effort within an organization helps people work toward the same goals.
Transmitting information is a vital part of this process. Sharing emotions and
feelings bonds teams and unites people in times of celebration and crisis.
Effective communication helps people grasp issues, build rapport with
coworkers, and achieve consensus. So, how can we communicate effectively?
The first step is to understand the communication process.
We all exchange information with others countless times each day by phone,
e-mail, printed word, and of course, in person. Let us take a moment to see
how a typical communication works using this as a guide.
Figure 8.4 Process Model of Communication
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A sender, such as a boss, coworker, or customer, originates the message with a
thought. For example, the boss’s thought could be: “Get more printer toner
cartridges!”
The sender encodes the message, translating the idea into words.
The boss may communicate this thought by saying, “Hey you guys, let’s order
more printer toner cartridges.”
The medium of this encoded message may be spoken words, written words, or
signs.
The receiver is the person who receives the message.
The receiver decodes the message by assigning meaning to the words.
In this example, our receiver, Bill, has a to-do list a mile long. “The boss must
know how much work I already have,” the receiver thinks. Bill’s mind
translates his boss’s message as, “Could you order some printer toner
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cartridges, in addition to everything else I asked you to do this week…if you can
find the time?”
The meaning that the receiver assigns may not be the meaning that the sender
intended, because of factors such as noise. Noise is anything that interferes
with or distorts the message being transformed. Noise can be external in the
environment (such as distractions) or it can be within the receiver. For
example, the receiver may be extremely nervous and unable to pay attention to
the message. Noise can even occur within the sender: The sender may be
unwilling to take the time to convey an accurate message, or the words that
are chosen can be ambiguous and prone to misinterpretation.
Picture the next scene. The place: a staff meeting. The time: a few days later.
Bill’s boss believes the message about printer toner has been received.
“Are the printer toner cartridges here yet?” Bill’s boss asks.
“You never said it was a rush job!” Bill protests.
“But!”
“But!”
Miscommunications like these happen in the workplace every day. We’ve seen
that miscommunication does occur in the workplace, but how does a
miscommunication happen? It helps to think of the communication process.
The series of arrows pointing the way from the sender to the receiver and back
again can, and often do, fall short of their target.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y
Communication is vital to organizations. Poor communication is prevalent between
senders and receivers. Communication fulfills three functions within organizations,
including coordination, the transmission of information, and sharing emotions and
feelings. Noise can disrupt or distort communication.
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E X E R C I S E S
1. Where have you seen the communication process break down at work? At school?
At home?
2. Explain how miscommunication might be related to an accident at work.
3. Give an example of noise during the communication process.
8.2 Communication Barriers
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
1. Understand different ways that the communication process can be sidetracked.
2. Understand the role poor listening plays in communication problems.
3. Understand what active listening is.
4. Learn strategies to become a more effective listener.
Barriers to Effective Communication
The biggest single problem in communication is the illusion that it has taken
place.
George Bernard Shaw
Filtering
Filtering is the distortion or withholding of information to manage a person’s
reactions. Some examples of filtering include a manager’s keeping a division’s
negative sales figures from a superior, in this case, the vice president. The old
saying, “Don’t shoot the messenger!” illustrates the tendency of receivers to
vent their negative response to unwanted messages to the sender. A
gatekeeper (the vice president’s assistant, perhaps) who doesn’t pass along a
complete message is also filtering. Additionally, the vice president may delete
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the e-mail announcing the quarter’s sales figures before reading it, blocking
the message before it arrives.
As you can see, filtering prevents members of an organization from getting the
complete picture of a situation. To maximize your chances of sending and
receiving effective communications, it’s helpful to deliver a message in
multiple ways and to seek information from multiple sources. In this way, the
impact of any one person’s filtering will be diminished.
Since people tend to filter bad news more during upward communication, it is
also helpful to remember that those below you in an organization may be wary
of sharing bad news. One way to defuse this tendency to filter is to reward
employees who clearly convey information upward, regardless of whether the
news is good or bad.
Here are some of the criteria that individuals may use when deciding whether
to filter a message or pass it on:
1. Past experience: Were previous senders rewarded for passing along
news of this kind in the past, or were they criticized?
2. Knowledge and perception of the speaker: Has the receiver’s direct
superior made it clear that “no news is good news?”
3. Emotional state, involvement with the topic, and level of attention:
Does the sender’s fear of failure or criticism prevent the message from
being conveyed? Is the topic within the sender’s realm of expertise,
increasing confidence in the ability to decode the message, or is the
sender out of a personal comfort zone when it comes to evaluating the
message’s significance? Are personal concerns impacting the sender’s
ability to judge the message’s value?
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Once again, filtering can lead to miscommunications in business. Listeners
translate messages into their own words, each creating a unique version of
what was said. [1]
Selective Perception
Small things can command our attention when we’re visiting a new place—a
new city or a new company. Over time, however, we begin to make
assumptions about the environment based on our past experiences.
Selective perception refers to filtering what we see and hear to suit our own
needs. This process is often unconscious. We are bombarded with too much
stimuli every day to pay equal attention to everything, so we pick and choose
according to our own needs. Selective perception is a time-saver, a necessary
tool in a complex culture. But it can also lead to mistakes.
Think back to the example conversation between the person asked to order
more toner cartridges and his boss earlier in this chapter. Since Bill found the
to-do list from his boss to be unreasonably demanding, he assumed the
request could wait. (How else could he do everything else on the list?) The
boss, assuming that Bill had heard the urgency in her request, assumed that
Bill would place the order before returning to previously stated tasks. Both
members of this organization were using selective perception to evaluate the
communication. Bill’s perception was that the task could wait. The boss’s
perception was that a time frame was clear, though unstated. When two
selective perceptions collide, a misunderstanding occurs.
Information Overload
Messages reach us in countless ways every day. Some messages are societal—
advertisements that we may hear or see in the course of our day. Others are
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professional—e-mails, memos, and voice mails, as well as conversations with
our colleagues. Others are personal—messages from and conversations with
our loved ones and friends.
Add these together and it’s easy to see how we may be receiving more
information than we can take in. This state of imbalance is known
as information overload, which occurs “when the information processing
demands on an individual’s time to perform interactions and internal
calculations exceed the supply or capacity of time available for such
processing.” [2]
Others note that information overload is “a symptom of the
high-tech age, which is too much information for one human being to absorb
in an expanding world of people and technology. It comes from all sources
including TV, newspapers, and magazines as well as wanted and unwanted
regular mail, e-mail and faxes. It has been exacerbated enormously because of
the formidable number of results obtained from Web search engines.” [3]
Other
research shows that working in such fragmented fashion significantly impacts
efficiency, creativity, and mental acuity. [4]
Going back to our example of Bill, let’s say he’s in his office on the phone with
a supplier. While he’s talking, he hears the chime of his e-mail alerting him to
an important message from his boss. He’s scanning through it quickly while
still on the phone when a coworker pokes her head into his office saying Bill’s
late for a staff meeting. The supplier on the other end of the phone line has
just given him a choice among the products and delivery dates he requested.
Bill realizes he missed hearing the first two options, but he doesn’t have time
to ask the supplier to repeat them all or to try reconnecting with him at a later
time. He chooses the third option—at least he heard that one, he reasons, and
it seemed fair. How good was Bill’s decision amidst all the information he was
processing at the same time?
