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8Career CounselingBy Colleen Jaimie McCarthy, University of Oregon, and Christopher J. McCarthy, University of Texas at Austin

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Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to

• Identify distinguishing characteristics and important historical developments in the field of career development.

• Describe the settings in which career counselors work.

• Explain the major theoretical models used in career counseling.

• Describe the typical components of career interventions.

• Identify professional trajectories for career counselors.

• Summarize current trends and topics in the field of career counseling.

Section 8.1The Basics of Career Counseling

Fiona recently graduated from a small liberal arts school. She did well in her classes, had a strong GPA, and worked several summers as a camp counselor. Fascinated by the courses she took in child psychology, she has a strong interest in finding a job where she can make a differ- ence in young people’s lives. Her parents are putting a great deal of pressure on Fiona to make plans now that she has graduated, and they have hinted that they would be disappointed in her “wasting” the money they spent on her education.

Fiona visited her campus career center during her last semester and took a career interest test that supported what she already knew: She is interested in psychology and in helping young people. However, it seemed that most of the jobs she was interested in required gradu- ate degrees, and it was too late at that time to apply. Moreover, she was not sure how she could pay for school. Her parents had paid for her undergraduate education but made it clear she was expected to either find a job or pay for any more schooling on her own. So Fiona post- poned any decisions about careers until after graduation and took a summer job as a camp counselor again, which she hoped would give her time to figure things out. Now the end of summer is near, and she is getting anxious about what to do next. Recently, a friend suggested she visit a career counselor to help her plan her next steps. This was something Fiona had not considered. She had had experiences with career assistance only in school, from her school counselor to her college counselor. What could a career counselor do to help her at this point? She did have a lot to figure out: Should she go back to school? Look for work? Do some com- bination of both schooling and work? What would be the best next step? Is it really possible that a career counselor could help her figure out what she should do?

8.1 The Basics of Career Counseling To answer the questions Fiona had at the beginning of this chapter, career counselors do assist clients with a wide range of career development activities. The term career refers to the sequence of work and non-work activities over the course of one’s life. Career development is the lifelong process of shaping one’s career, and career counseling is a professional relation- ship in which a counselor is working with a client to promote his or her career development. Career interventions, or activities that help people prepare for and succeed at career devel- opment tasks, can take place across the lifespan, starting early in childhood and continuing through adulthood and the late stages of life (Super, 1980; Whiston & Keller, 2004). Career development, interventions, and counseling are distinguished from one another because they are all important aspects of what a career counselor does.

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the field of career counseling, with a particular emphasis on the professional paths available in this counseling specialization. Career coun- selors with the proper training and experience are essential for clients who need vocational assistance—finding suitable work is among the most important factors in personal happiness and psychological health (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Judge & Locke, 1993). Many peo- ple spend the majority of their waking hours at work, and they may spend more time with their coworkers than with friends and family. While work and personal life are often talked about separately, in reality they are intertwined and even inseparable (Hinkelman & Luzzo, 2007). Satisfaction at work affects well-being and is connected to identity, and, in turn, per- sonal happiness affects one’s ability to be successful in one’s career. It therefore makes sense

Section 8.1The Basics of Career Counseling

that an important area of specialization for counsel- ors is helping clients with career development.

The Benefits of Career Counseling While career development is a lifelong process, career counselors can be particularly helpful at several developmental milestones. Grade school students can benefit from exploring their interests and learning about the world of work. As students progress into middle school, they need more spe- cific information about their aptitudes and abilities. In high school, they start to refine post-graduation plans (Solberg, Howard, Blustein, & Close, 2002). School counselors provide a range of career devel- opment services during K–12 education and there- fore are often the first “career counselors” most people encounter, even though career counseling is only one part of their job.

Career counselors also work in colleges and uni- versities, helping students decide on a major, iden- tify appropriate internships, develop résumés, and implement a job search once they near graduation (among other things). Unlike school counselors, who devote only a portion of their time to career counseling, career counselors at many colleges and universities are employed full time to work with students. Beyond these educational settings, career counselors also work in agencies and private practices with adults undergoing a job transition—helping them change jobs and careers, reenter the workforce, or examine their career development process to gain as much fulfillment as possible from work. Clearly, there is not just one type of career coun- selor—they work with many different types of clients and provide a range of services.

What Is a “Career”? The definitions for terms like “career” and “job” may seem obvious, but in career counseling it is important to be clear about this terminology. A person can have many different jobs over the course of a career, but what exactly constitutes a job, or a career for that matter? Does a job have to be paid to be considered a job? Here are a few definitions suggested by Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2013) and Zunker (2012):

Task: A specific duty or undertaking (e.g., answering a phone, entering data in a spreadsheet)

Job: A collection of tasks, often associated with a specific title and setting (e.g., teacher, police officer)

Work: Purposeful activity that produces something of value

vitranc/iStock/Thinkstock Career counselors are responsible for intervening to shape a client’s career development.

Section 8.1The Basics of Career Counseling

It is important for career counseling clients to understand the difference between tasks and jobs, and that two jobs with the same title can encompass very different tasks. For example, the tasks associated with being a schoolteacher can vary quite a bit, depending on the grade level, subject, and even the school district in which one is teaching. There are many different jobs with the title of teacher, and each of them can entail very different tasks.

The definition of work as a purposeful activity meant to produce something of value is very general but is important to understand given that work can include both paid and unpaid activity. Doing an unpaid internship, raising children in the household, volunteering with a nonprofit, managing a bank, or playing professional baseball may pay nothing, or millions of dollars, but are all considered work under this definition.

A Brief History of the Field As Chapter 2 describes, the field of counseling developed in the early 1900s along with the need to match workers with the new jobs created during the Industrial Revolution (Gelso & Fretz, 2001). The Industrial Revolution introduced a seismic shift into the world of work, as large factory production required an entirely new type of labor force, which was concentrated in bigger cities and necessitated very different skills from those of traditional jobs, such as farming. Sangganjanavanich and Reynolds (2015) have noted that historians of the field, such as Pope (2000), date the beginning of the counseling field as 1913, when a group of social workers decided that traditional case management approaches to helping people were not sufficient. As methods and techniques were developed to facilitate the matching of people to jobs, a field emerged in which professionals helped people make employment and training decisions, initially referred to as vocational guidance.

Frank Parsons was a pioneer who formalized the process of helping young people find employment, which he described in his book Choosing a Vocation in 1909 (Parsons, 1909). Parsons is generally credited with pioneering a three-step process for helping people find suitable jobs: (1) studying individual abilities and traits, (2) surveying the world of work, and (3) developing a match between the two. Pope (2000) noted that the development of psycho- logical testing added credibility to the field and was particularly important for step 1 of the Parsonian approach—developing tests to measure individual characteristics that could be used to match people to jobs afforded the field credibility with the public.

The career counseling field was also affected by national and world events, including the role of government and public policy. According to Pope (2000), the progressive social reform in the early 1900s was important for the vocational guidance field. During the early parts of the Industrial Revolution, workers had few protections, and many, including children, worked long hours. Reforms and laws were enacted to eliminate child labor practices and to promote safer work conditions, which dovetailed with the work of vocational counselors. World Wars I and II created the need to match new recruits to military jobs and to replace them with other workers in factories and shops. Legislation such as the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) in 1958 provided funding for school counselor training with the intent of guiding young people into fields that would keep the United States technologically competitive with the Soviet Union (Martin, 2011).

