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ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES:
NATIONAL AND STATE- LEVEL PREVALENCE
Vanessa Sacks, M.P.P., David Murphey, Ph.D., and Kristin Moore, Ph.D.
Child Trends 7315 Wisconsin Avenue Suite 1200 W Bethesda, MD 20814 Phone 240-223-9200
childtrends.org
OVERVIEW
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are potentially traumatic events that can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being.¹ These experiences range from physical, emotional, or sexual abuse to parental divorce or the incarceration of a parent or guardian. A growing body of research has sought to quantify the prevalence of adverse childhood experiences and illuminate their connection with negative behavioral and health outcomes, such as obesity, alcoholism, and depression, later in life. However, prior research has not reported on the prevalence of ACEs among children in a nationally representative, non-clinical sample.² In this brief, we describe the prevalence of one or more ACEs among children ages birth through 17, as reported by their parents, using nationally representative data from the 2011/12 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH). We estimate the prevalence of eight specific ACEs for the U.S., contrasting the prevalence of specific ACEs among the states and between children of different age groups.
KEY FINDINGS
• Economic hardship is the most common adverse childhood experience (ACE) reported nationally and in almost all states, followed by divorce or separation of a parent or guardian. Only in Iowa, Michigan, and Vermont is divorce or separation more common than economic hardship; in the District of Columbia, having been the victim of or witness to violence has the second-highest prevalence, after economic hardship.
• The prevalence of ACEs increases with a child’s age (parents were asked whether their child had “ever” had the experience), except for economic hardship, reported about equally for children of all ages, reflecting high levels of poverty among young families.
• Abuse of alcohol or drugs, exposure to neighborhood violence, and the occurrence of mental illness are among the most commonly-reported adverse childhood experiences in every state.
• Just under half (46 percent) of children in the U.S. have experienced at least one ACE. In 16 states, a slight majority of children have experienced at least one ACE. In Connecticut, Maryland, and New Jersey, 60 percent or more of children have never experienced an ACE.
• States vary in the pattern of specific ACEs. Connecticut and New Jersey have some of the lowest prevalence rates nationally for all ACEs, while Oklahoma has consistently high prevalence.
Research Brief July 2014
Publication #2014-28
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NATIONAL AND STATE-LEVEL PREVALENCE
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MEASUREMENT OF ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
We measured the prevalence of eight adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), consisting of whether the child ever: 1. Lived with a parent or guardian who got divorced or separated; 2. Lived with a parent or guardian who died; 3. Lived with a parent or guardian who served time in jail or prison; 4. Lived with anyone who was mentally ill or suicidal, or severely depressed for more than a couple of weeks; 5. Lived with anyone who had a problem with alcohol or drugs; 6. Witnessed a parent, guardian, or other adult in the household behaving violently toward another (e.g., slapping, hitting, kicking, punching, or beating each other up); 7. Was ever the victim of violence or witnessed any violence in his or her neighborhood; and 8. Experienced economic hardship “somewhat often” or “very often” (i.e., the family found it hard to cover costs of food and housing).
State-Level Variation in the Prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experiences
Research has found that the highest levels of risk for negative outcomes are associated with having experienced multiple adverse childhood experiences (ACEs).³,⁴ Table 1 shows the number of ACEs parents reported for their child, by state. Nationally, a slight majority of children have not experienced any ACEs, but in 16 states more than half of children have experienced at least one ACE. In Montana and Oklahoma, 17 percent of children have experienced three or more ACEs. Some studies suggest that the experience of four or more ACES is a threshold above which there is a particularly higher risk of negative physical and mental health outcomes.⁵,⁶ Prevalence at this threshold is lowest in New Jersey and New York, at around three percent, and highest in Oklahoma, Montana, and West Virginia, at 10 to 12 percent (data not shown in Table).