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Emotional Disconnects
An effective communication requires a sender and a receiver who are open to
speaking and listening to one another, despite possible differences in opinion
or personality. One or both parties may have to put their emotions aside to
achieve the goal of communicating clearly. A receiver who is emotionally upset
tends to ignore or distort what the sender is saying. A sender who is
emotionally upset may be unable to present ideas or feelings effectively.
Lack of Source Familiarity or Credibility
Have you ever told a joke that fell flat? You and the receiver lacked the
common context that could have made it funny. (Or yes, it could have just
been a lousy joke.) Sarcasm and irony are subtle and, therefore, they are
potentially hurtful commodities in business. It’s best to keep these types of
communications out of the workplace, as their benefits are limited, and their
potential dangers are great. Lack of familiarity with the sender can lead to
misinterpreting humor, especially in less-rich information channels such as e-
mail. For example, an e-mail from Jill that ends with, “Men should be boiled
in vats of oil,” could be interpreted as antimale if the receiver didn’t know that
Jill has a penchant for exaggeration and always jokes to let off steam.
Similarly, if the sender lacks credibility or is untrustworthy, the message will
not get through. Receivers may be suspicious of the sender’s motivations (Why
is she telling me this?). Likewise, if the sender has communicated erroneous
information in the past or has created false emergencies, the current message
may be filtered.
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Workplace Gossip
The informal gossip network known as the grapevine is a lifeline for many
employees seeking information about their company. [6]
Researchers agree
that the grapevine is an inevitable part of organizational life. Research finds
that 70% of all organizational communication occurs at the grapevine
level. [7]
Employees trust their peers as a source of information, but the
grapevine’s informal structure can be a barrier to effective communication
from the managerial point of view. Its grassroots structure gives it greater
credibility in the minds of employees than information delivered through
official channels, even when that information is false. Some downsides of the
office grapevine are that gossip offers politically minded insiders a powerful
tool for disseminating communication (and self-promoting
miscommunications) within an organization. In addition, the grapevine lacks
a specific sender, which can create a sense of distrust among employees: Who
is at the root of the gossip network? When the news is volatile, suspicions may
arise as to the person or person behind the message. Managers who
understand the grapevine’s power can use it to send and receive messages of
their own. They can also decrease the grapevine’s power by sending official
messages quickly and accurately, should big news arise.
Semantics
Words can mean different things to different people, or they might not mean
anything to another person. This is called semantics. For example, companies
often have their own acronyms and buzzwords (called business jargon) that
are clear to them but impenetrable to outsiders. For example, at IBM, GBS is
focusing on BPTS, using expertise acquired from the PwC purchase (which
had to be sold to avoid conflicts of interest in light of SOX) to fend off other
BPO providers and inroads by the Bangalore tiger. Does this make sense to
you? If not, here’s the translation: IBM’s Global Business Services (GBS)
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division is focusing on offering companies Business Process Transformation
Services (BPTS), using the expertise it acquired from purchasing the
management consulting and technology services arm of
PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), which had to sell the division due to the
Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX; enacted in response to the major accounting
scandals such as Enron). The added management expertise puts it above
business process outsourcing (BPO) vendors who focus more on automating
processes rather than transforming and improving them. Chief among these
BPO competitors is Wipro, often called the “Bangalore tiger” because of its
geographic origin and aggressive growth. Given the amount of messages we
send and receive everyday, it makes sense that humans would try to find a
shortcut—a way to communicate things in code. In business, this code is
known as jargon. Jargon is the language of specialized terms used by a group
or profession. It is common shorthand among experts and if used sensibly can
be a quick and efficient way of communicating. Most jargon consists of
unfamiliar terms, abstract words, nonexistent words, acronyms, and
abbreviations, with an occasional euphemism thrown in for good measure.
Every profession, trade, and organization has its own specialized terms. [8]
At first glance, jargon sounds like a good thing—a quicker way to send an
effective communication similar to the way text message abbreviations can
send common messages in a shorter, yet understandable way. But that’s not
always how things happen. Jargon can be an obstacle to effective
communication, causing listeners to tune out or fostering ill feelings between
partners in a conversation. When jargon rules the day, the message can get
obscured. A key question to ask yourself before using a phrase of jargon is,
“Who is the receiver of my message?” If you are a specialist speaking to
another specialist in your area, jargon may be the best way to send a message
while forging a professional bond—similar to the way best friends can
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communicate in code. For example, an IT technician communicating with
another IT technician may use jargon as a way of sharing information in a way
that reinforces the pair’s shared knowledge. But that same conversation
should be held in Standard English, free of jargon, when communicating with
staff members outside the IT group.
Online Follow-Up Eighty buzz words in the business can be found at the following Web site:
http://www.amanet.org/movingahead/editorial2002_2003/nov03_80buzzw
ords.htm
A discussion of why slang is a problem can be found at the following Web site:
http://sbinfocanada.about.com/od/speakforsuccesscourse/a/speechlesson5.h
tm
In addition, the OB Toolbox below will help you avoid letting business jargon
get in your way at work.
OB Toolbox: Tips for Reducing Miscommunication-by- Jargon Know your audience. If they weren’t sitting beside you in law school, medical
school, or in that finance or computer class, then assume they don’t know
what you are talking about. Speak for the other person and not yourself.
Decode your acronyms. If you use an acronym in verbal or written
communication, explain what it means after you use it for the first time. Your
audience will filter your message otherwise, as they wonder, “Now what does
ROI stand for?” (It stands for “return on investment,” btw—by the way.)
Limit your jargon use. Jargon doesn’t necessarily make you sound smart or
business savvy. It can create communication barriers and obstacles and hurts
your ability to build relationships and close deals.
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Source: Adapted from ideas in Adubato, S. (2005, March 13). Scrap the
jargon…Now! Retrieved July 1, 2008, from The Star-Ledger Web
site: http://www.stand-deliver.com/star_ledger/050313.asp.
Gender Differences in Communication
Men and women work together every day, but their different styles of
communication can sometimes work against them. Generally speaking,
women like to ask questions before starting a project, while men tend to “jump
right in.” A male manager who’s unaware of how most women communicate
their readiness to work may misperceive a ready employee as not being
prepared.
Another difference that has been noticed is that men often speak in sports
metaphors, while many women use their home as a starting place for
analogies. Women who believe men are “only talking about the game” may be
missing out on a chance to participate in a division’s strategy and
opportunities for teamwork and “rallying the troops” for success. [9]
“It is important to promote the best possible communication between men
and women in the workplace,” notes gender policy advisor Dee Norton, who
provided the above example. “As we move between the male and female
cultures, we sometimes have to change how we behave (speak the language of
the other gender) to gain the best results from the situation. Clearly, successful
organizations of the future are going to have leaders and team members who
understand, respect, and apply the rules of gender culture appropriately.” [10]
As we have seen, differences in men’s and women’s communication styles can
lead to misunderstandings in the workplace. Being aware of these differences,
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however, can be the first step in learning to work with them instead of around
them. Keep in mind that men tend to focus more on competition, data, and
orders in their communications, while women tend to focus more on
cooperation, intuition, and requests. Both styles can be effective in the right
situations, but understanding the differences is a first step in avoiding
misunderstandings.
