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7Educational PsychologyBy Joshua D. Walker, University of Texas at Austin

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Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to

• Explain the field of educational psychology, including a broad description of its major historical influences.

• Describe the major theories and key concepts of educational psychology.

• Identify the major methodologies used in educational psychology research.

• Evaluate the career paths available to someone who studies educational psychology.

• Analyze contemporary issues that are relevant to the field today.

Section 7.1The Basics of Educational Psychology

At the heart of any educational experience is someone trying to learn something from some- one else. A teacher may be sitting side by side with one student, leading a discussion with a handful of pupils, or demonstrating a lab through an online video to hundreds of students. The subject of the lesson might be how to solve a problem, write an argument, critique a prod- uct, perform a work of art, or master a feat of agility. The learner may be nervous or confident, prepared or apathetic. The teacher may have chosen this topic or been stuck with it. The teacher, the learner, and the subject all have a history, and all three converge in the context of the moment when learning hangs in the balance. Educational psychology is an attempt to understand the complexities of this situation and tip the scales toward success.

The goal of this chapter is to take the reader on a brief tour through the academic field of edu- cational psychology and to survey its current and prospective professional landscape. This is an ambitious venture because educational psychology not only comes from a long history of human inquiry, but also is applied across a wide variety of practical contexts.

7.1 The Basics of Educational Psychology Formally put, education is the process of giving or receiving systematic instruction. Whether in formal or informal settings, education implies that some degree of intentional- ity is involved—the goal is for learning to happen at some point. Educational environments can take on many shapes when you consider questions like Who is learning? What is being learned? When is it being learned? Where is it being learned? Why is it being learned? And how is it being learned? For each of these questions, there is a corresponding question for the teaching side of the equation. Educational psychologists, in their various roles, investigate the best answers to these questions and also influence how individuals and institutions put them into practice.

Defining Educational Psychology Educational psychology is the study of how people learn and how to help people learn. More specifically, it is the organized attempt to identify the factors that affect learning and the con- ditions that make learning better or worse and then use that knowledge to shape all aspects of the learning experience, including the setting, the content, and the people involved.

Learning Most people have a basic understanding of what it means to learn. Learning involves some change in a person’s knowledge, skills, behaviors, or attitudes as the result of some interac- tion with the environment (Alexander, Schallert, & Reynolds, 2009). We can learn how to ride a bike and learn to love bike riding. We can learn how mass relates to momentum and the quickest way to our friend’s house when traffic is bad. We can learn about the historical and economic significance of bicycles as a form of transportation, how to analyze a bicycle as a product of engineering, and to appreciate it as a craftsperson’s handiwork. Some of these examples of learning happen fast and may seem easy; others are more difficult and might take a long time. But beneath the surface of all of them is a fascinating interconnected world of biological, psychological, and cultural phenomena that affect all learning experiences.

Section 7.1The Basics of Educational Psychology

The Link Between Learning and Education To understand the implications of these aspects of learning for education, consider Johnny, a student who is struggling to solve an algebra problem. Why is this task challenging for Johnny at this point in time? The symbols on the paper may be clearly written, but they must be clearly seen (or sensed) by the learner—a process known as sensation. The black marks on the white page must also be interpreted correctly as numbers and letters—a related process you may recall is known as percep- tion. At the same time, the learner must be selectively focused on certain sets of symbols while ignoring countless other pieces of irrelevant information in order to receive the intended message. (This is much like you likely trying to concentrate on the meaning of these words on this page while ignoring the other stuff immediately around it, as well as new items in your inbox or newsfeed, the lump in your sock you never got out, or that errand you still need to run.) But even if the right information was inter- preted correctly and registered in Johnny’s mind for that moment, it must still be inte- grated into his web of knowledge in a sub- stantial enough way for it to be recalled and applied when needed—a mysterious phe- nomenon called memory. Beyond being able to process, understand, and remember, thinking properly about the algebra prob- lem requires a level of abstract reasoning, and for more advanced problems, even more highly developed capacities for critical thinking and creative problem solving. All of these issues related to memory and thinking are collectively called cognition.

Learning algebra, however, is not just a cognitive problem. Some of those cognitive abili- ties take form as the child’s brain and personality matures. Johnny will also have emotions associated with this assignment. He might experience math anxiety and frustration while trying to read fast enough to keep up with the teacher, or he might love math and wish he could spend extra time on it. These are closely related to issues of motivation, where the drive to engage in the work may come from different sources. Maybe Johnny’s parents offered extra allowance for good grades or threatened to take away his phone if he failed. Perhaps he really respects his teacher and wants to please her, or he might just be trying to be better than his older sister at something. He might be struggling because he finished his assignment and chose to keep working on more difficult problems just to challenge himself, or perhaps he is struggling because he procrastinated and, because of this failure to self-regulate—manage his own behavior—is now cramming in the rest of his homework. Of course, it could also be due to other physiological reasons, like lack of sleep last night, or skipping breakfast.

Rosendo/iStock/Thinkstock Cognition is characterized by an ability to sense critical information, interpret through accurate perception, and retain information through memory.

Section 7.1The Basics of Educational Psychology

Curriculum The internal factors that accompany learners when they enter the learning situation interact with the external factors of the environment in significant ways. When Johnny sat down to read the algebra worksheet, the page was already there. Someone wrote the mathematical expression in a particular way, introduced it at a particular time, and assigned it for a particu- lar reason. This collection of decisions about the content and structure of what ought to be learned is called the curriculum.

The content, or what is being learned, can take different forms, such as textbooks, online modules, instructional videos, discussion prompts, what is written on the board, and what is being said out loud. All learning has a context, whether it is in face-to-face settings, such as lecture halls, labs, athletic fields, and boardrooms, or in online settings, such as class discus- sion boards, online forums, webinars, and virtual simulations. This collection of decisions about how the curriculum should be taught is called instruction.