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State Number Of Adverse Childhood Experiences
0 1 OR 2 3+
United States 54 35 11
Alaska 51 35 14
Alabama 48 40 12
Arkansas 45 41 14
Arizona 44 40 15
California 57 33 9
Colorado 57 33 10
Connecticut 61 32 7
District of Columbia 51 37 11
Delaware 52 35 13
Florida 49 42 9
Georgia 53 38 9
Hawaii 56 35 9
Iowa 55 33 12
Idaho 50 35 15
Illinois 59 32 9
Indiana 49 36 15
Kansas 54 34 12
Kentucky 46 37 16
Louisiana 50 38 12
Massachusetts 58 33 9
Maryland 61 31 8
Maine 48 37 15
Michigan 51 35 14
Minnesota 56 34 10
Missouri 52 35 12
Mississippi 46 39 15
Montana 48 35 17
North Carolina 52 36 12
North Dakota 58 32 10
Nebraska 56 32 11
New Hampshire 55 33 12
New Jersey 61 32 7
New Mexico 47 39 14
Nevada 47 40 13
Table 1. Among Children Aged Birth to 17, Percentage Reported to Have Had Zero, One or Two, or Three or More Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), Nationally, and by State
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State NUMBER OF ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
0 1 OR 2 3+
New York 58 34 8
Ohio 50 36 14
Oklahoma 45 38 17
Oregon 50 35 15
Pennsylvania 54 34 12
Rhode Island 53 37 11
South Carolina 49 39 12
South Dakota 58 30 11
Tennessee 48 38 13
Texas 54 36 10
Utah 59 31 9
Virginia 58 34 8
Vermont 50 38 11
Washington 53 36 11
Wisconsin 54 35 11
West Virginia 48 36 16
Wyoming 52 34 15
Table 1. Among Children Aged Birth to 17, Percentage Reported to Have Had Zero, One or Two, or Three or More Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), Nationally, and by State
Economic Hardship is the Most Common Adverse Childhood Experience
By far, the most common ACEs in all 50 states are economic hardship, and parental divorce or separation (Table 2). Nationally, just over one in four children ages birth through 17 has experienced economic hardship somewhat or very often. Only in Iowa, Michigan, and Vermont is divorce more prevalent than economic hardship (in Wyoming and Oklahoma they are equally prevalent). In most states (45), living with a parent who has an alcohol- or drug-use problem is the third-most-prevalent ACE (national prevalence is about one in ten children). Death of a parent is experienced by three percent of children nationally and is relatively rare in all states: only in the District of Columbia and Mississippi is prevalence greater than five percent (seven and six percent, respectively).
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State Highest 2nd 3rd 4th
United States Economic Hardship (26) Divorce (20) Alcohol (11) Violence (9)
Mental Illness (9)
Alaska Economic Hardship (25) Divorce (24) Alcohol (15) Mental Illness (11)
Alabama Economic Hardship (29) Divorce (23) Alcohol (11) Mental Illness (10)
Arkansas Economic Hardship (33) Divorce (26) Alcohol (13) Mental Illness (11)
Arizona Economic Hardship (34) Divorce (24) Alcohol (16) Violence (11)
California Economic Hardship (22) Divorce (17) Alcohol (11) Violence (8)
Colorado Economic Hardship (23) Divorce (21) Alcohol (10) Mental Illness (9)
Connecticut Economic Hardship (22) Divorce (16) Alcohol (8) Mental Illness (8)
District of Columbia Economic Hardship (24) Violence (17) Divorce (15) Incarceration (8)
Delaware Economic Hardship (25) Divorce (21) Violence (12) Alcohol (7)
Florida Economic Hardship (30) Divorce (20) Alcohol (9) Incarceration (8)
Georgia Economic Hardship (26) Divorce (19) Violence (8)
Alcohol (8)
Incarceration (8)
Domestic Violence (7)
Hawaii Economic Hardship (21) Divorce (17) Violence (11)
Alcohol (11)
Domestic Violence (8)
Iowa Divorce (22) Economic Hardship (22) Alcohol (13)
Mental Illness (13)
Domestic Violence (8)
Idaho Economic Hardship (27) Divorce (25) Alcohol (14) Mental Illness (13)
Illinois Economic Hardship (23) Divorce (16) Alcohol (9) Violence (8)
Indiana Economic Hardship (28) Divorce (24) Alcohol (13) Incarceration (11)
Mental Illness (11)