Differences in Meaning Between the Sender and Receiver
“Mean what you say, and say what you mean.” It’s an easy thing to say. But in
business, what do those words mean? Simply put, different words mean
different things to different people. Age, education, and cultural background
are all factors that influence how a person interprets words. The less we
consider our audience, the greater our chances of miscommunication will be.
Eliminating jargon is one way of ensuring our words will convey real-world
concepts to others. Speaking to our audience, as opposed to speaking about
ourselves, is another.
Managers who speak about “long-term goals and profits” to a staff that has
received scant raises may find their core message (“You’re doing a great job—
and that benefits the folks in charge!”) has infuriated the group they hoped to
inspire. Instead, managers who recognize the contributions of their staff and
confirm that this work is contributing to company goals in ways “that will
benefit the source of our success—our employees as well as executives,” will
find that their core message (“You’re doing a great job—we really value your
work.”) is received as intended, rather than being misinterpreted.
Biased Language
Words and actions that stereotype others on the basis of personal or group
affiliation are examples of bias. Below is a list of words that have the potential
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to be offensive. The column on the right provides alternative words that can be
used instead. [11]
Figure 8.6
Effective communication is clear, factual, and goal-oriented. It is also
respectful. Referring to a person by one adjective (a brain, a diabetic) reduces
the person to that one characteristic. Language that inflames or stereotypes a
person poisons the communication process. Language that insults an
individual or group based on age, ethnicity, sexual preference, or political
beliefs violates public and private standards of decency, ranging from civil
rights to corporate regulations.
The effort to create a neutral set of terms to refer to heritage and preferences
has resulted in a debate over the nature of “political correctness.” Proponents
of political correctness see it as a way to defuse the volatile nature of words
that stereotyped groups and individuals in the past. Critics of political
correctness see its vocabulary as stilted and needlessly cautious.
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Many companies offer new employees written guides on standards of speech
and conduct. These guides, augmented by common sense and courtesy, are
solid starting points for effective, respectful workplace communication.
Tips for appropriate workplace speech include, but are not limited to the
following:
Alternating our use of he and she when referring to people in general
Relying on human resources–generated guidelines
Remembering that terms that feel respectful or comfortable to us may not
be comfortable or respectful to others
Poor Listening
The greatest compliment that was ever paid to me was when one asked me
what I thought, and attended to my answer.
Henry David Thoreau
A sender may strive to deliver a message clearly. But the receiver’s ability to
listen effectively is equally vital to successful communication. The average
worker spends 55% of their workdays listening. Managers listen up to 70%
each day. Unfortunately, listening doesn’t lead to understanding in every case.
From a number of different perspectives, listening matters. Former Chrysler
CEO Lee Iacocca lamented, “I only wish I could find an institute that teaches
people how to listen. After all, a good manager needs to listen at least as much
as he needs to talk.” [12]
Research shows that listening skills were related to
promotions. [13]
Listening clearly matters. Listening takes practice, skill, and concentration.
Alan Gulick, a Starbucks Corporation spokesperson, believes better listening
can improve profits. If every Starbucks employee misheard one $10 order each
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day, their errors would cost the company a billion dollars annually. To teach
its employees to listen, Starbucks created a code that helps employees taking
orders hear the size, flavor, and use of milk or decaffeinated coffee. The person
making the drink echoes the order aloud.
How Can You Improve Your Listening Skills?
Cicero said, “Silence is one of the great arts of conversation.” How often have
we been in a conversation with someone else when we are not really listening
but itching to convey our portion? This behavior is known as “rehearsing.” It
suggests the receiver has no intention of considering the sender’s message and
is actually preparing to respond to an earlier point instead. Effective
communication relies on another kind of listening: active listening.
Active listening can be defined as giving full attention to what other people are
saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as
needed, and not interrupting at inappropriate times. [14]
Active listening
creates a real-time relationship between the sender and receiver by
acknowledging the content and receipt of a message. As we’ve seen in the
Starbucks example above, repeating and confirming a message’s content offers
a way to confirm that the correct content is flowing between colleagues. The
process creates a bond between coworkers while increasing the flow and
accuracy of messaging.
How Can We Listen Actively?
Carl Rogers gave five rules for active listening:
1. Listen for message content.
2. Listen for feelings.
3. Respond to feelings.
4. Note all cues.
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5. Paraphrase and restate.
The good news is that listening is a skill that can be learned. [15]
The first step
is to decide that we want to listen. Casting aside distractions, such as by
reducing background or internal noise, is critical. The receiver takes in the
sender’s message silently, without speaking.
Second, throughout the conversation, show the speaker that you’re listening.
You can do this nonverbally by nodding your head and keeping your attention
focused on the speaker. You can also do it verbally, by saying things like,
“Yes,” “That’s interesting,” or other such verbal cues. As you’re listening, pay
attention to the sender’s body language for additional cues about how they’re
feeling. Interestingly, silence has a role in active listening. During active
listening, we are trying to understand what has been said, and in silence we
can consider the implications. We can’t consider information and object to it
at the same time. That’s where the power of silence comes into play. Finally, if
anything is not clear to you, ask questions. Confirm that you’ve heard the
message accurately, by repeating back a crucial piece like, “Great, I’ll see you
at 2:00 p.m. in my office.” At the end of the conversation, a thank you from
both parties is an optional but highly effective way of acknowledging each
other’s teamwork.
Becoming a More Effective Listener
As we’ve seen above, active listening creates a more dynamic relationship
between a receiver and a sender. It strengthens personal investment in the
information being shared. It also forges healthy working relationships among
colleagues by making speakers and listeners equally valued members of the
communication process.
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Many companies offer public speaking courses for their staff, but what about
“public listening”? Here are some more ways you can build your listening
skills by becoming a more effective listener and banishing communication
freezers from your discussions.
OB Toolbox: 10 Ways to Improve Your Listening Habits 1. Start by stopping. Take a moment to inhale and exhale quietly before you
begin to listen. Your job as a listener is to receive information openly and
accurately.
2. Don’t worry about what you’ll say when the time comes. Silence can be a
beautiful thing.
3. Join the sender’s team. When the sender pauses, summarize what you believe
has been said. “What I’m hearing is that we need to focus on marketing as well
as sales. Is that correct?” Be attentive to physical as well as verbal
communications. “I hear you saying that we should focus on marketing, but
the way you’re shaking your head tells me the idea may not really appeal to
you—is that right?”
4. Don’t multitask while listening. Listening is a full-time job. It’s tempting to
multitask when you and the sender are in different places, but doing that is
counterproductive. The human mind can only focus on one thing at a time.
Listening with only part of your brain increases the chances that you’ll have
questions later, ultimately requiring more of the speaker’s time. (And when
the speaker is in the same room, multitasking signals a disinterest that is
considered rude.)
5. Try to empathize with the sender’s point of view. You don’t have to agree, but
can you find common ground?
6. Confused? Ask questions. There’s nothing wrong with admitting you haven’t
understood the sender’s point. You may even help the sender clarify the
message.
24
7. Establish eye contact. Making eye contact with the speaker (if appropriate for
the culture) is important.
8. What is the goal of this communication? Ask yourself this question at
different points during the communication to keep the information flow on
track. Be polite. Differences in opinion can be the starting point of consensus.