Section 8.2Career Counseling Settings

The term career counseling replaced voca- tional guidance as the field of counseling established itself as a profession. Vocational guidance as a term reflected a more con- crete “test them and tell them” approach, while career counseling reflected the increased professionalization of the field with the establishment of competency requirements (Engels, Minor, Sampson, & Splete, 1995). The National Career Develop- ment Association (NCDA), a division of the American Counseling Association, lists basic requirements on its website (www .ncda.org). They are quite extensive, includ- ing competency in theories of career and personal counseling, counseling skills, knowledge of assessment methods and instruments, working with diverse clients, and knowledge of research, career informa- tion, professional ethics, and program man- agement and supervision.

Misconceptions and Stereotypes There are a number of stereotypes about career counseling. One misconception is that it involves simply giving a lot of advice or that it requires less skill than personal counseling does. Because career counseling involves all the activities of personal counseling, plus an understanding of the world of work, this is simply not the case. A skilled career counselor does not rely on advice giving or simply reading test results with clients; counseling is a mul- tifaceted process that must be delivered by a highly trained counselor. Career interventions can have an impact on clients’ lives, not just their careers.

8.2 Career Counseling Settings Career counseling takes place in a variety of settings, particularly in K–12 schools and col- leges. The typical professional trajectories for career counselors will be reviewed later in the chapter, but for now, the focus is on the environments in which this work takes place.

Schools Herr (2008) described the controversial status of career counseling in K–12 settings. In many schools and scholarly writings, career development is seen as a random, almost magical, pro- cess that emerges as students move up the educational ladder from elementary to middle to high school. Herr argued that most career theorists instead view career development as a major mission of the school, and one that needs to happen by way of a planned, structured

Everett Collection/SuperStock Women beam and inspect yarn at textile machines in 1910. The Industrial Revolution introduced high-powered machinery, mass production, and the assembly line. Career guidance—or vocational guidance, as it was known—emerged to match workers with the new jobs and skills that were required.

Section 8.2Career Counseling Settings

approach, guided by skilled professionals using the best available research. In many schools, school counselors perform this role, offering a range of services that directly and indirectly support students’ career development. The exact nature of career interventions provided by school counsel- ors can vary widely, based not only on poli- cies and priorities in the state and school district where they work, but also on the educational level of the students they work with.

Several models guiding career development practices have been developed, notably by the American School Counselor Associa- tion (ASCA), which also proposed a national model for school counseling programs (www.ascnationalmodel.org). Rullo, Elia- son, and Patrick (2008) noted that the No Child Left Behind legislation, signed into

law by President Bush in 2002, stresses the importance of better preparing students for suc- cessful careers. School counselors therefore support both student learning and success in the classroom and help students translate what they are learning in the classroom into pos- sible career pathways. The NCDA has also published guidelines with considerations for K–12 students (http://www.ncda.org/aws/NCDA/pt/sp/guidelines), and Andersen and Vande- hey (2012) summarized the focus of these guidelines on three domains: personal and social development, educational achievement, and career management.

Andersen and Vandehey (2012) observed that in elementary school, the focus is on skill build- ing in areas such as language development, values and morals, and interpersonal skills such as listening and meeting one’s own needs. Development in such areas is obviously critical to later success in life. Another goal of the early years is exposure to the world of work, so that elementary students begin to discover where their own interests may lie.

Middle school is an important time of transition for students, and school counselors can play a key role here as well. Generally, middle school coincides with adolescence, which typically spans the ages of 10–18 years, although some researchers make finer distinctions between early adolescence and late adolescence. According to Sweitzer (2008), this is a time of change in the individual’s physiological, cognitive, and socioemotional development, and negotiating these transitions is critical to later well-being in terms of both personal and career development. During this time, school counselors build on the types of interventions utilized at the middle school level, such as supporting academic development. Addition- ally, other types of interventions focused more directly on vocational development, such as career fairs, may be applied. These activities are particularly critical at this time, because in middle school students may be receiving letter grades in their classes for the first time and may be starting to transition into curricula that is focused on either higher education or vocational training.

Ryan McVay/Photodisc/Thinkstock Early exposure to career guidance is crucial for the future success of young students.

Section 8.2Career Counseling Settings

Career testing may also be introduced at this time, which today is often conducted online. Samide and McElligott (2008) described DISCOVER as one such web-based application used in middle schools, high schools, and colleges across the nation. DISCOVER, according to Samide and McElligott (2008), seeks to engage students in exploring their values, attitudes, and strengths, while also allowing them to use this information to research careers. Such pro- grams are likely to be most useful under the guidance of the school counselor. In many cases, the school counselor may visit classrooms, describe the assessment being used, and even assign “homework” for students to apply their results to the world of work. Most interven- tions typically take place with groups of students, rather than one-on-one counseling (Sav- ickas, 1999). During high school, the focus of career development activities is on academic success, graduation, and plans beyond high school.

Colleges and Universities Career counseling is now seen as integral to higher education. Given rising tuition and diffi- cult economic conditions, colleges and universities have been called upon to improve career services and to be more accountable for the school-to-work transition of their students (Gar- ner, Rintz, & Valle, 2011). However, career services can be very different depending on the size and mission of the college. For example, one centralized career center may offer services to the entire campus at a smaller school, or career offices may be decentralized, particularly in larger universities. Larger universities may also house career centers in each college (edu- cation, natural sciences, business, etc.) so that the unique needs of students in each major can be addressed.

Sutton and Gifford (2011) grouped the services typically offered in higher education into four general categories: career counseling, job search services, career information, and program- ming and outreach. Sutton and Gifford identified career counseling as the core service of a career center, in which career assessment, assistance with deciding on a major, and explora- tion of a student’s goals and plans for a career take place, among many other activities. Under the category of job search, career centers may offer help developing résumés and interview- ing skills, for example. Career centers in college also provide information through job list- ings or by hosting job fairs. Career counseling is an optional service offered to students. As such, programming and outreach are also essential (Sutton & Gifford, 2011). Outreach can be provided in a variety of ways, including campus events during orientation, in classes, and in residence halls.

It is important to note, however, that in many cases college career centers do not see them- selves as providing job placement. In other words, their mission is to help students find available jobs, but the career center often does not have direct links to those jobs. This reality can come as a shock to students nearing graduation and hoping for assistance with job leads. There are exceptions, but the current mission of most career centers today is to help students improve career development skills, such as researching jobs, networking, and preparing application materials, with the hope that they will be able to translate this assistance into meaningful skills they will use throughout their careers (Niles & Harris- Bowlsbey, 2013).

Section 8.2Career Counseling Settings

Private Practice Career counselors working outside of educational settings often do so as independent practi- tioners. While career development in education is focused on the developmental needs of students (Colozzi, 2000), career counselors in private practice often work with adults who are seeking to enter or transition within the workforce. Counselors working with adults sometimes specialize in career counseling and offer those services exclusively or provide a range of counseling services that include career counseling. Of course, it is important that career counseling be offered by only counselors with adequate academic and supervised training in the field.

Career counseling in the private practice set- ting can include working with clients indi- vidually or in groups, and it often involves assessment, setting occupational goals, and obtaining information about the world of work. This process will be described in more detail in the section devoted to career counseling applications. Career interven- tions can also be provided to the community through government-sponsored services, such as job clubs, where those looking for work meet and obtain valuable information.