Kansas Economic Hardship (28) Divorce (22) Mental Illness (10)
Alcohol (10)
Violence (8)
Kentucky Economic Hardship (30) Divorce (29) Alcohol (14) Incarceration (13)
Louisiana
Economic Hardship (27) Divorce (23) Mental Illness (10)
Alcohol (10)
Violence (10)
Incarceration (8)
Massachusetts Economic Hardship (22) Divorce (19) Alcohol (11) Mental Illness (9)
Maryland Economic Hardship (20) Divorce (17) Alcohol (8)
Violence (8)
Mental Illness (7)
Maine Economic Hardship (29) Divorce (27) Alcohol (14) Mental Illness (13)
Michigan Divorce (26) Economic Hardship (25) Alcohol (13) Mental Illness (11)
Minnesota Economic Hardship (22) Divorce (20) Alcohol (13) Mental Illness (9)
Table 2. Four Most Common Adverse Childhood Experiences (and percentage prevalence) Among Children Ages Birth through 17, Nationally, and by State
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State Highest 2nd 3rd 4th
Missouri Economic Hardship (28) Divorce (23) Alcohol (11)
Mental Illness (11)
Violence (8)
Mississippi Economic Hardship (32) Divorce (22) Alcohol (13) Violence (12)
Montana Economic Hardship (28) Divorce (26) Alcohol (19) Mental Illness (14)
North Carolina
Economic Hardship (27) Divorce (21) Mental Illness (10)
Violence (10)
Alcohol (10)
Domestic Violence (9)
North Dakota Economic Hardship (22) Divorce (20) Alcohol (13) Mental Illness (10)
Nebraska Economic Hardship (22) Divorce (21) Alcohol (12) Incarceration (9)
New Hampshire Economic Hardship (23) Divorce (22) Alcohol (12) Mental Illness (11)
New Jersey Economic Hardship (22) Divorce (15) Alcohol (9) Mental Illness (6)
New Mexico Economic Hardship (28) Divorce (25) Alcohol (17) Violence (12)
Nevada Economic Hardship (30) Divorce (23) Alcohol (13) Mental Illness (10)
New York Economic Hardship (22) Divorce (15) Violence (10) Domestic Violence (7)
Ohio Economic Hardship (27) Divorce (23) Violence (13) Alcohol (12)
Oklahoma Economic Hardship (30)
Divorce (30)
Alcohol (17) Violence (13) Mental Illness (12)
Oregon Economic Hardship (29) Divorce (23) Alcohol (17) Mental Illness (14)
Pennsylvania
Economic Hardship (25) Divorce (19) Alcohol (10)
Mental Illness (10)
Violence (10)
Domestic Violence (8)
Rhode Island Economic Hardship (29) Divorce (19) Alcohol (12) Mental Illness (11)
South Carolina Economic Hardship (27) Divorce (23) Alcohol (11) Mental Illness (10)
South Dakota Economic Hardship (21) Divorce (19) Alcohol (12) Incarceration (8)
Tennessee Economic Hardship (31) Divorce (25) Alcohol (12) Mental Illness (11)
Texas Economic Hardship (29) Divorce (20) Alcohol (10) Mental Illness (8)
Utah Economic Hardship (24) Divorce (17) Mental Illness (10)
Alcohol (10)
Domestic Violence (7)
Virginia Economic Hardship (21) Divorce (18) Alcohol (8)
Mental Illness (8)
Violence (7)
Vermont Divorce (26) Economic Hardship
(25)
Alcohol (15) Mental Illness (11)
Washington Economic Hardship (25) Divorce (21) Alcohol (12)
Mental Illness (12)
Violence (9)
Wisconsin Economic Hardship (25) Divorce (20) Alcohol (10)
Mental Illness (10)
Violence (8)
West Virginia Economic Hardship (29) Divorce (28) Alcohol (14) Mental Illness (12)
Wyoming Economic Hardship (25)
Divorce (25)
Alcohol (13)
Mental Illness (13)
Violence (10) Incarceration (9)
Table 2. Four Most Common Adverse Childhood Experiences (and percentage prevalence) among Children ages Birth through 17, Nationally, and by State
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The Prevalence of Specific Adverse Childhood Experiences Varies by Age (Except for Economic Hardship)
The prevalence of most ACEs naturally increases by age, since parents were asked whether their child had “ever” had the experience. As Table 3 shows, older children are more likely than younger children to have ever experienced each of the adverse childhood experiences, except for economic hardship, which is reported for 25 to 26 percent of children regardless of age. This reflects the high rates of poverty experienced by families with young children.