9. It’s great to be surprised. Listen with an open mind, not just for what
you want to hear.
10. Pay attention to what is not said. Does the sender’s body language seem to
contradict the message? If so, clarification may be in order.
Sources: Adapted from information in Barrett, D. J. (2006). Leadership
communication. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin; Improving verbal skills.
(1997). Retrieved July 1, 2008, from the Institute for Management Web
site:http://www.itstime.com/aug97.htm; Ten tips: Active listening. (2007,
June 4). Retrieved July 1, 2008, from the Communication at Work Web
site:http://communication.atwork-network.com/2007/06/04/ten-tips-
active-listening/.
Communication Freezers Communication freezers put an end to effective communication by making the
receiver feel judged or defensive. Typical communication stoppers include
criticizing, blaming, ordering, judging, or shaming the other person. Some
examples of things to avoid saying include the following:
1. Telling the other person what to do:
o “You must…”
o “You cannot…”
2. Threatening with “or else” implied:
o “You had better…”
25
o “If you don’t…”
3. Making suggestions or telling the other person what they ought to do:
o “You should…”
o “It’s your responsibility to…”
4. Attempting to educate the other person:
o “Let me give you the facts.”
o “Experience tells us that…”
5. Judging the other person negatively:
o “You’re not thinking straight.”
o “You’re wrong.”
6. Giving insincere praise:
o “You have so much potential.”
o “I know you can do better than this.”
7. Psychoanalyzing the other person:
o “You’re jealous.”
o “You have problems with authority.”
8. Making light of the other person’s problems by generalizing:
o “Things will get better.”
o “Behind every cloud is a silver lining.”
9. Asking excessive or inappropriate questions:
o “Why did you do that?”
o “Who has influenced you?”
26
10. Making light of the problem by kidding:
o “Think about the positive side.”
o “You think you’ve got problems!”
Sources: Adapted from information in Tramel, M., & Reynolds, H.
(1981). Executive leadership. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; Saltman, D.,
& O’Dea, N. Conflict management workshop PowerPoint presentation.
Retrieved July 1, 2008, from
http://www.nswrdn.com.au/client_images/6806.PDF; Communication
stoppers. Retrieved July 1, 2008, from Mental Health Today Web
site: http://www.mental-health-today.com/Healing/communicationstop.htm.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y
Many barriers to effective communication exist. Examples include filtering, selective
perception, information overload, emotional disconnects, lack of source credibility,
workplace gossip, gender differences, and semantics. The receiver can enhance the
probability of effective communication by engaging in active listening.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Most people are poor listeners. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Please
support your position.
2. Please share an example of how differences in shared meaning have affected you.
3. When you see a memo or e-mail full of typos, poor grammar, or incomplete
sentences, how do you react? Does it affect your perception of the sender? Why or
why not?
4. Give an example of selective perception.
5. Do you use jargon at work or in your classes? If so, do you think it helps or hampers
communication? Why or why not?
27
8.3 Different Types of Communication and Channels
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
1. Understand different types of communication.
2. Understand how communication channels affect communication.
3. Recognize different communication directions within organizations.
Types of Communication
There are three types of communication, including: verbal communication
involving listening to a person to understand the meaning of a message,
written communication in which a message is read, and nonverbal
communication involving observing a person and inferring meaning. Let’s
start with verbal communication, which is the most common form of
communication.
Verbal Communication
Verbal communications in business take place over the phone or in person.
The medium of the message is oral. Let’s return to our printer cartridge
example. This time, the message is being conveyed from the sender (the
manager) to the receiver (an employee named Bill) by telephone. We’ve
already seen how the manager’s request to Bill (“Buy more printer toner
cartridges!”) can go awry. Now let’s look at how the same message can travel
successfully from sender to receiver.
Manager (speaking on the phone): “Good morning Bill!”
(By using the employee’s name, the manager is establishing a clear, personal
link to the receiver.)
28
Manager: “Your division’s numbers are looking great.”
(The manager’s recognition of Bill’s role in a winning team further
personalizes and emotionalizes the conversation.)
Manager: “Our next step is to order more printer toner cartridges. Would you
place an order for 1,000 printer toner cartridges with Jones Computer
Supplies? Our budget for this purchase is $30,000, and the printer toner
cartridges need to be here by Wednesday afternoon.”
(The manager breaks down the task into several steps. Each step consists of a
specific task, time frame, quantity, or goal.)
Bill: “Sure thing! I’ll call Jones Computer Supplies and order 1,000 more
printer toner cartridges, not exceeding a total of $30,000, to be here by
Wednesday afternoon.”
(Bill, a model employee, repeats what he has heard. This is the feedback
portion of the communication. Feedback helps him recognize any confusion
he may have had hearing the manager’s message. Feedback also helps the
manager hear if she has communicated the message correctly.)
Storytelling has been shown to be an effective form of verbal communication
that serves an important organizational function by helping to construct
common meanings for individuals within the organization. Stories can help
clarify key values and also help demonstrate how certain tasks are performed
within an organization. Story frequency, strength, and tone are related to
higher organizational commitment. [1]
The quality of the stories is related to
the ability of entrepreneurs to secure capital for their firms. [2]
While the process may be the same, high stakes communications require more
planning, reflection, and skill than normal day-to-day interactions at work.
Examples of high stakes communication events include asking for a raise or
presenting a business plan to a venture capitalist. In addition to these events,
29
there are also many times in our professional lives when we have crucial
conversations, which are defined as discussions in which not only are the
stakes high, but also the opinions vary and emotions run strong. [3]
One of the
most consistent recommendations from communications experts is to work
toward using “and” instead of “but” when communicating under these
circumstances. In addition, be aware of your communication style and
practice being flexible; it is under stressful situations that communication
styles can become the most rigid.
OB Toolbox: 10 Recommendations for Improving the Quality of Your Conversations 1. Be the first to say hello. Use your name in your introduction, in case others
have forgotten it.
2. Think before you speak. Our impulse is often to imitate movies by offering
fast, witty replies in conversation. In the real world, a careful silence can make
us sound more intelligent and prevent mistakes.
3. Be receptive to new ideas. If you disagree with another person’s opinion,
saying, “Tell me more,” can be a more useful way of moving forward than
saying, “That’s stupid!”
4. Repeat someone’s name to yourself and then aloud, when being introduced.
The form of the name you use may vary. First names work with peers. Mr. or
Ms. is common when meeting superiors in business.
5. Ask questions. This establishes your interest in another person.
6. Listen as much, if not more, than you speak. This allows you to learn new
information.
7. Use eye contact. Eye contact shows that you are engaged. Also, be sure to
smile and make sure your body language matches your message.
30
8. Mirror the other person. Occasionally repeat what they’ve said in your own
words. “You mean… ?”
9. Have an exit strategy ready. Ideal conversations are brief, leaving others
wanting more.
10. Be prepared. Before beginning a conversation, have three simple facts about
yourself and four questions about someone else in mind.
Source: Adapted from information contained in Gabor, D. (1983). How to
start a conversation and make friends. New York: Legacy; Post, E.
(2005). Emily Post’s etiquette advantage in business. New York: Collins
Living; Fine, D. (2005). The fine art of small talk. New York: Hyperion.