Career counselors may also work for gov- ernment agencies or private companies, providing services to their employees. Cairo (1983) noted that such services could take

two general forms: (1) personal counseling offered in the workplace, focusing on mental health issues that might affect job performance such as substance abuse or depression, and (2) career counseling offered to employees. A company or government agency may hire a career counselor to provide services to employees during times of transition, such as when a company is downsizing or going through some other transition. Career counselors may also be hired as consultants by a company in order to provide information and guidance to manag- ers about career development.

Career counselors must always disclose their professional obligations when working with cli- ents (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2013), and when working for government agencies or corpora- tions, this can be particularly important to address. The basic question to be clarified is whether the career counselor’s primary obligation is to the organization that has hired him or her, or to the person he or she has been hired to work with. Hopefully, both sets of obligations coincide; what is best for the employee receiving career counseling may align with what is good for the organization as well. However, it is possible for the needs of an organization to conflict with those of its employees receiving career counseling. For example, if a company pays for career counseling during a time of downsizing for its employees, it is important to clarify who decides what types of services will be provided, how long they will last, and what types of protections are in place to protect the confidential nature of the career counseling process.

After this review of typical career counseling settings, the next natural question is: What do career counselors do in each setting? In order to answer this question, a review of some of the

Manuel Faba Ortega/iStock/Thinkstock Outside of school-based career counseling, some counselors work in a private practice, in the private sector, or as a part of a government agency.

Section 8.3Theoretical Models of Career Counseling

major models of career development will first be provided. Career counseling interventions, in order to be effective, must be guided by sound theory.

8.3 Theoretical Models of Career Counseling Zunker (2012) noted that after Parsons’s (1909) work in pioneering the field of career coun- seling, the focus was primarily on the use of assessments to place people into jobs. However, starting in the 1950s, the field expanded its boundaries to include a broader range of factors, including self-concept, self-understanding, and developmental issues (Zunker, 2012). As the field of career counseling has developed, several predominant theories have emerged. The next section focuses on the theories that guide the interventions used in career counseling. In the world of personal counseling, many practitioners are quite devoted to one or more theories of personal coun- seling (for example, Freudian analysis or cognitive behavioral therapy). While career counselors do not typically identify themselves as belonging to one theoretical camp or another in the same way mental health therapists do, the following models have been instrumental in shaping the field.

Trait and Factor Trait and factor models are closely aligned with the early vocational testing movement (Zunker, 2012)— traits refer to individual characteristics of a person, and factors are the various features of a work envi- ronment. Frank Parsons is generally credited with pioneering this approach, and, as was noted earlier in the chapter, he hypothesized three steps for career development in his book On Choosing a Vocation (1909): (1) studying individual abilities and traits, (2) surveying the world of work, and (3) developing a match between the two.

Step 1: Personal Data and Self-Analysis Assessing a person’s characteristics was a revolutionary idea at the time that Parsons’s approach emerged. Standardized career tests had not yet been developed, but this approach established the foundation for tests to come. Essentially, Parsons argued for the importance of self-understanding as a precursor to career exploration. In other words, what activities does an individual enjoy? What is that person good at? What is that indi- vidual’s personality?

Step 2: Research and Exploration The second step of the trait and factor approach involves knowing as much as possible about jobs and their characteristics. What type of education is needed for a given job? What skills and abilities are needed? Perhaps just as important, what types of people work in this field?

FotoMaximum/iStock/Thinkstock Approaches toward career counseling have evolved over the years, resulting in multiple models and theories.

Section 8.3Theoretical Models of Career Counseling

Step 3: Induction and Next Steps In step 3, a counselor helps clients find matches between their own characteristics and what various jobs have to offer. Another theorist who was a pioneer in this area is John Holland, who developed a typology theory of career development. According to Holland (1959, 1966, 1973, 1985), the world of work can be divided into six areas, which are displayed in Table 8.1, along with a description of each area, traits associated with high and low interest in each area, and typical careers.

Table 8.1: Holland’s typology

Typology Interests and personality traits Possible careers

Realistic Enjoys working with one’s hands and using machines and tools. Likes being active and is both practical and adventurous.

construction, farming, architecture, truck driving, mail carrier

Investigative Gravitates toward analytical approaches, exploration, knowledge, and ideas.

biologist, chemist, dentist, veterinarian, programmer

Artistic Shows an interest in literature, music, and artistic activities. Tends to be creative and value openness.

artist, musician, poet, interior designer, writer

Social Enjoys training, informing, educating, helping, and being supportive. Avoids technical skills and values empathy and relationships.

social work, counseling, police officer, teacher, nursing

Enterprising Verbally skilled and persuasive. Enjoys directing and leading.

lawyer, business executive, politician, TV producer

Conventional Respects rules, routines, power, and status. Enjoys providing order and being punctual.

bank teller, clerk typist, cashier, data entry

Source: Donnay, Morris, Schaubhut, & Thompson, 2012

According to Holland’s theory (Donnay et al., 2012), these characteristics describe both work- ers and work environments. Further, he hypothesized that people are attracted to occupa- tions based on their interests, and the better the match between person and environment, the more likely the person will be satisfied in that career. Holland called this congruence: the amount of overlap between the characteristics of the person and the work environment. While many career counselors today find this “test them and tell them” limiting, it is still a centerpiece of the field.

Developmental Theories From a contextual and developmental perspective, interactions between an individual and his or her environment start at birth, so career development is also thought to begin in the early stages of life, continuing across the lifespan (Super, 1980; Whiston & Keller, 2004). Aspects

Section 8.3Theoretical Models of Career Counseling

of a person’s environment can include family, school, religious institutions, neighborhood, peers, or culture. Super’s developmental self-concept theory conceptualizes the different stages of career development across the lifespan (Super, 1980).

A driving force behind Super’s vocational development theory is developing and implement- ing a self-concept. Self-concept is defined as an individual’s beliefs about himself or herself and can include self-esteem, a person’s attributes, and who and what the self is (Baumeister, 1999). As individuals age and grow in experience, their self-concept becomes more stable, as do their vocational choices and behaviors. The development of the self-concept depends on a person’s capacity to cope with developmental tasks at a given stage, also known as career maturity. According to Super, a person’s self-concept changes over time as he or she encoun- ters new experiences. As described in Table 8.2, Super developed stages that address indi- viduals’ vocational maturity based on their chronological age, as people’s ability to think and experience careers changes across the lifespan (Super, 1980).

Table 8.2: Super’s five career stages

Growth (0–14) As individuals gain skills to function and operate in the world, the career developmental tasks of this stage include the development of a self-concept, attitudes, and needs.

Exploration (15–24) This is a time when individuals are gaining additional experiences within education or work training. As such, it is a period in which people are “trying out” career interests through classes, work hobbies, speaking with others, and developing skills.

Establishment (25–44) Upon entry into the world of work, people begin to build skills through work experiences. They will seek out opportunities to advance and solidify neces- sary skills.

Maintenance (45–64) As people establish themselves in their careers, this period is marked by adjustment to improve their skills or work positions, securing their occupa- tions, and keeping up with workplace trends to maintain position.

Decline (65+) At the later end of life, careers may slow down as individuals near retirement. They may reduce work hours and work commitments and prepare for the retirement transition.

Source: Brown & Brooks, 1990

Although Super’s five career stages are often associated with people’s chronological ages, it is also possible for people across age ranges to experience any of the career stages. This is because, as people try out vocational choices, they are experimenting and identifying their self-concept, or their understanding of self, which evolves over time. As people are seeking meaningful and satisfying careers, they learn more about themselves and may make major career and life transitions that influence the degree to which they move across stages (Super, 1980). For example, a young adult may enter the “establishment” phase of his or her career right after college and realize his or her first chosen career is not a good fit. Thus, he or she may begin to reexamine what he or she wants to do next based on values, interests, personal- ity, and skills and go back to the “exploration” stage of career development.