All learning contexts also have social dimensions. Whether as part of the curriculum or emerg- ing in live interactions, students encounter messages from peers and instructors, as well as from educational institutions and their society as a whole. Johnny will get feedback in a par- ticular way, and it will come with explicit and implicit messages about how his performance compares with some standard set by someone else. Those standards are interpreted and val- ued differently by people, which will affect how he navigates future educational opportunities and reorients his understanding of himself as a learner. For example, he may decide he is not a “math guy” and wonder if he is not cut out for school altogether, or maybe he persists through the struggle with this assignment and discovers that he is good at solving problems after all.

The Roles of the Educational Psychologist Educational psychologists study all of these aspects of learning: the content and layout of what is being learned, the physiological and psychological factors of who is learning, and the social and structural factors of the learning environment. Educational psychologists are interested in understanding why people behave the way they do, and what influences—or is influenced by—the thoughts, feelings, and motivations they experience. The results of these investigations over time form and reform various theories of learning and instruction. But like an oncologist who uses biology and chemistry to find better treatments for cancer, or an engineer who uses physics and geography to design better dams, so too are educational psychologists interested in using what can be understood about people to affect people in some way through the design of educational products, programs, policies, and services. Taken together, the work of the educational psychologist can be summarized in the following three categories:

1. Researching, teaching, and learning to discover principles for what does and does not work

2. Recommending best practices to relevant people (e.g., teachers, learners, adminis- trators, publishers, and designers)

3. Refining and reforming how teachers teach, how learning experiences are designed, and how students learn

Section 7.1The Basics of Educational Psychology

The History of Educational Psychology Educational psychology is everywhere. There is no shortage of advice about better ways to learn and assumptions about how to gain knowledge or change behavior. These insights are not always accurate, but they reveal two enduring aspects of human nature: the desire to make meaningful sense of the world around us, which relates to psychology, and to share that perspective with others near us, which relates to education. This section briefly traces how these two historical strands became braided together as educational psychology.

Philosophical Influences Educational psychology is a relatively young area of academic study, but it traces its intel- lectual heritage to some of the oldest ques- tions about human knowledge and experi- ence. It is no surprise, then, that by the time of Plato and Aristotle around the 4th century BCE, an important topic in philosophical discussions was the relationship between what was in people’s minds and what was out there in the world, and especially how those mental representations came to be and changed over time. Some philosophers thought knowledge originated inside peo- ple’s heads and could be accessed through reflective thinking—a view known as ratio- nalism—while others believed knowledge had to be assembled through encounters with the world around them—a view known as empiricism. Every culture had some version of these attempts to understand the psyche, the immaterial part of humans that seemed to be a significant factor in how people functioned and interacted with one another (Miller, 1997). Remarkably, modern debates about human development, learning, and instruction continue along these same basic lines—at the border between the developing person and the sur- rounding environment (Groome, 1980).

Psychological Foundations Around the late 16th century, the way people studied the world began to change. Rather than relying on personal reflection and isolated observations, scholars began applying a more rig- orous methodology for drawing conclusions by ensuring that manipulations of the environ- ment could be both verified and repeated. This scientific method was applied across many fields of study and eventually brought about a more formal approach to answering philosoph- ical questions about human knowledge. Recall that psychology emerged as its own formally recognizable academic discipline in the late 19th century when Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) set up the first lab in Germany to study how people responded to changes in their environ- ment. Early interests were in understanding the basic structures of the mind, but it did not take long for psychologists to become curious about how the mind actually functioned in vari- ous settings, such as education.

Caia Images/SuperStock The study of human knowledge has often revolved around the dichotomy between the individual and the environment.

Section 7.1The Basics of Educational Psychology

Educational Connections Education is the practice of intentionally guiding other people’s learning and development; in various forms, it too is as old as human civilization itself. Ancient philosophers discussed implications of their theories of human nature and knowledge to the enterprise of teaching, and major thinkers ever since have made recommendations for how to help people learn. However, not until Johan Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) presented a formal structure of teaching in his 1806 book called Universal Pedagogy was pedagogy—the method and prac- tice of teaching—established as an emerging academic discipline in itself.

Universal and mandatory education emerged gradually in Europe beginning in the 16th cen- tury. As parts of the agricultural industry began to be automated, fewer children were required to work the fields, and childhood was increasingly seen as a time for learning. The Protestant Reformation emphasized the need for the individual to read and understand Scripture per- sonally. Initially, education in America was distinctively religious as well, but it also began to be seen as a way to train good citizens. This more political focus was especially impor- tant by the late 1800s, when an influx of immigrants made their way to the United States and schools needed effective methods to meet the rising demand of educating more children (Hall, 2002). The value of this new formal study of instruction would be more fully realized in the United States during the Second World War, as advanced technological equipment required complicated operations, and the need for efficient and effective training challenged the current methods of instruction. Increased government attention on education came into full view in the late 1950s in the thick of the Cold War. The competitive success of the Soviet Union’s space program before that of the United States seemed to suggest the shortcomings of American education. This in turn instigated intense edu- cational investment and curriculum reform (Gredler, 2008). The realization of education’s impact on national interests paved the way for educational psychology to emerge.

The Emergence of Educational Psychology Scientific discoveries exploded with practical impact at the turn of the 20th century (e.g., automobiles, international radio, and x-rays). Research universities and graduate schools focusing on psychology cropped up during this time, and psychologists saw education as an important arena in which to apply their science of the mind (Hall, 2002). Promi- nent figures at the crossroads of philosophy, psychology, and education, including William James, G. Stanley Hall, and John Dewey, addressed implications of their theories for various aspects of education, such as the role of the classroom envi- ronment, children’s development, and the role of the clas- sic curriculum versus the need for creativity and play (Ber- liner, 1993). Around the same time, educational psychology reached two significant milestones signaling its own coming of age: The first educational psychology textbook was pub- lished in 1903, and the first issue of the Journal of Educa- tional Psychology was published in 1910. These were both the accomplishment of Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949), who pioneered new methodologies for studying learning

New York Public Library/Science Source/ Getty Images

Edward L. Thorndike, the father of modern education psychology, was responsible for publishing the first textbook on the discipline in 1903, as well as the first issue of the Journal of Education Psychology in 1910.