Written Communication
In contrast to verbal communications, which are oral, written business
communications are printed messages. Examples of written communications
include memos, proposals, e-mails, letters, training manuals, and operating
policies. They may be printed on paper or appear on the screen. Written
communication is often asynchronous. That is, the sender can write a message
that the receiver can read at any time, unlike a conversation that is carried on
in real time. A written communication can also be read by many people (such
as all employees in a department or all customers). It’s a “one-to-many”
communication, as opposed to a one-to-one conversation. There are
exceptions, of course: A voice mail is an oral message that is asynchronous.
Conference calls and speeches are oral one-to-many communications, and e-
mails can have only one recipient or many.
Normally, a verbal communication takes place in real time. Written
communication, by contrast, can be constructed over a longer period of time.
31
It also can be collaborative. Multiple people can contribute to the content on
one document before that document is sent to the intended audience.
Verbal and written communications have different strengths and weaknesses.
In business, the decision to communicate verbally or in written form can be a
powerful one. As we’ll see below, each style of communication has particular
strengths and pitfalls. When determining whether to communicate verbally or
in writing, ask yourself: Do I want to convey facts or feelings? Verbal
communications are a better way to convey feelings. Written communications
do a better job of conveying facts.
Picture a manager making a speech to a team of twenty employees. The
manager is speaking at a normal pace. The employees appear interested. But
how much information is being transmitted? Probably not as much as the
speaker believes. The fact is that humans listen much faster than they speak.
The average public speaker communicates at a speed of about 125 words a
minute, and that pace sounds fine to the audience. (In fact, anything faster
than that probably would sound unusual. To put that figure in perspective,
someone having an excited conversation speaks at about 150 words a minute.)
Based on these numbers, we could assume that the audience has more than
enough time to take in each word the speaker delivers, which actually creates a
problem. The average person in the audience can hear 400 to 500 words a
minute. [4]
The audience has more than enough time to hear. As a result, their
minds may wander.
As you can see, oral communication is the most often used form of
communication, but it is also an inherently flawed medium for conveying
specific facts. Listeners’ minds wander. It’s nothing personal—in fact, it’s a
completely normal psychological occurrence. In business, once we understand
32
this fact, we can make more intelligent communication choices based on the
kind of information we want to convey.
Most jobs involve some degree of writing. According to the National
Commission on Writing, 67% of salaried employees in large American
companies and professional state employees have some kind of writing
responsibility. Half of responding companies reported that they take writing
into consideration when hiring professional employees, and 91% always take
writing into account when hiring. [5]
Luckily, it is possible to learn to write
clearly.
Here are some tips on writing well. Thomas Jefferson summed up the rules of
writing well with this idea: “Don’t use two words when one will do.” Put
another way, half the words can have twice the impact. One of the oldest
myths in business is that writing more will make us sound more important.
The opposite is true. Leaders who can communicate simply and clearly project
a stronger image than those who write a lot but say nothing.
Putting Jefferson’s Rules Into Action: Five Ways to Communicate More With Fewer Words 1. Picture the receiver in your mind before you begin to write. After all, a
written communication is a link between people.
2. Choose simple words. When in doubt, choose the shorter word (“Automobile
or car? Car!”)
3. Be polite and clear. Your message will make a strong, clear impact.
4. Make your message brief and direct by trimming redundant words or
phrases. “Having thus explored our first option, I would now like to begin to
33
explore the second option that may be open to us.” versus “After considering
Option 1, I would like to look at Option 2.”
5. Choose strong, active verbs. “I suggest…” instead of “It would seem to me that
we might…”
Remember, concise writing equals effective communication.
Nonverbal Communication
What you say is a vital part of any communication. Surprisingly, what
you don’t say can be even more important. Research shows that nonverbal
cues can also affect whether or not you get a job offer. Judges examining
videotapes of actual applicants were able to assess the social skills of job
candidates with the sound turned off. They watched the rate of gesturing, time
spent talking, and formality of dress to determine which candidates would be
the most socially successful on the job. [6]
Research also shows that 55% of in-
person communication comes from nonverbal cues such as facial expressions,
body stance, and tone of voice. According to one study, only 7% of a receiver’s
comprehension of a message is based on the sender’s actual words, 38% is
based on paralanguage (the tone, pace, and volume of speech), and 55% is
based on nonverbal cues (body language). [7]
To be effective communicators,
our body language, appearance, and tone must align with the words we’re
trying to convey. Research shows that when individuals are lying, they are
more likely to blink more frequently, shift their weight, and shrug. [8]
Listen Up and Learn More! To learn more about facial language from facial recognition expert Patrician
McCarthy as she speaks with Senior Editor Suzanne Woolley at Business Week,
view the online interview
at http://feedroom.businessweek.com/index.jsp?fr_chl=1e2ee1e43e4a5402a862f79a7941fa625f5b0744
34
A different tone can change the perceived meaning of a message. See the table
below for how clearly this can be true. If we only read these words, we would
be left to wonder, but during a conversation, the tone conveys a great deal of
information.
Don’t Use That Tone With Me! Changing your tone can dramatically change your meaning.
Table 8.1
Placement of the emphasis What it means
I did not tell John you were late. Someone else told John you were late.
I did not tell John you were late. This did not happen.
I did not tell John you were late. I may have implied it.
I did not tell John you were late. But maybe I told Sharon and José.
I did not tell John you were late. I was talking about someone else.
I did not tell John you were late. I told him you still are late.
I did not tell John you were late.
I told him you were attending another meeting.
Source: Based on ideas in Kiely, M. (October, 1993). When “no” means “yes.”
Marketing, 7–9.
Now you can see how changing the tone of voice in a conversation can incite or
diffuse a misunderstanding. For another example, imagine that you’re a
35
customer interested in opening a new bank account. At one bank, the bank
officer is dressed neatly. She looks you in the eye when she speaks. Her tone is
friendly. Her words are easy to understand, yet professional sounding. “Thank
you for considering Bank of the East Coast. We appreciate this opportunity
and would love to explore ways that we can work together to help your
business grow,” she says with a friendly smile. At the second bank, the bank
officer’s tie is stained. He looks over your head and down at his desk as he
speaks. He shifts in his seat and fidgets with his hands. His words say, “Thank
you for considering Bank of the West Coast. We appreciate this opportunity
and would love to explore ways that we can work together to help you business
grow,” but he mumbles his words, and his voice conveys no enthusiasm or
warmth. Which bank would you choose? The speaker’s body language must
match his or her words. If a sender’s words and body language don’t match—if
a sender smiles while telling a sad tale, for example—the mismatch between
verbal and nonverbal cues can cause a receiver to actively dislike the sender.
Following are a few examples of nonverbal cues that can support or detract
from a sender’s message.
Body Language
A simple rule of thumb is that simplicity, directness, and warmth conveys
sincerity. Sincerity is vital for effective communication. In some cultures, a
firm handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great way to establish trust.
A weak, clammy handshake might convey a lack of trustworthiness. Gnawing
one’s lip conveys uncertainty. A direct smile conveys confidence.
Eye Contact
In business, the style and duration of eye contact varies greatly across
cultures. In the United States, looking someone in the eye (for about a second)
is considered a sign of trustworthiness.