Section 8.3Theoretical Models of Career Counseling

Cognitive Approaches Another way theorists have conceptualized career development is from a cognitive perspec- tive. An example of cognitive career theory is social cognitive career theory (SCCT), which takes Albert Bandura’s work on self-efficacy and expands it to address how career and aca- demic interests mature, how career choices are developed, and how these choices are turned into action. SCCT says that these goals are achieved through the development of three things: self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals (Lent, Lopez, Lopez, & Sheu, 2008). Recall that self-efficacy refers to beliefs people have about their ability to successfully complete the steps required for a given task. Individuals develop a sense of self-efficacy from personal perfor- mance, learning by example, social interactions, and how they feel in a situation. For example, a grade school student may perform well on math tests early in life and develop math self- efficacy based on this experience. Resources for additional information can be found at the end of this chapter.

Outcome expectations are the beliefs related to the consequences of performing a specific behavior (e.g., what will happen if I do this?). People are more likely to choose to do an activ- ity if they believe there is a higher chance for positive outcomes, such as tangible rewards, an attractive work environment, and social approval. Typically, outcome expectations form based on past experiences (how well individuals did or did not do), observing other people’s experiences, and their perceptions of the results of these experiences. The degree of success people witness in others and experience themselves influences the likelihood of engagement in an activity.

Goals play a primary role in behavior. A goal is defined as the decision to begin a particular activity or implement a future plan, such as pursuing an academic major, or attaining a certain level of performance, such as receiving an A in a course. By setting goals, people can organize and guide their behavior to work toward each goal and receive the necessary support to sustain it in the event of setbacks. For example, if a short-term goal is to receive an A in a course, people tend to need positive feedback from peers and teachers to stay on top of assignments and study- ing. As a longer-term goal, if an individual decides early in life to become a pilot, then meeting that goal may mean seeking out opportunities to learn about aviation and take flight lessons.

SCCT posits that people will develop career interests when they experience personal com- petence and positive outcomes. Those who have negative experiences or low personal com- petency will tend to avoid career-related activities. Barriers such as gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, or family obligations can contribute to negative outcome expectations. People in the helping profession can assist students in adjusting their perceptions and finding career activities that will help bolster self-efficacy (Gibbons, 2004).

Happenstance Theory Krumboltz, whose social learning theory was a foundation for the cognitive approaches to career counseling, proposed along with his colleagues Mitchell and Levin (1999) a theory to capture how human behavior is a result of both planned and unplanned learning experiences. Specific to careers, learning about one’s career interests takes place through observations as well as direct experiences. Mitchell, Levin, and Krumboltz (1999) identified four key factors of career development, including genetic endowments and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task approach skills (Table 8.3).

Section 8.3Theoretical Models of Career Counseling

Table 8.3: Key factors of career development

Genetic endowments and special abilities

Genetic endowments are inherited characteristics that may set limits or provide opportunity for career interests; they include sex, race, and physical appearance. Special abilities result from the interaction of genetic factors and selected environmental conditioning; they include intelligence, athletic ability, and musical and artistic talents.

Environmental conditions and events

Environmental conditions and events are factors that are beyond the individual’s control and that can influence skill development, activi- ties, and career preferences. Factors in this category may involve a wide variety of social, political, cultural, and economic forces.

Associative learning experiences

Associative learning occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with a physiological response, such as anxiety. Classroom exams can be associated with anxiety, for example, when students learn that taking a test is often followed by a poor grade. Such a stu- dent may become less interested in pursuing advanced education.

Instrumental learning experiences

Instrumental learning occurs when behavior is modified or influenced by events that follow it. As an example, if a student completes a sum- mer internship assisting an accountant and receives glowing praise, the student is likely to look for more opportunities to use his or her accounting skills and perhaps will consider a career in the field.

Task approach skills Task approach skills involve the skills an individual has developed across the lifespan, through direct and indirect experiences as well as planned and unplanned events. Examples include problem solving skills, work habits, emotional responses, and cognitive responses.

Krumboltz (2009) has proposed a more recent update to this model termed happenstance theory, which includes all of the theoretical components listed in Table 8.3 but also emphasizes the role of serendipity in people’s vocational lives. In essence, happenstance theory suggests that we allow for the role of opportunity and coincidence in our work lives, which Krum- boltz believes is a key variable often overlooked when people think about their careers. For example, a student majoring in accounting may graduate at a time when jobs are plentiful, or when the economy is not doing well and jobs are scarce. This could have an important impact on students’ careers and can often be attributed to forces largely outside their control. Accounting majors may graduate and take a job in any number of cities, which could affect the people they meet and form relationships with.

While happenstance theory suggests that people do not con- trol all of the factors that influence their vocational lives, it does not mean they should be fatalistic or neglectful in plan- ning and implementing careers. Instead, it means just the opposite: Individuals need to be as prepared as possible to take advantage of the opportunities life presents at unexpected times. Counselors operating within the parameters of happenstance theory can help individuals with their career development through a myriad of ways. Those in the helping profession

Brendan Meadows Photo/Cultura Limited/SuperStock

Happenstance theory takes into account how individuals’ career paths are shaped by uncontrolled factors, such as chance.

Section 8.4Typical Components of Career Intervention

can help individuals recognize how they can exert effort to make decisions or solve prob- lems, change their self-talk around outcomes and goals, and identify alternative solutions for career-related tasks.

This review of career models is by no means exhaustive. Many more theories have been pro- posed, some of which are more recent and some of which combine elements of personal coun- seling theories, such as narrative therapy. However, this broad overview provides a sense of some of the major influences on career development interventions. Further, certain theo- ries are particularly relevant for a given setting. The developmental theories, for example, can inform the career guidance activities of school counselors, because they must take into account the developmental career needs of students at different ages. The happenstance the- ory and social cognitive career theory (SCCT) might also be particularly relevant in working with college students, as these approaches emphasize how different experiences and skills can affect career planning, which are important to acquire in higher education (and at all other levels of education). Given this review of major theoretical models, we now turn to typi- cal interventions used in career counseling.

8.4 Typical Components of Career Intervention While many people think of career counseling as assistance in finding a job, the actual range of interventions involved in career development is very broad in scope, from academic assis- tance in grade school to help with interviewing in adulthood.

The range of services provided by career counselors is quite broad and depends heavily on the age, life stage, and needs of each client. The following is an overview of some of the more common interventions utilized by career counselors, respective to the order in which they might be delivered. However, keep in mind that the nature of these services can vary quite a bit from client to client and from setting to setting (American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 2004; National Association of Col- leges and Employers [NACE], 2013).

Establishing a Helping Relationship Career counseling begins with understanding a client’s needs. Therefore, at the outset of career counseling, it is important to establish a relationship with the client. This can occur in one meeting or across several meetings. It might involve having clients fill out checklists about their concerns, provide background information about them- selves, or simply talk with the counselor. It is critical that the counselor be well versed in active listening and demonstrate empathy for the client and his or her career concerns.

Pogonici/iStock/Thinkstock Career counseling requires various approaches and interventions, all of which are coordinated to meet a client’s needs.