Divorce is the second-most-common ACE experienced by children in each age group. About equal numbers of children ages birth to five have lived with someone who has an alcohol or drug problem, or have lived with someone with mental illness. Living with someone with an alcohol or drug-use problem is reported among 12 percent of 6- to 11-year-olds and 15 percent of 12- to 17-year-olds. One in seven 12- to 17-year-olds (14 percent) was the victim of, or witness to, neighborhood violence.
State-level rates for specific ACEs vary greatly for a given age group. For example, in the District of Columbia, 32 percent of 12- to 17-year-olds have experienced violence, compared with 14 percent nationally and 10 percent in Connecticut. In Mississippi, 15 percent of 12- to 17-year-olds, and nine percent of children under five, have witnessed domestic violence in their home, compared with national rates of ten and four percent, respectively.
ACE National Prevalence
(Percentage)
Range of State-Level Prevalence
(Lowest - Highest Percentage)
Somewhat or very often hard to get by on income
All children 26 20 (MD) - 34 (AZ)
0 to 5 25 17 (ND) - 34 (AZ)
6 to 11 26 18 (HI) - 34 (NJ)
12 to 17 26 17 (VT) - 38 (AZ)
Lived with parent/guardian who separated/divorced
All children 20 15 (DC) - 30 (OK)
0 to 5 10 6 (NY) - 18 (KY)
6 to 11 22 14 (CT) - 35 (OK)
12 to 17 28 21 (NJ) - 39 (OK)
Lived with someone with alcohol or drug problems
All children 11 6 (NY) - 19 (MT)
0 to 5 6 1 (DC) - 14 (MT)
6 to 11 12 6 (NY) - 20 (NM)
12 to 17 15 10 (VA) - 26 (AZ)
Table 3. Prevalence of Specific Reported Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), Total, and by Age
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ACE National Prevalence
(Percentage)
Range of State-Level Prevalence
(Lowest - Highest Percentage)
Lived with someone who was mentally ill
All children 9 5 (CA) - 14 (MT)
0 to 5 6 2 (ND) - 10 (MI)
6 to 11 8 4 (CA) - 17 (MT)
12 to 17 12 7 (VA) - 19 (ME)
Victim or witness to violence in neighborhood
All children 9 5 (NY) - 17 (DC)
0 to 5 3 1 (IL) - 6 (OH)
6 to 11 8 4 (NJ) - 19 (DC)
12 to 17 14 10 (CT) - 32 (DC)
Witness to domestic violence
All children 7 5 (NJ) - 11 (OK)
0 to 5 4 2 (CO) - 9 (MS)
6 to 11 8 4 (NJ) - 13 (OK)
12 to 17 10 6 (CT) - 15 (MS)
Lived with parent/guardian who served time in jail
All children 7 3 (NJ) – 13 (KY)
0 to 5 5 1 (HI) - 12 (KY)
6 to 11 8 2 (NY) - 16 (NM)
12 to 17 8 4 (NY) - 15 (KY)
Lived with parent/guardian who died
All children 3 2 (CT) - 7 (DC)
0 to 5 1 0 (KS) - 4 (DC)
6 to 11 3 1 (MN) - 8 (MS)
12 to 17 5 1 (CT) - 12 (DC)
Table 3. Prevalence of Specific Reported Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), Total, and by Age
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States in the Lowest and Highest Quartiles for Each Adverse Childhood Experience
Identifying which states fall into the highest and lowest quartiles of the distribution of prevalence rates provides another perspective on state-level variation. Although, as Table 3 shows, the states with the highest and lowest prevalence vary by ACE and by age group, some states stand out as having consistently high or low prevalence.