Section 7.2Theories and Key Concepts

and measuring intelligence. For these reasons, he is considered the father of modern educa- tional psychology. Momentum continued as the American Educational Research Association (AERA) was founded in 1916 as a national research society that now boasts several scholarly journals and an annual conference attended by thousands of researchers and practitioners from across the world. In 1946, educational psychology became an official part (Division 15) of the American Psychological Association (APA).

7.2 Theories and Key Concepts The establishment of educational psychology among academic disciplines did not result in universal agreement about the proper ways of conceptualizing a science of the mind or how to apply it to education. As educational psychology began to distinguish itself from philoso- phy and psychology, dominant themes in the way researchers thought about the nature of learning began to take shape. Throughout the 20th century and beyond, these conceptions continued to evolve into major theories attempting to explain what it means and takes to learn in educational settings. Next, we will briefly explore some of the major ways of explain- ing the nature of learning, the nature of the learner, and the nature of teaching.

Behavioristic Perspectives According to behaviorism, learning is a “mechanical process of stamping stimulus-response bonds into the nervous system through repetition” (Yount, 2010, p. 179). Edward Thorndike (1932) synthesized his research about this process into a few “Laws of Learning,” which have had a significant impact on education. For example, the Law of Exercise stated that the associ- ation between stimuli in the environment and the learner’s response is strengthened as it is repeated. These notions of “practice makes perfect” and “use it or lose it” formed the basis for widely used repetitious drills in classrooms (Dembo, 1994). Thorndike’s Law of Effect captured the essence of behaviorism by stating that responses followed by pleasure, or something satisfying, are strengthened, and responses followed by pain, or something unsatisfying, are weakened.

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) applied these behaviorist prin- ciples to teaching by demonstrating the importance of immediate feedback on student choices. Teaching machines were invented to deliver programmed instruction—a way to shape students’ knowledge by regimenting what and when they were taught based on how they were perform- ing (Skinner, 1954). This was a precursor to the new gen- eration of personalized learning solutions available today. Another enduring impact of behaviorism on education is in the realm of classroom management and behavior modi- fication. Insights into the motivation of learning can influ- ence the design of formal learning environments as teach- ers establish practices to reinforce desirable behavior (e.g.,

Tungstenblue/iStock/Thinkstock Behaviorism emphasizes the usefulness of repetition, as well as the reinforcement of good and bad behaviors using a reward/punishment system.

Section 7.2Theories and Key Concepts

verbal praise and positive attention, extra time on fun activities, or tokens to exchange for some something better) and punish undesirable behavior (e.g., spending a time-out in isola- tion or giving up part of recess) (Slavin & Davis, 1997).

Behaviorism has had a lasting legacy, some of which remains helpful in applying psychology to teaching. However, the underlying view of human learning as similar to that of animals or programmable robots was an insufficient explanation of the human experience of learning.

Cognitive and Constructivist Perspectives Behaviorism failed to explain why different people reacted quite differently to the same circumstance, and researchers began to focus instead on mental activity during learning. According to this new emphasis, called cognitivism, the human mind is constantly inter- preting incoming information and discerning meaning in the surrounding world. This more elaborate understanding of the sophisticated functioning of the brain found a timely analogy with the introduction of the computer around the 1960s. A computer has inputs (e.g., through a keyboard or camera) that are displayed as outputs (e.g., through a screen or printer), but inside they are being actively processed (i.e., through random access memory, or RAM), sav- ing and retrieving information from the permanent storage (i.e., on the hard drive). In the same way, our minds have inputs through the senses (e.g., what we see and hear) and outputs through communication (e.g., through words and facial expressions), and we seem to have a working, or short-term, memory as well as long-term memory into which information can be saved and recalled later. Overarching this whole operation is an operating system, or an executive function that Flavell (1976) described in humans as metacognition. Metacognition is the awareness and control of one’s own thinking and knowledge. This entire model, called the information processing model, provided practical ways to assist the process of mov- ing information along the memory continuum. Learning strategies and instructional methods can support all aspects of this process: improving the filters we apply as we focus our atten- tion on incoming information (e.g., note-taking skills), the clarity with which we display our knowledge to others (e.g., writing and speaking skills), how we manipulate or format the information to remember it more accurately and for a longer time (e.g., mnemonics, orga- nization techniques, and elaboration strategies), and how we monitor or manage the entire learning process (e.g., self-regulation habits) (Dembo & Seli, 2012).

The machine metaphor for learning highlighted the role of the central processing unit but still did not account for the more subtle nuances of how people seemed to make sense of the world around them. Jerome Bruner (born 1915) criticized the information processing model, arguing that learning was not reducible to either reward-driven behavioral responses or the logical output of a computer program. He argued that learning is a process of discovery as learners form concepts and create connections among the many ideas they encounter as they explore their world and attempt to solve problems (Bruner, 1961). This was consistent with how developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) described the process children go through to create knowledge. Learning is a very active process of interpreting new informa- tion through existing frames of reference and adapting those frames of reference to better account for the world. Constructivism, as this theory of learning came to be known, explained learning as the organization of information within the individual rather than the shaping of the individual by the environment. We construct knowledge in our own minds, which means the motivation for learning does not have to be limited to whether the environment is set up to reward certain choices but can also be tied to the inherent satisfaction of discovery,

Section 7.2Theories and Key Concepts

meaning-making, and insight. Constructivism opened the way for new instructional methods focused on developing higher-order thinking and problem-solving skills, especially as learn- ers can transfer those models and strategies to new situations. Those new situations, it turns out, have a significant impact on the learning process.