Section 8.4Typical Components of Career Intervention

Career counseling is closely associated with the use of assessments, otherwise called tests, particularly those that help clients understand more about themselves and the world of work. Very often, some type of assessment will be given at the beginning of career counseling. Many clients enter career counseling expecting that they will get a test that tells them what career they should pursue, which can be a blessing and a curse for career professionals. The bless- ing is that the widespread popularity of career tests helps clients understand that assistance is available when they have career concerns, and knowing that tests are available can help motivate clients to seek out professional assistance. The downside is that many clients have unrealistic expectations for career tests—they hope that career tests will provide an answer for their perfect career. Unfortunately, such tests cannot tell clients what career they should pursue. However, career assessments can help clients organize information about their inter- ests, values, personality, skills, and many other characteristics that can help narrow down occupational possibilities.

Listing the many career assessments available would take an entire book. In fact, there is such a book, called A Counselor’s Guide to Career Assessment Instruments (Wood & Hays, 2013), that lists many of the different types of career inventories. As a starting point, career assessments can be broken into two categories: formal and informal assessments. Formal assessments include vocational tests such as the Strong Interest Inventory or the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey, which have been subjected to empirical study and are often available from test- ing companies. Depending on the test, clients are directed to a website to answer questions or fill out a written sheet. Formal assessments can be used to measure a wide range of client characteristics: interests, personality, skills, and values, to name a few.

Formal assessments are usually accompanied by evidence of their reliability and validity. Recall that reliability refers to the consistency of scores from a test, meaning it should provide similar scores over a fixed time interval. Of course, variations can and do occur when retaking a test, and some traits, such as career interests, could change as a person gains greater self- understanding. Yet tests that produce vastly different scores from administration to adminis- tration are generally not considered reliable (Field, 2005).

Reliability is a necessary precondition for validity, which refers to whether a test measures what it purports to measure. A test cannot be measuring what its developers claim if it does not produce scores reliably. However, reliability is not sufficient for validity; validity must be demonstrated through careful research. Both reliability and validity are usually reported in the technical manual of a career test (Field, 2005).

Career counseling using formal assessment tools involves both data collection, by administer- ing and obtaining scores from the client’s responses, and evaluation of the test data, in which the career counselor uses his or her knowledge of a given test to explain what scores mean with the client. These steps capitalize on the main strength of formal assessments, which are devel- oped through systematic research and often have extensive databases of typical responses that can be used to interpret how a given person’s scores compare to others. It is important to note that such results are used to help clients gain information about themselves. An important role of the career counselor is to help clients understand the strengths and limitations of such tests and to help clients ultimately decide how best to use the test information.

Osborn and Zunker (2012) noted that career counselors also use informal assessments, which clients can often score themselves. Informal assessments include any tool that a

Section 8.4Typical Components of Career Intervention

counselor uses to gather information about clients but which does not have the psychometric rigor of a formal assessment. One example is a card sort, which is simply a stack of cards with various descriptors about a person (e.g., outgoing, likes working with numbers) that clients can use to identify aspects of themselves that might be relevant in their career search. Infor- mal assessments, while not having the psychometric rigor of formal assessments, have some advantages. They cost less, as well-validated measures such as the Strong Interest Inventory involve fees. Also, Osborn and Zunker (2012) noted that such tests can meet specific local goals, such as prompting clients to think about careers that are not listed in formal assess- ments. It is important to note, however, that career counselors are responsible for showing evidence of the effectiveness of their methods, and formal assessments would typically be preferred using that standard.

Goal Setting Helping clients set attainable and productive goals is a critical aspect of career counseling. Depending on clients’ life stages, the types of goals they may set can vary widely. For example, while a junior in high school may have a goal of finding a trade school by graduation, an adult in career transition may want to move into another career within 6 months. While setting goals in all forms of counseling is important, it is particularly critical in career counseling, as clients must navigate the realities of the outside world as well as their own personal pref- erences and timelines. In other words, clients should always be encouraged to have goals, but in personal counseling, the clients’ goals may be flexible and depend on their particular preferences (for example, feeling less anxious about social situations by the end of 6 weeks). Whereas in career counseling, clients may face some very concrete realities (for example, they are due to graduate in 2 months or will run out of their savings funds by the end of 6 months). Again, clients’ goals are critical in any type of counseling, but in career counseling it is essential that external realities and timelines be incorporated into the clients’ goals.

If a client has taken career assessments, it can be very useful to translate these assessments into concrete goals that the client can work on with the counselor. While many clients find assessments helpful, they often need help translating assessment results into a concrete plan of action. For example, if a client takes a career test measuring vocational interests, and the test suggests careers that involve helping other people, what can the client do next? Career counselors are experts at helping clients move from self-understanding through assessments to concrete steps needed to further promote their careers.

Researching Career Information and Implementation Another important task addressed in career counseling is helping clients find information. This includes information of all types: about themselves, education, careers, and cost of living, to name just a few. The Internet offers a wealth of resources about careers. For example, O*NET is a web-based searchable database containing information about all the careers tracked by the Department of Labor. While the Internet makes researching career informa- tion much easier than before such resources were available online, clients can vary consider- ably in how much experience they have had looking for this type of information. Therefore, the role of the career counselor is crucial in helping clients find and sort through information. Once clients have researched and filtered through career information, counselors and clients

Section 8.4Typical Components of Career Intervention

can help them work on how to best commu- nicate about themselves and their career aspirations to the outside world. The major activity that people think of under this cat- egory is developing a résumé, but self- marketing can also include developing a Facebook profile, a LinkedIn account, and other forms of social media.

This is some clients’ least favorite aspect of the career development process, and here again the career counselor can be a crucial resource for helping clients identify people who can assist in their job search process and in preparing for job interviews.

Career Counseling in Action The activities just discussed represent only a sample of some of the important interventions that career counselors use with clients. While the chapter has described some of what hap- pens in career counseling, it has not yet described how it happens. Career counseling involves far more than sitting and talking with clients about development needs. Counselors are likely to devote considerable attention to reviewing assessment results. It is particularly important that if assessment results are used, they be explained in a way that is understandable to cli- ents. Counselors must also be aware of the reliability and validity of the career assessments they give to clients. As noted earlier, reliability is important because it indicates the consis- tency of tests, and validity is crucial because it ensures that the test measures what it sets out to measure. If a test does not have adequate reliability and validity, then it would not be useful or ethical to use.

The counselor may also sit down with a client to look at websites when researching career information, assist with mock interviews, and even talk with other important people in the client’s life. This last activity may come as a surprise, but depending on a client’s cultural background, it may be important to include other significant people, such as romantic part- ners, children, or siblings. Many times parents want to be included in career counseling ses- sions with high school or even college students. Of course, including such people requires the counselor to maintain appropriate professional boundaries, but when conducted properly, these meetings can add to the effectiveness of a career intervention.

Note that while some of this work is done individually, it can also be done with groups of clients or students, or even conducted over the Internet. Also note that while the sequence of interventions listed in this section may constitute a reasonable framework for the order in which such interventions are offered, career counseling is not necessarily a linear process. Many clients see a career counselor for only a few sessions and may choose to work on only one or more of the activities listed here. Further, they may choose to spread their work out over the course of weeks or even months. Work on one’s career is never done, and many of the tasks described here may be revisited and repeated as a person’s career unfolds.

monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock Cultivating literacy in Internet research and online social networking is a key component of career counseling.