36
Facial Expressions
The human face can produce thousands of different expressions. These
expressions have been decoded by experts as corresponding to hundreds of
different emotional states. [9]
Our faces convey basic information to the outside
world. Happiness is associated with an upturned mouth and slightly closed
eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare. Shifty eyes and pursed lips
convey a lack of trustworthiness. The impact of facial expressions in
conversation is instantaneous. Our brains may register them as “a feeling”
about someone’s character. For this reason, it is important to consider how we
appear in business as well as what we say. The muscles of our faces convey our
emotions. We can send a silent message without saying a word. A change in
facial expression can change our emotional state. Before an interview, for
example, if we focus on feeling confident, our face will convey that confidence
to an interviewer. Adopting a smile (even if we’re feeling stressed) can reduce
the body’s stress levels.
Posture
The position of our body relative to a chair or other person is another powerful
silent messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, professionalism, or lack
thereof. Head up, back straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character. In
interview situations, experts advise mirroring an interviewer’s tendency to
lean in and settle back in a seat. The subtle repetition of the other person’s
posture conveys that we are listening and responding.
Touch
The meaning of a simple touch differs between individuals, genders, and
cultures. In Mexico, when doing business, men may find themselves being
grasped on the arm by another man. To pull away is seen as rude. In
37
Indonesia, to touch anyone on the head or to touch anything with one’s foot is
considered highly offensive. In the Far East and some parts of Asia, according
to business etiquette writer Nazir Daud, “It is considered impolite for a
woman to shake a man’s hand.” [10]
Americans, as we have noted above, place
great value in a firm handshake. But handshaking as a competitive sport (“the
bone-crusher”) can come off as needlessly aggressive both at home and
abroad.
Space
Anthropologist Edward T. Hall coined the term proxemics to denote the
different kinds of distance that occur between people. These distances vary
among cultures. The chart below outlines the basic proxemics of everyday life
and their associated meaning. [11]
Figure 8.9
Distance between speakers is partially determined by their intimacy level.
Source: Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York: Doubleday.
38
Standing too far away from a colleague (public speaking distance) or too close
to a colleague (intimate distance for embracing) can thwart an effective verbal
communication in business.
Communication Channels
The channel, or medium, used to communicate a message affects how
accurately the message will be received. Channels vary in their “information-
richness.” Information-rich channels convey more nonverbal information.
Research shows that effective managers tend to use more information-rich
communication channels than less effective managers. [12]
The figure below
illustrates the information richness of different channels.
Figure 8.10
Information channels differ in their richness.
39
Sources: Adapted from information in Daft, R. L., & Lenge, R. H. (1984).
Information richness: A new approach to managerial behavior and
organizational design. In B. Staw & L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in
organizational behavior, vol. 6 (pp. 191–233). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press;
Lengel, R. H., & Daft, D. L. (1988). The selection of communication media as
an executive skill. Academy of Management Executive, 11, 225–232.
The key to effective communication is to match the communication channel
with the goal of the message. [13]
For example, written media may be a better
choice when the sender wants a record of the content, has less urgency for a
response, is physically separated from the receiver, and doesn’t require a lot of
feedback from the receiver, or when the message is complicated and may take
some time to understand.
Oral communication, on the other hand, makes more sense when the sender is
conveying a sensitive or emotional message, needs feedback immediately, and
does not need a permanent record of the conversation.
Figure 8.11 Guide for When to Use Written versus Verbal Communication
40
Like face-to-face and telephone conversations, videoconferencing has high
information richness, because receivers and senders can see or hear beyond
just the words that are used—they can see the sender’s body language or hear
the tone of their voice. Handheld devices, blogs, and written letters and
memos offer medium-rich channels, because they convey words and pictures
or photos. Formal written documents, such as legal documents and budget
spreadsheets, convey the least richness, because the format is often rigid and
standardized. As a result, the tone of the message is often lost.
The growth of e-mail has been spectacular, but it has also created challenges
in managing information and increasing the speed of doing businesses. Over
100 million adults in the United States use e-mail at least once a
day. [14]
Internet users around the world send an estimated 60 billion e-mails
each day, and a large portion of these are spam or scam attempts. [15]
That
makes e-mail the second most popular medium of communication worldwide,
second only to voice. Less than 1% of all written human communications even
reaches paper these days. [16]
To combat the overuse of e-mail, companies such
41
as Intel have even instituted “no e-mail Fridays.” During these times, all
communication is done via other communication channels. Learning to be
more effective in your e-mail communications is an important skill. To learn
more, check out the OB Toolbox on business e-mail do’s and don’ts.
OB Toolbox: Business E-mail Do’s and Don’ts 1. DON’T send or forward chain e-mails.
2. DON’T put anything in an e-mail that you don’t want the world to see.
3. DON’T write a message in capital letters—this is the equivalent of
SHOUTING.
4. DON’T routinely CC everyone. Reducing inbox clutter is a great way to
increase communication.
5. DON’T hit send until you’ve spell-checked your e-mail.
6. DO use a subject line that summarizes your message, adjusting it as the
message changes over time.
7. DO make your request in the first line of your e-mail. (And if that’s all you
need to say, stop there!)
8. DO end your e-mail with a brief sign-off such as, “Thank you,” followed by
your name and contact information.
9. DO think of a work e-mail as a binding communication.
10. DO let others know if you’ve received an e-mail in error.
Sources: Adapted from information in Leland, K., & Bailey, K.
(2000). Customer service for dummies. New York: Wiley; Information
Technology Services. (1997). Top 10 email dos and top ten email don’ts.
Retrieved July 1, 2008, from the University of Illinois at Chicago Medical
Center Web site: http://www.uic.edu/hsc/uicmc/its/customers/email-
tips.htm; Kawasaki, G. (2006, February 3). The effective emailer. Retrieved
42
July 1, 2008, from How to Change the World Web
site: http://blog.guykawasaki.com/2006/02/the_effective_e.html.
An important although often ignored rule when communicating emotional
information is that e-mail’s lack of richness can be your loss. As we saw in the
chart above, e-mail is a medium-rich channel. It can convey facts quickly. But
when it comes to emotion, e-mail’s flaws make it a far less desirable choice
than oral communication—the 55% of nonverbal cues that make a
conversation comprehensible to a listener are missing. Researchers also note
that e-mail readers don’t pick up on sarcasm and other tonal aspects of writing
as much as the writer believes they will. [17]
The sender may believe that certain emotional signifiers have been included in
a message. But, with written words alone, those signifiers are not there. This
gap between the form and content of e-mail inspired the rise of emoticons—
symbols that offer clues to the emotional side of the words in each message.
Generally speaking, however, emoticons are not considered professional in
business communication.
You might feel uncomfortable conveying an emotionally laden message
verbally, especially when the message contains unwanted news. Sending an e-
mail to your staff that there will be no bonuses this year may seem easier than
breaking the bad news face-to-face, but that doesn’t mean that e-mail is an
effective or appropriate way to break this kind of news. When the message is
emotional, the sender should use verbal communication. Indeed, a good rule
of thumb is that more emotionally laden messages require more thought in the
choice of channel and how they are communicated.
Career Advice
43
Communication can occur without you even realizing it. Consider the
following: Is your e-mail name professional? The typical convention for
business e-mail contains some form of your name. While an e-mail name like
“LazyGirl” or “DeathMonkey” may be fine for chatting online with your
friends, they may send the wrong signal to individuals you e-mail such as
professors and prospective employers.