Social and Contextual Perspectives Based on research in the 1940s, Albert Bandura (born 1925) explained how people can learn the association between actions and their consequences by observing when they occur for others and developing some form of mental model of this connection for themselves (Ban- dura, 1986). His social learning theory helped set the stage for an expanded view of human learning beyond mere conditioned behavior to the mutual influences among individu- als, their behavior, and their environment. Cognitive and constructivist perspectives highlighted the active, internal thinking processes of the individual learner. Toward the end of the 20th century, a greater appre- ciation for the social and cultural factors of learning became more prominent. A view that became known as social construc- tivism began to explain that learning was not an isolated, individual activity. Rather, learning is a social process, contextualized in various situations where individuals par- ticipate in a particular culture and knowl- edge is exchanged among people in formal and informal ways (Lave & Wenger, 1991).

The most influential voice for social constructivism was Lev Vygotsky (1896–1904), a Rus- sian psychologist who explained how knowledge originates in social interactions. He argued that just as language itself is a way people get outside themselves and make sense of the world with another person, so too does knowledge form out on the edges of one’s interper- sonal borders (Palincsar, 1998). Vygotsky proposed that the most effective teaching is aimed at that area between what individuals would be capable of learning on their own and what they are capable of learning with the help of someone who is more advanced, known as the zone of proximal development, or ZPD (Vygotsky, 1978). ZPD has become a widely circu- lated concept for teachers as they plan instructional activities that aim for the appropriate level of challenge and social interaction. Many instructional methods are rooted in the social- situational understanding of learning, including cooperative learning, collaborative learning, group discussions, and problem-based learning (Alexander, 2005). These methods all share the benefit of exposing the learner to the thinking of others and refining and challenging ideas and thought processes as the individual interacts with someone else. This is especially pow- erful when teachers model the kind of thinking that accompanies the learning of new skills (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Teachers can support learning in a community through a process called scaffolding, where they provide modeling, guidance, feedback, and increasing opportunities for learners to formulate and update their own mental models as they navigate through some learning challenge. This approach to learning acknowledges the importance of individuals taking responsibility for their own learning.

Jon Brenneis/The LIFE Images Collection/Getty Images Psychologist Albert Bandura advanced the understanding of learning by thinking of it as a social, cultural, and environmental process.

Section 7.2Theories and Key Concepts

Humanist and Developmental Perspectives Each new analytical lens that has emerged as psychology has been applied to education has broadened the scope of what is considered relevant for learning, from understanding the effects of the environment on behavior to examining how our mental processing and social interactions affect learning. Humanistic psychology has further enriched theories of learning by emphasizing the role of beliefs, personal meaning, emotion, and identity as they pertain to education, especially across the lifespan. This perspective helps explain not just how people learn, but also why they want to learn. Learning cannot properly be described as a mindless mechanical manipulation or a cold cognitive calculation; it is more likely the habitual harmo- nization of head, heart, and hands. We must take the whole person into consideration if we are to properly analyze and capitalize on learning opportunities.

Why do some people seem eager and ready to learn, while others are unlikely to engage? One explanation is that people are ready to seek knowledge only when their more basic needs have been met. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) proposed a hierarchy of needs that range from basic survival needs for food, shelter, and water to the higher needs of esteem, knowl- edge, and eventually “self-actualization” (1968), or the fulfilling of one’s potential. These needs are like a pyramid, pointing to the highest form of human existence in the expression of autonomy, dignity, and growth. This was consistent with the ideas of another famous human- istic psychologist, Carl Rogers (1902–1987), who saw the learner as primary and central to the learning process. His person-centered approach advocated for self-initiated learning, with the teacher playing an empathic and supportive role as the learner pursues authentic, significant learning opportunities that are relevant and personally meaningful (Rogers, 1983).

As the learner moves to center stage in the learning process, issues of individual dif- ferences and personal development take on a stronger significance. Piaget described stages of cognitive development that chil- dren advance through as they become more adept at organizing their perceptions of the world. Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) applied a similar stage theory to the development of moral reasoning, explaining how children advance from simplistic rule-following to more nuanced ethical reasoning on prin- ciples. William Perry (1999) observed con- tinued intellectual and ethical development through the college years. He described young adult development in terms of how young adults view the nature of knowledge and relate to authority. Erik Erikson (1980)

offered a view of the psychosocial development of one’s identity throughout the entire lifes- pan. These examples of different developmental perspectives can help educators understand the needs and interests of their students and be more in tune with their various vantage points when designing instruction.

Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock Student-centered research has opened a space in educational psychology allowing for instruction to be designed with students’ individual differences kept in mind.

Section 7.2Theories and Key Concepts

Evaluating the Theories Table 7.1 shows how the various psychological perspectives emphasize different factors related to education.

Table 7.1: A summary of the psychological perspectives

Theory View of learning

Behaviorism A change in what someone does, which is motivated by internal drives, in anticipation of reinforcements in the environment

Cognitivism and constructivism A change in what someone understands, which is motivated by improv- ing the way individuals make sense of the world inside their own minds

Social constructivism A change in what someone understands, which is motivated by improv- ing the way individuals make sense of the world in interaction with other people

Humanism A change in someone’s attitude or disposition, which is motivated by making personal connections to highest values and fulfilling deepest needs

Developmentalism A change in someone’s basic psychological makeup, motivated by more adaptive and meaningful ways of making sense of the world and inter- acting with other people

So, which theory is correct? The truth is most likely found in parts of all these perspectives. For example, a synthesized view of learning accepts that it is constructive, self-regulated, situ- ated/contextual, and collaborative (De Corte, 2011). Likewise, the best teaching would take all of these factors into consideration: the importance of how the learning environment is arranged and the impact of feedback, consequences, and incentives; the need for students to be actively engaged in clarifying and refining their own thinking; the power of opportunities to learn with and from other learners; and the relevance of each student’s personal needs, abilities, interests, and values. Good theories help teachers design learning experiences and can also help them troubleshoot when something does not go right. Without theory, practice can be misguided, but without the practical application, theory becomes irrelevant.