Section 8.5Professional Trajectories for Career Counselors

8.5 Professional Trajectories for Career Counselors A professional entering this field with a graduate degree in counseling will have coursework in the academic areas necessary for career practice: counseling skills, counseling theories, assessment, and of course graduate coursework in career development (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Typically, a person interested in doing career coun- seling will also do field work (a practicum) in a career counseling setting. These are some of the most common career trajectories for counselors who specialize in career counseling.

School Counseling In order to become a school counselor, individuals must first obtain a master’s degree from a school counseling program and meet the applicable state certification requirements. The type of career counseling a school does will vary considerably depending on the grade level. Dur- ing elementary school, the main task for students is career exploration, and school counselors have considerable flexibility in how they approach career services (see Voices From the Field about a school counselor). During middle school, students typically begin to narrow their interests and learn about their aptitudes, and school counselors will likely find themselves more involved in advising their students about their academic paths. High school counsel- ors typically focus on course scheduling and preparing students for plans after graduation, including postsecondary training and college.

Voices From the Field: Martita, Elementary School Counselor With a Master’s in School Counseling

To be honest, when I was in graduate school, career counseling was not my favorite class. I was much more interested in working with young students’ emotional and psychological dif- ficulties. However, the principal of my school is very supportive of career development inter- ventions across the different grade levels and gives me the freedom to do a lot of classroom activities aimed at career development. I do not consider what I do career counseling per se, but I spend a lot of time in classrooms helping students understand the connection between their classes and the world of work.

I was surprised at how much my students really enjoy talking about careers. They are very curious about what adults do and how they got started in their jobs. Of course, you have to connect at the students’ cognitive level in order to be effective—younger students do not really have the intellectual resources to understand how different levels of compensation lead to different types of lifestyles. So, you have to make that concrete for them. For example, there are numerous activities and websites that help young people understand how much of their salary would go to housing, food, etc., at different levels of income.

This is what I like best about the career development work I do—I can be creative and engage students at an early age, when more possibilities are open to them. My school counseling col- leagues at the middle and high school level have to focus on guiding students through degree plans and helping them set their schedules. It’s important work, but I could not see myself doing that all day.

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Section 8.5Professional Trajectories for Career Counselors

Voices From the Field: Martita, Elementary School Counselor With a Master’s in School Counseling (continued)

My training in multicultural counseling is an important skill I bring to my career interventions. We have a diverse group of students at my school, and it is important that the work I do reflects that. I make sure that when we talk about careers, students are exposed to people in those jobs from a variety of backgrounds. Many of my students are from low-income families, and we talk very early about what type of education is needed for different careers and how financial assistance can be obtained.

Higher Education Career Counseling Career counselors in a college setting work with undergraduate students, as well as graduate students, alumni, and occasionally staff and faculty. Services tend to focus on providing career and job search services as well as resources to students. Career counselors within a higher education setting help young adults develop long-term career goals and strategies, facilitate self-exploration and discovery, connect with potential employers, and empower and challenge students to fulfill their potential (see Voices From the Field about a college career counselor).

Most employers prefer that career counselor candidates hold a master’s degree in counseling with a focus on career development. Career counseling programs teach students about career development theories and techniques to aid in clients’ exploration of their values, personali- ties, interests, and skills. These programs also provide preparation for basic counseling skills as well as a period of a supervised practicum or experience to implement and hone clinical skills (U.S. Department of Labor, 2014).

In many settings, a license is not required for a person to become a career counselor, but some employers may prefer to hire licensed counselors. Licensure requires a master’s degree and 2,000 to 3,000 hours of supervised clinical experience. Upon completion of a degree and hours, counselors need to pass a state exam and complete continuing education. Career coun- selors who have a private practice usually need to be licensed. More information can be found on the National Board for Certified Counselors listed in the resources section (U.S. Depart- ment of Labor, 2014).

Voices From the Field: Karina, College Career Counselor With a Master’s in Counselor Education

There are many aspects of my job that I enjoy, but the most rewarding part is the opportunity to work with young adults at such a crucial period of their lives. College students are a unique population who engage in exponential amounts of growth, change, and learning during their time in school. Their potential and development are what most excites me in working with college students, and it is an incredible opportunity to be able to work with people at this juncture in their development.

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Section 8.5Professional Trajectories for Career Counselors

Voices From the Field: Karina, College Career Counselor With a Master’s in Counselor Education (continued)

I have worked at a university career center for several years and have gotten to counsel a wide variety of students, including international students, nontraditional students, veterans, alumni, and traditional students. Attending to their different concerns and needs certainly keeps me on my toes and requires me to be flexible! Every student has a different situation, and it is important to consider each student’s individual needs, beliefs, and values in navigat- ing his or her career path.

My primary duties are to assist students with career and academic major concerns, job search strategies, résumé and cover letter feedback, mock interviews, and finding relevant resources and tools to search for jobs that will guide them in their career development. An aspect of working in a university setting that is unique to college campuses is that students have access to many resources. College campuses have many mental health, volunteer, internship, and mentorship opportunities to which students have access, often for free. While those working in private practice also have the opportunity to make community referrals, they are not as accessible or all contained in the same place like things are on college campuses!

There are also parts of my job that are challenging. Many times when I first meet with stu- dents, I have to manage their expectations of what my role is in their development, as well as what services the center can provide. Often times, students expect me to have the exact job they are looking for and an in with any business they are considering. While I would love to be able to provide such resources, it is simply impossible to do that for every student in every major, skill, and business in the world! Similarly, when students are uncertain of what to study or what to do after college, there is some pressure or expectation that I can provide the perfect solution. I view my role as helping them to develop the skills they need to research relevant job fields, and network and connect with potential employers. It can be a tricky balance some- times, but I believe I am doing the best for my students when I set them up with lifelong skills they can use long after they have met with me.

An additional aspect of my job that is important to consider are the contextual factors students are facing. While students may schedule an appointment to discuss résumé writing or search- ing for an internship, often they are experiencing a certain degree of stress, whether that be from their parents, stress about grades, relationship troubles, or fights with their roommates. All of these things affect their daily lives and, by extension, their careers. Part of my job is to gain an idea of what their bigger picture looks like to identify strengths as well as barriers in the interest of helping them manage their next steps in the most approachable and realistic way possible.

As a career counselor, I also give many workshops and presentations across campus to pro- mote our services and explain different career-related topics. In a given week, I could present on writing a résumé and cover letter, interviewing, networking, or giving a specialized presen- tation to a specific department on campus. The different topics always keep things interesting. I am also constantly learning new things about students on campus and new developments in the field.

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Section 8.5Professional Trajectories for Career Counselors

Voices From the Field: Karina, College Career Counselor With a Master’s in Counselor Education (continued)

A fun, and sometimes exhausting, aspect of my job are the events I help with at the career cen- ter. Where I work, we put on many events to help students connect with volunteer opportuni- ties, internships, businesses, graduate schools, and networking opportunities. The events can certainly be time consuming and require a lot of energy, but it is fun to help a student prepare to speak with an employer and see him or her get an interview or internship because of the work we did together.

Working at a university career center is an incredible opportunity. I wear many hats as I have the chance to work with students one on one, give presentations, coordinate with other departments, and participate in large events. It is a setting that is always changing and provid- ing new opportunities to learn or try something different!

Private Practice Career Counseling Career counselors can provide services with a master’s or doctorate in counselor education or counseling psychology. Career counselors seeking this professional trajectory must be pre- pared to practice what they preach—in other words, they will have to market themselves and create their occupational niche, similar to what they will likely tell their clients to do. As was noted earlier, career counselors in private practice may work for companies or government agencies, or they may get clients through referrals and their own marketing activities. For some insight into what it is like to work in private practice, see the Voices From the Field with a private practice career counselor.