Is your outgoing voice mail greeting professional? If not, change it. Faculty and
prospective recruiters will draw certain conclusions if, upon calling you, they
get a message that screams, “Party, party, party!”
Do you have a “private” social networking Web site on MySpace.com,
Facebook.com, or Xanga.com? If so, consider what it says about you to
employers or clients. If it is information you wouldn’t share at work, it
probably shouldn’t be there.
Googled yourself lately? If not, you probably should. Potential employers have
begun searching the Web as part of background checking, and you should be
aware of what’s out there about you.
Direction of Communication Within Organizations
Information can move horizontally, from a sender to a receiver, as we’ve seen.
It can also move vertically, down from top management, or up from the front
line. Information can also move diagonally between and among levels of an
organization, such as a message from a customer service rep to a manager in
the manufacturing department or a message from the chief financial officer
sent down to all department heads.
Figure 8.13
44
Organizational communication travels in many different directions.
There is a chance for these arrows to go awry, of course. As Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi, author of best-selling books such as Flow, has noted, “In
large organizations the dilution of information as it passes up and down the
hierarchy, and horizontally across departments, can undermine the effort to
focus on common goals.” [18]
The organizational status of the sender can impact the receiver’s attentiveness
to the message. For example, consider the following: A senior manager sends a
memo to a production supervisor. The supervisor, who has a lower status
within the organization, is likely to pay close attention to the message. The
same information conveyed in the opposite direction, however, might not get
the attention it deserves. The message would be filtered by the senior
manager’s perception of priorities and urgencies.
45
Requests are just one kind of communication in business. Other
communications, either verbal or written, may seek, give, or exchange
information. Research shows that frequent communications with one’s
supervisor is related to better job performance ratings and overall
organizational performance. [19]
Research also shows that lateral
communication done between peers can influence important organizational
outcomes such as turnover. [20]
Figure 8.14 How Managers Spend Time Communicating at Work
Source: Adapted from information in Luthans, F., & Larsen, J. K. (1986).
How managers really communicate. Human Relations, 39, 161–178.
External Communications
External communications deliver specific businesses messages to individuals
outside an organization. They may announce changes in staff or strategy,
earnings, and more. The goal of an external communication is to create a
specific message that the receiver will understand and share with others.
Examples of external communications include the following.
46
Press Releases
Public relations professionals create external communications about a client’s
product, services, or practices for specific receivers. These receivers, it is
hoped, will share the message with others. In time, as the message is passed
along, it should appear to be independent of the sender, creating the illusion
of an independently generated consumer trend, public opinion, and so on.
The message of a public relations effort may be b2b (business to
business), b2c (business to consumer), or media related. The message can
take different forms. Press releases try to convey a newsworthy message, real
or manufactured. It may be constructed like a news item, inviting editors or
reporters to reprint the message in part or as a whole, with or without
acknowledgement of the sender’s identity. Public relations campaigns create
messages over time through contests, special events, trade shows, and media
interviews in addition to press releases.
Ads
Advertising places external business messages before target receivers through
media buys. A media buy is a fee that is paid to a television network, Web site,
magazine, and so on by an advertiser to insert an advertisement. The fee is
based on the perceived value of the audience who watches, reads, listens to, or
frequents the space where the ad will appear.
In recent years, receivers have begun to filter advertiser’s messages. This
phenomenon is perceived to be a result of the large amount of ads the average
person sees each day and a growing level of consumer wariness of paid
messaging. Advertisers, in turn, are trying to create alternative forms of
advertising that receivers won’t filter. The advertorial is one example of an
external communication that combines the look of an article with the focused
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message of an ad. Product placements in videos, movies, and games are other
ways that advertisers strive to reach receivers with commercial messages.
Web Pages
A Web page’s external communication can combine elements of public
relations, advertising, and editorial content, reaching receivers on multiple
levels and in multiple ways. Banner ads, blogs, and advertiser-driven “click-
through” areas are just a few of the elements that allow a business to deliver a
message to a receiver online. The perceived flexibility of online
communications can impart a less formal (and therefore, more believable)
quality to an external communication. A message relayed in a daily blog post,
for example, will reach a receiver differently than if it is delivered in an annual
report. The popularity and power of blogs is growing, with 11% of Fortune 500
companies having official blogs (up from 4% in 2005). In fact, blogs have
become so important to companies such as Coca-Cola Company, Eastman
Kodak Company, and Marriott International Inc. that they have created
official positions within their organizations titled “chief blogging
officer.” [21]
The “real-time” quality of Web communications may appeal to
receivers who might filter out traditional ads and public relations messages
because of their “prefab” quality. Despite a “spontaneous” feel, many online
pages can be revisited many times in a single day. For this reason, clear and
accurate external communications are as vital for online use as they are in
traditional media.
Customer Communications
Customer communications can include letters, catalogs, direct mail, e-mails,
text messages, and telemarketing messages. Some receivers automatically
filter these types of bulk messages. Others will be receptive. The key to a
successful external communication to customers is to convey a business
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message in a personally compelling way—dramatic news, a money-saving
coupon, and so forth.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y
Types of communication include verbal, written, and nonverbal. Surprisingly, 55% of
face-to-face communication comes from nonverbal cues such as tone or body
language. Different communication channels are more or less effective at
transmitting different kinds of information. In addition, communication flows in
different directions within organizations.
E X E R C I S E S
1. How aware are you of your own body language? Has your body language ever gotten
you in trouble while communicating with someone?
2. In your experience, how is silence used in communication?
3. If the meaning behind verbal communication is only 7% words, what does this imply
for written communication?
4. How could you use your knowledge of communication richness to be more effective
in your own communications?
5. What are the three biggest advantages and disadvantages you see regarding
technology and communications?
8.4 The Role of Ethics and National Culture
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
1. Consider the role of ethics in communication.
2. Consider the role of national culture on communication.
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Ethics and Communication
“People aren’t happy when the unexpected happens, but they are even
unhappier if they find out you tried to hide it,” says Bruce Patton, a partner at
Boston-based Vantage Partners LLC. [1]
To speak or not to speak? One of the
most challenging areas of effective business communication occurs in
moments of crisis management. But in an age of instant information, the
burden on business to speak out quickly and clearly in times of crisis has never
been greater.
The alternative to a clear message is seen as a communication blocker, in
addition to being guilty of the misdeed, disaster, or infraction at hand. The
Exxon Valdez disaster is a classic example of ineffective crisis management
and communication. When millions of barrels of oil spilled into Prince
William Sound, the company’s poor response only added to the damage.
Exxon Mobil Corporation executives refused to acknowledge the extent of the
problem and declined to comment on the accident for almost a week. Exxon
also sent a succession of lower level spokespeople to deal with the media. [2]
Instead, a more effective method of crisis communication is to have the
company’s highest ranking official become the spokesperson who
communicates the situation. This is the approach that James Burke, the
chairman of Johnson & Johnson Services, Inc., took when tampering was
discovered with Tylenol bottles. He became the face of the crisis,
communicating with the public and explaining what J & J would do. His
forthrightness built trust and allayed customer fears.