The value of a good theory is that it makes sense of whatever data are available at the time, while also providing a reasonable context for collecting more data. You can compare it with the connect-the-dot activities you may have done as a child. The page initially appears to be full of random dots. But as you draw lines to connect them according to the numbers, an image begins to emerge. Now imagine a sheet with even more dots that continue to appear as you draw. Over time, new images emerge that make increasingly better sense of all the new dots. In this way, some old images become obsolete, but often they still contribute to the picture that continues to develop. Around the edges of the dots, the emerging image can also help identify where there needs to be more data collected. This is the role of research, which we will discuss in the next section: to test existing theories as well as to make new discoveries that might update a theory or even shift a paradigm.

Section 7.3Research and Applications

7.3 Research and Applications Educational psychology draws from the theories of cognitive, behavioral, and social sciences. It also shares their methodological commitment to pursuing answers to driving questions through empirical research—analysis of data gathered through observation and experience rather than personal beliefs.

Research Methods Educational psychologists conduct historical research when they want to account for what is already known about a particular question. They might search the existing scholarly lit- erature on a topic or analyze historical records to determine past trends. For example, in the case of Johnny and his struggle to solve that algebra problem, it would be important to under- stand what is already known about the typical struggles children have when trying to learn new algebra methods. More often, however, the questions asked by educational psychologists require collecting original data. When they want to describe educational situations in their current form, they rely on analysis of data collected through surveys, interviews, and observa- tions or descriptive research. If we want to really understand Johnny’s situation, we would want to know how he performed on previous assignments and in earlier grades, especially compared to other students at his level. We would also want to get a complete view of Johnny, accounting for his experiences not only from his own perspective, but also from those of his teachers, parents, and possibly other community members. We might learn that half the stu- dents at that school are at the same level as Johnny.

When researchers are interested in determining whether there is a relation between two or more variables, they conduct correlational research. This approach has the advantage of

analyzing variables as they exist in the envi- ronment and can suggest a relationship in which one variable predicts another, but it does not show which one necessarily causes the other. In Johnny’s case, we might be interested to know whether students who struggle with algebra at his level also tend to get in trouble more in class or report more hardships at home. We might even find out that students who struggle on this topic, but eventually pass the grade, do no worse than their peers who did not show any signs of struggling.

When researchers are interested in under- standing what causes something and explaining how one variable affects another, they use experimental research. When possible, researchers can design field exper- iments and randomly assign participants to different groups in order to compare the effects of various treatments or interven- tions. It might be possible to test the effects

Ozalp/iStock/Thinkstock Experimental research allows researchers to gauge student learning outcomes by running through a potentially infinite number of scenarios.

Section 7.3Research and Applications

of a particular algebra teaching technique or classroom behavior intervention on classes like Johnny’s. We could try different treatments in the same class at the same time, in the same class at different times, or in different classes. Any of these designs could test the relative impact of particular methods to see if the kind of algebra struggles Johnny has can be allevi- ated. Sometimes circumstances prohibit researchers from this approach, however, and they design single case experiments or set up experiments in the lab, where more variables can be controlled. We could recruit lots of students like Johnny (similar on any characteristic we might think is relevant, such as age, family background, or math achievement) to participate in a lab experiment where we test our intervention. This would not necessarily address the complexities that occur back in his classroom, but isolating variables one at a time could help identify different issues. For example, maybe Johnny can solve the problem if he is granted more time or different kinds of feedback. The possibilities are seemingly endless, which makes researching these issues like a treasure hunt for insight into what works under what conditions.

The challenge educational psychologists face is balancing control with a natural setting. At one extreme are lab experiments, which are very precise but can suffer because they occur in an artificial environment. At the other extreme are studies that are conducted in real edu- cational settings, but which may sacrifice some validity because it is difficult to control all variables in a real-life setting. Design-based research is an example of this latter approach, in which researchers work closely with practitioners to design and test solutions to immedi- ate problems. In a related approach called action research, the practitioner is often playing the role of researcher as well. These approaches sacrifice some elements of experimental control but gain immediate practical importance for those making educational decisions. In this model, interventions are intended to solve an immediate problem and persist in continu- ous problem solving through shared reflections among the community of practice. Table 7.2 summarizes the purposes and limitations of the different types of research.

Table 7.2: A summary of research types

Type of research Purpose Disadvantage or limitation

Historical Account for what is already known It looks backward only; it says noth- ing about what could be different.

Descriptive Arrive at detailed understanding of the way things are currently experienced

It only describes and does not prescribe anything different; self- reported data can be unreliable.

Correlational Understand how two or more variables are related to each other, including their tendencies and trends

Correlation does not imply causa- tion; sometimes variables are related due to some other unaccounted-for variable.

Experimental Measure the effect of one variable on another (or interactions among multiple variables)

Tighter control of experimental con- ditions sometimes compromises the authenticity of the natural setting.

Design-based or action Immediately implement and refine the practical application of ideas

The teacher is often participating as experimenter, which risks biasing the intervention.

Section 7.3Research and Applications

Measurement and Assessment The lens of educational psychology can also be focused on making decisions based on the evaluation of whole programs and the assessment of goals, resources, needs, and the qual- ity of the educational experience and their success in achieving the desired outcomes. Edu- cational psychology data are valuable not only for developing knowledge of learning and teaching in general (research) and informing decisions about educational programs (evalu- ation), but also for identifying specific characteristics about individuals. For instance, how can educators know when students have learned something? Sound instructional design calls for valid and reliable measures of learning (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). These can be used for both formative (intended to provide actionable feedback to teachers and students during practice opportunities) and summative purposes (to evaluate performance).