Voices From the Field: Ben, Private Practice Career Counselor With a PhD in Counseling Psychology

What I enjoy most about my work in private practice is the flexibility I have in working with my clients. I worked previously in a college counseling setting, and while I loved working with college students, I was sometimes frustrated because my university was always changing its policies about how I could work with students. In private practice, I can deliver services the way I think will best help my clients.

I mostly work with adults in my practice, although I do sometimes work with high school and college students. Younger people are referred to me by their parents when they want additional assistance helping their children solidify their educational plans or determine what types of training they will need after high school if they are not going to college. If they are going to college, what majors are they interested in? For these types of clients, I mostly end up offering career assessments—assessments of their interests, personality, and skills, for example. Then we try to translate these results into a plan for making decisions about their education.

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Section 8.5Professional Trajectories for Career Counselors

Voices From the Field: Ben, Private Practice Career Counselor With a PhD in Counseling Psychology (continued)

My focus in my practice is on adults in career transition. I work with people who are changing jobs, are reentering the workforce, or have lost their jobs. I enjoy helping these clients in par- ticular because they are often feeling stressed and anxious about their careers, and I feel I have tools that can help them overcome any obstacles they are facing. Much of my work involves helping them feel less overwhelmed by developing concrete plans that can get them where they need to be in their careers.

While I have great confidence in the services I offer my clients, one reality about the work I do is that my clients have to be willing to put in effort outside of their meetings with me. For some clients, this is not a problem, but many of my clients have a hard time making space for “homework” in their lives, such as researching employers or going to job fairs. I have found I need to be flexible with my clients and work at their pace if we are going to be successful working together.

Some of my colleagues have very specialized practices where they work with clients in only a particular part of the world of work (e.g., high tech or engineering). Some also focus on provid- ing services that are not really career counseling. For example, they consult with businesses about their employment practices, or they work helping to identify and develop executive tal- ent. These all sound like very rewarding activities to me, but in my own work I focus mainly on actual career counseling.

I also feel that working in private practice makes me practice what I preach. Having a private practice means running my own business, so I need to do the same things I ask my clients to do—market myself and my practice, conduct interviews with prospective employees, and han- dle most of the day-to-day operations that come with running a business. This part of being in private practice is something I think I do well, and something that I enjoy. However, it does take time away from my work with clients, which is sometimes a struggle for me. I would rather be able to hire someone to take care of these things, but the size of my practice does not justify doing that just yet.

Another reality of doing career counseling in private practice is that clients have to pay the full cost of the services themselves. Insurance certainly does not cover it, although sometimes employers are willing to cover the cost of providing such services if they are going through a transition, such as having to make layoffs. Most of the time, clients pay for themselves, or, quite often, another family member or spouse will pay. This all means that I have to be very clear with my clients about what my policies are and what my services will cost.

Other Professions The professional trajectories reviewed previously represent the profession of career counsel- ing, because they typically involve having a master’s or doctorate in a counseling-related field. However, several related professions also involve careers and the workplace. Some of the professions reviewed in this section overlap considerably with career counseling, particularly career coaching.

Section 8.6Career Counseling in the 21st Century

Career Coaching Chung and Gfroerer (2003) noted some of the similarities of career coaching and career counseling and the belief by some that career coaching is really the practice of career coun- seling without a license. However, career coaches, as opposed to career counselors, who offer counseling services that are often time limited, function more as personal consultants seek- ing to help their clients identify their skills, make better career choices, and be more produc- tive workers. Another aspect of career coaching is executive coaching, which involves help- ing higher-level managers identify strengths and areas for growth in leading their companies.

Industrial/Organizational Psychology The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP; www.siop.org) defines indus- trial-organizational (I/O) psychology as “the scientific study of the workplace. The knowledge base and scientific methods of psychology are applied to issues of critical relevance to busi- ness, including talent management, coaching, assessment, selection, training, organizational development, motivation, leadership, and performance” (SIOP, n.d., para. 1). As this definition indicates, the focus is on studying the workplace itself, rather than on improving the careers of people working in the field. Chapter 9 discusses I/O psychology in more detail.

Rehabilitation Counselors According to the Council on Rehabilitation Education (CORE; http://www.core-rehab.org), the field of rehabilitation counseling focuses on working with individuals with disabilities to identify career and personal goals, such as employment options, inclusion, and establishing independence. The field of rehabilitation counseling places great importance on the advocacy and rights of people with disabilities. Key roles of a rehabilitation counselor include assessing and coordinating the needs of people with disabilities who may experience some limitations due to cognitive and learning difficulties, physical or functional abilities, or barriers related to environmental and societal discrimination.

8.6 Career Counseling in the 21st Century The world of work is constantly changing; therefore, the field of career counseling must grow and adapt to meet the needs of clients. In this section, a number of hot topics for the field are described, many of which relate to the rapid changes in technology and work in the 21st century.

A Changing World of Work In the evolving global economy, new jobs and even entire industries are created and elimi- nated much faster than in previous decades. This can be a source of both opportunity and anxiety for clients, and career counselors can be extremely valuable in providing expertise about the process of career development. Career counselors are experts in helping clients navigate their own personal and professional development in order to understand, research, and find satisfying work.

Section 8.6Career Counseling in the 21st Century

One aspect of the changing world of work that makes career counseling particularly impor- tant is that employees can no longer count on lifelong employment. Workers are encour- aged to think of themselves as free agents with marketable skills, always looking for the next opportunity. This stance may be more appealing for some than others, but in either case, career counselors can help clients find the type of work environment that fits them.

The Role of Technology Perhaps more than in any other branch of counseling, career counselors must be able to use technology in their work with clients. Technology is integral to many aspects of career coun- seling, from assessment tools used with clients, to researching occupations, to helping clients self-market and apply for jobs. Research using the Internet can be particularly helpful for cli- ents, and career counselors must be able to help their clients identify where, and how, to con- duct such searches. For example, career counselors can help clients narrow down the fields in which they are most interested and then help them reach out for networking or informational interviews. Further, using technology such as social media can be an important part of the job search process. Increasingly, people are relying on websites such as LinkedIn to connect with professionals in their field. Presently, 80% of jobs are not posted and are instead given to people through networking and relationships (Bolles, 2014). Thus, career counselors must be knowledgeable and adept at teaching and helping clients facilitate networking through various means, such as social media. Career counselors can also be extremely helpful to cli- ents in helping them sift through information and identify which Internet resources are most promising for their career development needs.

Connections Between Career and Personal Issues Work is at the very core of contemporary life for most people, as it provides financial security, personal identity, and an opportunity to make meaningful contributions to community life (Harnois & Gabriel, 2000). Young adults with higher career aspirations tend to have higher job prestige and wages during adulthood, even after controlling for educational attainment, cognitive ability, and other psychosocial factors (Staff, Harris, Sabates, & Briddell, 2010). Youth who do not engage in early work experiences are more likely to endure later unemploy-

ment and less likely to reach higher levels of career attainment (Annie E. Casey Foun- dation, 2011). Young adults’ experiences of occupational identity problems, unemploy- ment, underemployment, and unfulfilling careers increase their long-term risk for unemployment, negative health outcomes, and lower levels of career mobility and advancement (Roenkae & Pulkkinen, 1995; Sweeney & Schill, 1998). Imbimbo (1994) wrote that it would be simplistic to attempt to separate our career lives from our per- sonal lives.