Two states–Connecticut and New Jersey–have rates in the lowest quartile for all eight ACEs, whereas Oklahoma has rates in the highest quartile for all ACEs (see Table 4). Other states have consistently high or low prevalence, relatively speaking, across most, but not all, ACEs. For example, Virginia is in the lowest quartile for all ACEs, except for the death of a parent, for which prevalence falls around the national average. Michigan is among the states with the highest prevalence for three ACES: ever lived with someone with mental illness, ever had a parent in jail, and ever lived with a parent who divorced or separated. However, Michigan is also among the states with the lowest prevalence of having witnessed domestic violence, and around the national average for all other ACEs. Policymakers may benefit from taking a closer look at the prevalence of specific adverse experiences among the children in their own state.
Economic hardship
Divorce/ Separation
Alcohol/ Drug
Mental illness
Violence Incarceration Death Domestic violence
Lowest Quartile
MD 20 DC 15 NY 6 CA 5 NJ 5 NJ 3 CT 1 NJ 5
HI 21 NY 15 DC 7 FL 6 CT 6 NY 4 UT 2 CT 5
VA 21 NJ 15 VA 8 GA 6 UT 6 CT 5 ME 2 VT 6
SD 21 CT 16 GA 8 NJ 6 VA 7 RI 5 MN 2 MA 6
MA 22 IL 16 CT 8 NY 7 NE 7 CO 5 WA 2 VA 6
MN 22 CA 17 MD 8 IL 7 NH 7 MA 5 ND 2 IL 6
ND 22 MD 17 IL 9 MD 7 TX 7 UT 5 NE 2 CO 6
IA 22 HI 17 NJ 9 HI 7 ND 7 MN 5 IA 2 MD 6
NY 22 UT 17 FL 9 DC 8 IA 7 HI 5 SD 2 RI 7
NJ 22 VA 18 NC 10 SD 8 WI 8 NH 5 NV 2 UT 7
CT 22 RI 19 TX 10 VA 8 FL 8 CA 5 CA 2 CA 7
NE 22 PA 19 CO 10 CT 8 CA 8 VA 6 NJ 2 TN 7
Highest Quartile
RI 29 WY 25 IN 13 KY 11 NY 10 AR 9 NC 4 IN 8
WV 29 NM 25 WV 14 NH 11 AK 11 WV 9 OH 4 OH 8
TX 29 TN 25 ID 14 MI 11 IN 11 NE 9 KY 4 NC 9
ME 29 ID 25 ME 14 WA 12 HI 11 WY 9 IN 4 AK 9
KY 30 AR 26 KY 14 OK 12 AZ 11 AK 10 SC 4 AR 9
NV 30 MI 26 VT 15 WV 12 WV 11 TN 10 LA 4 AZ 9
OK 30 MT 26 AK 15 IA 13 DE 12 NM 10 NM 4 NM 9
FL 30 VT 26 AZ 15 WY 13 MS 12 MI 10 GA 5 WV 9
TN 31 ME 27 NM 17 ME 13 NM 12 OH 10 OK 5 KY 10
MS 32 WV 28 OR 17 ID 13 OH 13 OK 10 AL 5 MT 10
AR 33 KY 29 OK 17 OR 14 OK 13 IN 11 MS 6 MS 11
AZ 34 OK 30 MT 18 MT 14 DC 17 KY 13 DC 7 OK 11
Table 4. States in the Lowest and Highest Quartiles for Prevalence of Reported Adverse Childhood Experience, and State Percentage Prevalence
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About the Data Used in this Brief
The National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) was conducted in 2003, 2007 and 2011/12 in all 50 states and the District of Columbia by the National Center for Health Statistics, with funding from the Maternal and Child Health Bureau, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Telephone numbers from a random sampling process are used to contact households, and one child in each household with children is randomly selected to be the focus of the study. An adult in the household knowledgeable about the child answered questions about the child and themselves. The survey is representative of children under 18 years old nationwide and also within each state. A total of 95,677 interviews were completed in 2011/12.