Ethical, forthright communication applies inside the company as well as
externally with the public. “When the truth is missing, people feel
demoralized, less confident, and ultimately are less loyal,” write leadership
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experts Beverly Kaye and Sharon Jordan-Evans. “Research overwhelmingly
supports the notion that engaged employees are ‘in the know.’ They want to be
trusted with the truth about the business, including its challenges and
downturns.” [3]
Cross-Cultural Communication
Culture is a shared set of beliefs and experiences common to people in a
specific setting. The setting that creates a culture can be geographic, religious,
or professional. As you might guess, the same individual can be a member of
many cultures, all of which may play a part in the interpretation of certain
words.
The different and often “multicultural” identity of individuals in the same
organization can lead to some unexpected and potentially large
miscommunications. For example, during the Cold War, Soviet leader Nikita
Khruschev told the American delegation at the United Nations, “We will bury
you!” His words were interpreted as a threat of nuclear annihilation. However,
a more accurate reading of Khruschev’s words would have been, “We will
overtake you!” meaning economic superiority. The words, as well as the fear
and suspicion that the West had of the Soviet Union at the time, led to the
more alarmist and sinister interpretation. [4]
Miscommunications can arise between individuals of the same culture as well.
Many words in the English language mean different things to different people.
Words can be misunderstood if the sender and receiver do not share common
experiences. A sender’s words cannot communicate the desired meaning if the
receiver has not had some experience with the objects or concepts the words
describe. [5]
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It is particularly important to keep this fact in mind when you are
communicating with individuals who may not speak English as a first
language. For example, when speaking with nonnative English-speaking
colleagues, avoid “isn’t it?” questions. This sentence construction does not
exist in many other languages and can be confusing for nonnative English
speakers. For example, to the question, “You are coming, aren’t you?” they
may answer, “Yes” (I am coming) or “No” (I am coming), depending on how
they interpret the question. [6]
Cultures also vary in terms of the desired amount of situational context related
to interpreting situations. People in very high context cultures put a high value
on establishing relationships prior to working with others and tend to take
longer to negotiate deals. Examples of high context cultures include China,
Korea, and Japan. Conversely, people in low context cultures “get down to
business” and tend to negotiate quickly. Examples of low context cultures
include Germany, Scandinavia, and the United States. [7]
Finally, don’t forget the role of nonverbal communication. As we learned in
the nonverbal communication section, in the United States, looking someone
in the eye when talking is considered a sign of trustworthiness. In China, by
contrast, a lack of eye contact conveys respect. A recruiting agency that places
English teachers warns prospective teachers that something that works well in
one culture can offend in another: “In Western countries, one expects to
maintain eye contact when we talk with people. This is a norm we consider
basic and essential. This is not the case among the Chinese. On the contrary,
because of the more authoritarian nature of the Chinese society, steady eye
contact is viewed as inappropriate, especially when subordinates talk with
their superiors.” [8]
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It’s easy to see how meaning could become confused, depending on how and
when these signals are used. When in doubt, experts recommend that you ask
someone around you to help you interpret the meaning of different gestures,
that you be sensitive, and that you remain observant when dealing with a
culture different from your own.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y
Ethical, forthright communication applies inside a company as well as externally with
the public. Trying to cover up or ignore problems has been the downfall of many
organizational members. There are differences in word meanings and nonverbal
communication. For example, in North America, the nonverbal V means victory or
peace, but in Australia means something closer to “take this,” which could still fit if
your team wins a championship but probably isn’t exactly what was meant.
E X E R C I S E S
1. How can you assess if you are engaging in ethical communications?
2. What experiences have you had with cross-cultural communications? Please
share at least one experience when this has gone well and one when it has not
gone well.
3. What advice would you give to someone who will be managing a new division
of a company in another culture in terms of communication?
8.5 Conclusion In this chapter we have reviewed why effective communication matters to
organizations. Communication may break down as a result of many
communication barriers that may be attributed to the sender or receiver.
Therefore, effective communication requires familiarity with the barriers.
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Choosing the right channel for communication is also important, because
choosing the wrong medium undermines the message. When communication
occurs in the cross-cultural context, extra caution is needed, given that
different cultures have different norms regarding nonverbal communication,
and different words will be interpreted differently across cultures. By being
sensitive to the errors outlined in this chapter and adopting active listening
skills, you may increase your communication effectiveness.
8.6 Exercises
E T H I C A L D I L E M M A
How far would you go to find out who is talking to whom? [1]
In 2006, Hewlett-Packard Development Company LP became embroiled in a
controversy over methods used to investigate media leaks from its board. HP
Chairperson Patricia Dunn could have simply asked the directors who was the source
cited in the story, sought an apology, and gone from there. With some direct face-to-
face communication, the story would likely have ended quickly. It did not. “Not only
did investigators impersonate board members, employees and journalists to obtain
their phone records, but according to multiple reports, they also surveilled an HP
director and a reporter for CNet Networks Inc. They sent monitoring spyware in an e-
mail to that reporter by concocting a phony tip. They even snooped on the phone
records of former CEO and Chairperson Carly Fiorina, who had launched the quest to
identify media sources in the first place.” The situation continued to escalate. For
example, the New York Times reported that HP consultants even considered planting
clerical or custodial workers at CNet and the Wall Street Journal to learn who was
leaking information to them. Following this, Patricia Dunn, as well as three
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executives, left the company. A congressional hearing and several federal
investigations later, executives were charged with felonies, and HP paid $14.5 million
to settle civil charges related to the scandal. HP is not the only company to use such
methods; recent admissions by the investigation firms involved suggest that the use
of ethically questionable investigative tactics by large companies is quite common.
“It betrays a type of corporate culture that is so self-obsessed, (that) really considers
itself not only above the law, but above, I think, ethical decency, that you have to ask
yourself, where did the shame come in?” said Charles King, an analyst with Pund-IT
Inc.
Consider this situation from a multiple stakeholder perspective. Imagine you are…
a CEO faced with leaks regarding your strategic vision. What would you do to
determine who was sharing the information? What would be the advantages and
disadvantages of these approaches?
a shareholder with HP stock. What would you want to see done to protect your
investment in the company?
a board member who was spied upon. What would your reaction be to learning that
you were investigated?
an investigator hired by HP. What role do you have to uphold ethical standards?
As several observers have noted, HP spent a lot of time establishing whether or not
their activities were technically legal but little time considering whether or not their
actions were ethical.
G R O U P E X E R C I S E
You Know What I Mean, Right?
Purpose
This exercise illustrates how words we commonly take for granted are not universal
in their meaning.
Time
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Approximately 20 minutes.
1. Write down the number that comes to mind for each of the following questions.
Remember that there are no right or wrong answers—just go with your first
response. Do not discuss your answers with anyone in the class until instructed to do
so.
o My neighbor just bought an expensive car. How much did it cost? _____
o Several people were in line for the movie. How many people were in line? _____
o The ballot measure was approved overwhelmingly. What percentage of votes did the
measure receive? _____
o My boss is an older man. How old is he? _____
o I recently saw an article in the paper. How long ago did I see it? _____
2. Your instructor will summarize the responses from the class.
3. Discuss the following questions (either as a class or in small groups).
o Do you agree that words mean different things to different people?
o How large was the range of responses for each of the questions? Why was this?
o Did this surprise you? Why or why not?
What can you apply from this exercise to make you a better communicator?