Researchers have found evidence to sup- port the interaction of personal and career

Paul Burns/Exactostock-1598/SuperStock One’s career aspirations, or lack thereof, can directly affect many aspects of life, including future earnings, personal health, and identity.

Summary and Resources

issues in counseling. Niles, Anderson, and Cover (2000) found that although clients’ intake concerns focused primarily on career exploration issues, subsequent sessions tended to focus on non-career issues, such as stress about school, anxiety, and depression. Career counseling may therefore be viewed as a safer method toward seeking mental health support when a person is experiencing psychological distress and does not want to seek out a mental health counselor. The career development process not only affects the mental health of individuals, but also can have long-term effects on financial and future career prospects.

Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary Career counselors work with clients on a wide range of career development activities across the lifespan. Career counseling as defined in this chapter is a specialization of the counseling field, although professionals from other disciplines also help clients and work with organiza- tions on career development. It is important for career counselors to help clients understand the difference between tasks and jobs, and that two jobs with the same title can encompass very different tasks. The definition of work as a purposeful activity producing something of value is very general, but it is important to understand, because work can include paid and unpaid activities.

The field of career counseling dates back to the early 1900s, at a time when the United States and other Western nations were in the Industrial Age. Frank Parsons, an engineer in Boston, was an early pioneer who began a formal program to help youths find gainful employment in the early 1900s, and he published a book about his methods entitled On Choosing a Vocation in 1909. One myth about career counseling is that it involves giving a lot of advice or takes less skill than personal counseling, which has changed since the field developed from vocational guidance to career counseling.

Career counseling takes place in a variety of settings, particularly in K–12 schools and col- leges. School counselors provide career counseling as part of their guidance mission in the schools, and college career counselors provide varied career services, which can be very dif- ferent depending on the size and mission of the college. Career counselors working outside of educational settings often do so as independent practitioners.

Trait and factor models are closely aligned with the early vocational testing movement. Traits refers to individual characteristics of a person, and factors refers to the various features of a work environment. Donald Super is generally credited with the preeminent developmental model of careers, which emphasizes how individual development plays an important role in various aspects of work life and career planning. Social learning models are also an impor- tant set of theories originally developed by John Krumboltz, emphasizing the roles of learn- ing, self-efficacy, skill development, and the outside world (happenstance) in shaping career development. Cognitive theories conceptualize career development as how people think of and seek out career and academic interests, and how their behaviors are shaped.

While these theories and the setting in which the career counselor works shapes the type of interventions provided, there are a number of interventions we consider to be representative. First, career counseling is primarily a counseling intervention, and therefore establishing a

Summary and Resources

working relationship with clients is critically important. Career counselors also use formal and informal assessments, help clients set goals, and assist them with the job search process, including doing research on careers, marketing themselves, and interviewing.

Several professional trajectories are common for career counselors, including working as a school counselor (a job in which career development is but one part) and working in colleges or private practices and agencies. A number of emerging trends are significant for this field, including technology and the changing nature of the world of work.

Typical components of career interventions include establishing a helping relationship with clients, using formal and informal assessments, helping clients set goals, researching career information, self-marketing, networking, and interviewing. Professional trajectories for career counselors include school counseling, career counseling in higher education, and career counseling in private practice. Other related fields include career coaching, industrial/ organizational psychology, and rehabilitation counseling.

The changing world of work is one hot topic for career counselors. The nature of work and how people find jobs is constantly evolving. Technological changes affect both the way career counseling is practiced and the world of work. Finding ways to address the interconnections of clients’ personal and vocational lives is another critical topic.

Resources for Future Exploration American School Counselor Association’s (ASCA) National Model for School Counsel- ing Programs www.ascanationalmodel.org According to its website, the ASCA School Counselor Competencies outline the knowledge, abilities, skills, and attitudes that ensure school counselors are equipped to meet the rigor- ous demands of the profession and the needs of pre-K–12 students.

O*NET Resource Center http://www.onetonline.org/ O*NET was developed under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Labor/Employment Training Administration and is a primary source of occupational information.

Occupational Outlook Handbook www.bls.gov/ooh Similar to O*NET, the Occupational Outlook Handbook is a source for information about hundreds of jobs sponsored by the Department of Labor.

National Board for Certified Counselors http://www.nbcc.org/ The organization’s website details information for the process of becoming a certified counselor.

National Career Development Association http://www.ncda.org/aws/NCDA/pt/sp/home_page This website provides information and research about helping individuals achieve their career and life goals.

Summary and Resources

Division 17 Society for Vocational Psychology (SVP) http://www.div17.org/vocpsych/ SVP provides up-to-date information about the research and practice of vocational psychol- ogy and career counseling.

National Association of Colleges and Employers www.naceweb.org The National Association of Colleges and Employers connects campus recruiting and career services professionals and provides best practices, trends, research, professional develop- ment, and conferences.

Self-Efficacy: Further Information http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/BanEncy.html A glossary and further information detailing self-efficacy and the career development process.

Key Terms assessments Tools that help individu- als understand how a variety of personal attributes (e.g., interests, values, prefer- ences, motivations, aptitudes, and skills) affect their potential success and satisfac- tion with different career options and work environments.

career The sequence of work activities over the course of a person’s life.

career coaching Similar to career coun- seling, coaching by people who help create plans for achieving career goals while also providing support and encouragement.

career interventions Activities that help people prepare for, and succeed at, career development tasks.

congruence Psychologist John Holland’s term for the amount of overlap between the characteristics of the person and the work environment.

executive coaching Coaching with a focus on developing leadership skills—the skills needed to drive change, manage complexity, build top-performing teams, and maintain a strong personal foundation to thrive under the most challenging conditions.

factors The various features of a work environment.

formal assessments Standardized tests or performance reviews that have been validated and tested using samples of the intended test groups. These assessments have specific requirements for administra- tion and scoring, as well as training and credentials for those who administer and interpret them.

goal The decision to begin a particular activity or plan.

happenstance theory A theory that human behavior is the product of learning experiences made available by both planned and unplanned situations.

informal assessments Refers to data collection about careers that do not have the psychometric rigor of a formal assess- ment, but which can often be cheaper, more flexible, and more tailored to the needs of the client.

job A collection of tasks, often associated with a specific title and setting (e.g., teacher, police officer).

Summary and Resources

outcome expectations The beliefs related to the consequences of performing a specific behavior. Typically, outcome expectations form based on past experiences (how well they did or did not go), observing other people’s experiences, and one’s perceptions of the results of these experiences.

rehabilitation counseling Focused on helping people who have disabilities achieve their personal, career, and independent liv- ing goals through a counseling process.

self-concept An individual’s beliefs about himself or herself that can include self- esteem, one’s attributes, and who and what the self is.

social cognitive career theory A theory that focuses on how career development occurs based on (1) how academic and career interests develop, (2) how educa- tional and career choices are made, and (3) how academic and career success is achieved.

Super’s developmental self-concept theory A theory that suggests occupational preferences and skills change across time, based on life experiences and on the stage of development.

task A specific duty or undertaking (e.g., answering a phone, entering data in a spreadsheet).

test them and tell them A stereotype of career counselors, suggesting they are very directive and base all guidance on formal testing.

trait and factor models Models that attempt to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs. Such models assume people may be matched to an occupation that is a good fit.

traits Individual characteristics of a person.

work Purposeful activity that produces something of value.