The prevalence of ACEs described in this brief are derived from the following questions asked of parents:
• Did [SAMPLE CHILD] ever live with a parent or guardian who got divorced or separated after [SAMPLE CHILD] was born? (Yes/No)
• Did [SAMPLE CHILD] ever live with a parent or guardian who died? (Yes/No)
• Did [SAMPLE CHILD] ever live with a parent or guardian who served time in jail or prison after [SAMPLE CHILD] was born? (Yes/No)
• Did [SAMPLE CHILD] ever see or hear any parents, guardians, or any other adults in [his/her] home slap, hit, kick, punch, or beat each other up? (Yes/No)
• Was [SAMPLE CHILD] ever the victim of violence or witnessed any violence in [his/her] neighborhood? (Yes/No)
• Did [SAMPLE CHILD] ever live with anyone who was mentally ill or suicidal, or severely depressed for more than a couple of weeks? (Yes/No)
• Did [SAMPLE CHILD] ever live with anyone who had a problem with alcohol or drugs? (Yes/No)
• Since [SAMPLE CHILD] was born, how often has it been very hard to get by on your family's income, for example, it was hard to cover the basics like food or housing? (1: Very Often, 2: Somewhat Often, 3: Not Very Often, 4: Never)
Cases were not included in the analysis if any of the questions were not answered. 1.2% of the sample answered none of the questions, while an additional 3% answered less than all of them.
Potentially traumatic experiences are common among U.S. children, with more than one in four having been exposed to economic hardship, even in the first five years of life. One in five has experienced parental divorce or separation, and one in ten has lived in a household where an adult has an alcohol or drug problem. More troubling still, more than one in ten children nationally—and, in a few states, about one in six—has experienced three or more adverse experiences. These findings have important implications for children’s health and well-being, including the need for increased attention to the early detection and treatment of children affected by trauma, as well as to the conditions in families and communities that contribute to adverse development.
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© Child Trends 2014. May be reprinted with citation.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of The Annie E. Casey Foundation.
Child Trends is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research center that studies children at all stages of development. Our mission is to improve the lives and prospects of children and youth by conducting high-quality research and sharing the resulting knowledge with practitioners and policymakers. For additional information, including publications available to download, visit our website at childtrends.org.
REFERENCES
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Flaherty, E. G., Thompson, R., Dubowitz, H., Harvey, E. M., English, D. J., Proctor, L. J., & Runyan, D. K. (2013). Adverse childhood experiences and child health in early adolescence. JAMA Pediatrics, 167(7), 622-629.
3. Chartier, M. J., Walker, J. R., & Naimark, B. (2010). Separate and cumulative effects of adverse childhood experiences in predicting adult health and health care utilization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(6), 454-464.
4. Chapman, D.P., Whitfield, C.L., Felitti, V.J., Dube, S.R., Edwards, V.J, & Anda, R.F. (2004) Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood. Journal of affective disorders, 82(2): 217-225.
5. Felitti, V.J., Anda, R.F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D.F., Spitz, A.M., Edwards, V., & Koss, M. P. (1998) Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American journal of Preventive Medicine 14(4), 245-258.
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