Data from well-designed instruments are also used to diagnose issues. Educational psychology has a long history of measuring individual qualities. In 1904, Alfred Binet was commissioned by the Paris school system to develop a way to distinguish students who needed special edu- cation. He administered a scale that measures several aspects of cognitive functioning, which was later revised by researchers at Stanford University. Their 1916 version became known as the Stanford-Binet and reported the result of a child’s performance as a global score called the intelligence quotient (IQ) (Biehler & Snowman, 1997). Theories of intelligence have pro- gressed since that time, but the practice of developing standardized diagnostic instruments for educational purposes (e.g., for identifying learning disabilities) has been a mainstay of educational psychology ever since.

Research Applications Research can provide insights for the role of the learning environment, the learner, and the teacher. In a classic study, Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) demonstrated the influence of teachers’ expectations on the students’ experience of the learning environment. Students in a California elementary school were given a disguised IQ test called the “Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition” at the end of the school year. The researchers shared the results of the diagnostic with teachers at the beginning of the next school year, explaining that a small percentage of students were identified as “intellectual bloomers” and were predicted to make dramatic academic gains that year. The researchers had actually randomly selected certain students to be the “spurters,” and they disclosed those names to their teachers. Despite the completely made-up results and the random grouping, the students who had been singled out by the study actually did show statistically significant academic gains by the end of the year above and beyond the gains made by their peers, even receiving more favorable descriptions by their teachers. The researchers concluded that the teachers’ expectations of those students must have affected how they interacted with them during class and created the conditions for a self-fulfilling prophecy. This effect is not universal or constant, but it does indicate the potential impact of teachers’ behaviors, conscious or otherwise (Ormrod, 2006).

Section 7.3Research and Applications

Teaching Applications We have all had teachers who have had a big impact on us. Research can show how significant that impact can be and highlight opportunities for teachers to improve the way they interact with students. Consider a study conducted at a middle school in the northeastern part of the United States (Yea- ger et al., 2014). Seventh graders from three classes were assigned to write an essay on their personal hero. Teachers gave critical feedback on the students’ writing like any other assignment (commenting on gram- mar, syntax, structure, etc.), but then the researchers added one of two randomly assigned sticky notes from the teacher to the paper before handing it back. For half of the stu- dents, the note from the teacher said, “I’m giving you these comments so you’ll have feedback on your paper.” For the other half, the note read, “I’m giving you these comments because I have very high expectations and I know you can reach them.” This subtle but powerful differ- ence in messaging was intended to convey a sincere commitment to the students’ success that would turn out to be especially meaningful to the racial minority students who had expressed a lack of trust for their white teachers. More of the minority students who received the more supportive feedback (which emphasized high standards while also offering assurance) took advantage of an opportunity to resubmit the essay than those who had received only the neutral feedback. Also, in a follow-up study where students were required to resubmit their essays, minority students who had received the challenging yet supportive feedback out- scored other minority students who had received only the neutral note (Yeager et al., 2014). These findings are all the more spectacular when you consider the rigor of the design and the simplicity of the treatment. This was a double-blind (i.e., the students were not aware of the intervention, and the teachers were not aware of which students received which note or even what the point of the study was), randomized (students had an equal chance to end up in either the treatment or the control group) field experiment (occurring in a real-life situation instead of in a lab).

The researchers referred to their intervention as “wise critical feedback” (Yeager et al., 2014). Instead of merely criticizing what did not measure up or offering hollow compliments, the message that was perceived to come from the teacher was one of high expectations and high assurance. This points to the idea that effective learning environments are high in both chal- lenge and support. Effective teachers set high standards for their students and sincerely invest in getting their students to achieve them. Learners are motivated to put forth effort and will persevere through difficulties when they believe that they have what it takes to succeed and that it is realistic to expect success. The Voices From the Field feature box explains how David Yeager became interested in doing this kind of research.

Michaeljung/iStock/Thinkstock The student-teacher relationship has a correlative relationship to student outcomes.

Section 7.3Research and Applications

Voices From the Field: David Yeager, PhD, Educational Psychology Researcher

The only thing I was good at coming out of college was motivating teenagers, and that’s because my only job until that point was as a summer camp counselor. When I finished college, I wasn’t motivated to go to law school, or anything else, so I became a teacher. I learned that I was only mediocre at clearly explaining content, but I was really good at getting teenagers fired up to learn my mediocrely explained content. I loved being in the classroom, but when I had the opportunity to make a transition after teaching for 2 years, I thought back on what I was most dissatisfied with about my experience. As a teacher, I would attend professional development events where people would say “research shows” that particular teaching and learning advice was valid. But often it was clear that the advice was terrible and the research definitely didn’t show what they said that it showed. I realized that I wanted to conduct the kinds of experiments that offered practical advice, like telling a seventh grade teacher exactly what to say to motivate kids to work harder. I became obsessed with field experiments and practical knowledge that would be good advice and ultimately valuable in professional devel- opment for teachers. As a graduate student, I focused on questions that I would find useful in the classroom. I did studies that took a long time to complete, and presented them in ways that were meaningful and relevant to people. The result is that I do fewer studies because it is complicated to do field research, but I developed a moral purpose for doing science that would generalize to instruction in lots of settings. I came to see publication as not about reputation, but as a scientific obligation to share what we’ve learned from our experiments with the field so that it can be translated into application.

Learning Applications Educational psychology research can also provide important insights into how students can learn. For example, how should students study material that they are trying to master? One of the most common ways students will study is to reread the assigned material as they are pre- paring for an exam. This is better than nothing, but research has shown that there are more powerful techniques available to learners. One such study method is known as “retrieval practice” because it is based on the idea that our memories of certain facts and concepts are stronger when we force our minds to struggle to recall them or practice retrieving them from memory in a form of self-testing (Roediger & Butler, 2011).

Roediger and Karpicke (2006) investigated the effects of self-testing by randomly dividing college students into three groups. Each group began by studying a brief reading passage for 5 minutes. The first group (Group “SSSS”) then studied the passage three more times. The second group (Group “SSST”) studied the passage two more times and then took a free recall test, in which participants attempted to recall everything they could from the passage. The third group (Group “STTT”) never saw the passage again, but took the free recall test three times. All students were then given two tests to see how well they retained the information from the passage, one 5 minutes after the last “study” session and another a week later. On the first test soon after the initial study cycle, Group SSSS performed the best, followed by Group SSST, and Group STTT performed the worst. On the surface, this seems to be an argument in favor of cramming. Those students who spent most of their time just reviewing the material were able to recall more when the test was given right away. However, on the follow-up test a

Section 7.4Careers in Educational Psychology

week later, the results were the exact oppo- site. The STTT outperformed the other groups, and the SSSS group performed the worst. These results are remarkable when you consider that the self-testing group was exposed to the material far less than the other groups were, yet was able to remem- ber more of it at a later time. Other studies have demonstrated this powerful testing effect with short-answer and even multiple- choice tests as study aids (Smith & Karpicke, 2014) and have also shown how testing is advantageous not just for recalling informa- tion, but also for transferring that knowl- edge to the understanding of new informa- tion (Butler, 2010). Evidence from empirical studies, whether in the controlled lab or from authentic learning situations in the field, can enable students to have a more robust toolkit for learning and teachers to have a more rigor- ous toolkit for teaching.

Considering the theoretical background, the methodological toolbox, and the landscape of potential applications, it is clear that educational psychology does not fit neatly into any sin- gle box. Projects about teaching and learning are inherently multidimensional and cross-dis- ciplinary, which requires collaboration with varied sources of expertise and makes for chal- lenging and rewarding opportunities to solve real-life problems (Good & Levin, 2001). This is good news for those considering a career in educational psychology or a related field.

7.4 Careers in Educational Psychology Education permeates society. Understanding how different people learn and develop in dif- ferent situations and the ability to communicate ideas, inspire interest, motivate contribu- tions, and encourage persistence can help in any field. This is why it might be easier to discuss careers with educational psychology rather than in educational psychology; there is not one set of job descriptions that define this field.

Early Childhood Through Secondary Education Although the meaning of the word pedagogy has evolved over the years, it originally referred to the teaching or caretaking of a child. It is for good reason, then, that opportunities abound for applying educational psychology to the education of young people. This can take many forms, focusing on students, teachers, the curriculum, and the educational system itself.

Teachers and Specialists Understanding the psychological issues relevant to education is a critical asset to classroom teachers, teacher’s aides, and supplemental instructors, which is why most teacher education degrees will include courses related to these topics among their requirements.

Andy Ryan/Stone/Getty Images Given the flexible, multidimensional nature of the discipline, educational psychology has many potential real-world applications.

Section 7.4Careers in Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is also an integral part of the training for school counselors, who support the success of the entire student population. Counselors who work in educational settings typically focus on providing a core curriculum of behavioral and social skills training to campuses, such as preventing drug and alcohol use and resisting peer pressure, as well as helping students prepare for the future by setting goals and planning for college and career. Requirements to become a school counselor vary by state, but most require some prior teach- ing experience, a graduate degree in school counseling, and an internship in the field.

Educational psychology is especially useful for tailoring educational support for students with special needs and exceptional talent. These special needs can be related to cognitive or academic issues such as learning disabilities, attention disorders, and speech and communi- cation disorders, as well as advanced or delayed cognitive development. Some learners face special social, emotional, or behavioral problems such as autism spectrum disorder, or phys- ical or sensory challenges such as mobility impairments, visual impairments, and hearing loss. Many of these issues are addressed within education systems by specialists, including diagnosticians (also called assessors or evaluation specialists), special education teachers, and intervention specialists. In many school districts, a multidisciplinary special education review process is used to assess students’ health, language skills, socioeconomic status, emo- tional/behavioral status, cognitive ability, academic performance, and assistive technology needs. The review committee creates an individualized education plan (IEP) for each eligible student and makes recommendations for accommodations or modifications to ensure that students with special needs have access to the best educational opportunities possible.

The person who is qualified to administer tests is the licensed specialist in school psychology (LSSP), or school psychologist. School psychologists typically have graduate degrees in edu- cational psychology concentrating on applying theories to assessment, diagnosis, interven- tion, prevention, program development, and evaluation services as they intersect both school and family contexts. Some programs offer a specialist degree (around 60 hours of graduate courses) or a doctorate degree (around 90 hours of graduate courses) and usually require a year (approximately 1,200 hours) of supervised internship. A typical day in the life of a school psychologist includes informally observing students in class; formally assessing students by administering tests; analyzing and reporting data; and meeting with teachers, parents, other specialists, and administrators about their caseload of students.

Regardless of specialization, a foundation in educational psychology can help when brain- storming creative ways to explain a new concept, troubleshooting when something does not make sense, intervening when something goes wrong, or motivating when a goal is just beyond reach.

Support Staff and Administrative Leadership A fundamental understanding of educational psychology is also helpful to those who work with teachers and the educational systems in which they teach. This includes instructional coaches, curriculum coordinators, administrators such as principals and superintendents, and program evaluators. Typical activities for these staff positions include setting goals for schools and districts; providing professional development opportunities for staff and making sure they are well equipped, empowered, and energized to do their jobs; observing classes and discussing classroom issues with teachers; meeting with students and their parents; collaborating with each other to create a culture of continuous improvement; and staying

Section 7.4Careers in Educational Psychology

current on the latest legislative requirements and professional trends. Like that of teachers themselves, these roles are characterized by decision making that should be informed by an understanding of child and adolescent development; learning, cognition, motivation, and emotion; and cultural and sociopolitical awareness. Consider the following questions that illustrate how education is a complex system with many challenging issues:

• When should students be guided through a predetermined curriculum or left to dis- cover knowledge freely? How do teachers help students manage their own learning?

• How can schools be held accountable if not with standardized test scores? How do school districts prevent teachers from simply training their students to pass the standardized test? How well do grades measure performance? What is the best way to motivate students? Does class size matter? What can be done about school vio- lence? Bullying?

• Should values be taught in public schools? If so, whose? What should a sex education program involve? Is moral education appropriate in a public school? Should schools emphasize the teaching of content, such as classical knowledge areas, or skills such as critical thinking? Should every student receive the same core elements of a gen- eral curriculum?

• What impact do gifted and talented programs, special education, and inclusive classrooms have on schooling? Are single-sex schools better than co-ed? Should nonnative English-speaking students have bilingual education or be immersed in English-speaking classes? Are labels helpful? Do special accommodations for learn- ing disabilities help or hinder progress in development?

• How can technology be used to support learning? How should insights from emerg- ing fields such as neuroscience influence education?

None of these questions has a quick or easy answer, but almost any issue related to education these days can be informed by educational psychology. Public schools especially must find a way to negotiate the various goals of parents and families with the local, state, and federal government, as well as with special interest groups, publishers, vendors, researchers, and so on. Often, these stakeholders represent conflicting philosophical perspectives, theoretical commitments, political alliances, and religious traditions that are competing for the same space with limited resources. Whether in regard to policy issues such as what rules will gov- ern teacher behavior, or curriculum issues such as what students are held accountable for learning, the practical implications of such complex decisions require the wisdom of practice and the expertise of scholarship.

Postsecondary and Adult Education Educational psychology is also relevant at the postsecondary, or college, level and adult learn- ing beyond college. This applies to those who work at institutions of higher education as pro- fessional scholars in this field as well as to those who apply this research to their respective roles and responsibilities.

Research and Teaching At the heart of professional educational psychology work is research. Some who progress in this field of study and attain higher degrees continue advancing scientific knowledge by making new discoveries about how people learn and formulate theories of human behavior.

Section 7.4Careers in Educational Psychology

This is the path to the professorate—the life of full-time research, teaching, and serving the academic community and the broader professional field. Depending on the university and the type of role assumed, the balance of teaching and research will vary. The common purpose is to reinvest in the knowledge of the field. Professors do this by deepening the knowledge base through research, broadening the dissemination of that knowledge through publishing, and translating that knowledge for the wider community. A typical week in the life of a professor of educational psychology at a university with a research focus might include teaching sev- eral college classes, meeting with students during office hours, supervising graduate students who are collaborating on original research, meeting with other faculty in the department and across campus to discuss common challenges in their classrooms or labs, submitting a research grant proposal, writing for scholarly publication, preparing for presentations at pro- fessional conferences, and serving on various committees to improve their academic institu- tion or professional field. The life of full-time faculty can be demanding, but many experience a high degree of autonomy and satisfaction in their work.

Depending on specialization or background, professors with a degree in educational psychol- ogy can fit within a variety of academic units besides educational psychology itself, either within colleges of education (e.g., curriculum and instruction, special education, counseling psychology, or school psychology) or in psychology departments. There is also overlap with statistics and research methods. As stated earlier, educational psychology depends on credible methods for assessing learning, measuring learner characteristics, evaluating programs, and researching educational psychological interventions and insights. This is why some depart- ments of educational psychology include a dedicated program for these statistical methods and measurements.

Faculty Development and Instructional Support There are other applications of educational psychology within postsecondary educational institutions such as universities, community colleges, military academies, and technical insti- tutes. Many universities have recognized the value of establishing centers that support the research and teaching mission of faculty. Faculty developers are often professors themselves with their own research and teaching loads. They also consult with their colleagues to apply insights from educational psychology to their teaching. They typically observe classes, pro- vide feedback on instructional plans and practices, conduct workshops and pedagogical train- ing, facilitate faculty learning communities and new faculty orientation, assemble resources that translate research findings into best practices, and engage in the scholarship of teaching and learning as professors study their own pedagogical strategies. This role is remarkably versatile: part professor, part counselor, part innovator, and part administrator.

Depending on areas of expertise, this consultation can emphasize different aspects of educa- tion: pedagogy (the application of learning theory to teaching), assessment (the application of measurement and evaluation to teaching), or technology (the application of digital media and web-based tools to teaching). With educational psychology as a supplemental area of study coupled with other areas of expertise, opportunities can open up to work in higher education settings as an instructional designer, assessment specialist, or instructional tech- nologist. The same is true for programs that focus on continuing education and professional development, especially as an aging population seeks ways to stay intellectually engaged and take advantage of increasingly available learning opportunities, including open educational resources and open online classes. Voices From the Field shows how Stephen Walls creatively merged his career in business with his scholarship in educational psychology.

Section 7.4Careers in Educational Psychology

Voices From the Field: Stephen M. Walls, PhD, Senior Lecturer in Marketing at the University of Texas at Austin

After a brief, disastrous stint in an engineering major, I chose to major in marketing during col- lege. Learning about how people make buying decisions and what motivates them to engage with a product or brand has seemed endlessly fascinating, especially when I continued to be swayed by marketing messages even with my deeper understanding of the field.

After college, I took a job as a retail merchandise buyer and then returned for my MBA to fur- ther my business career. One very special professor conveyed such a passion for his subject and student learning that I would find myself marveling at his teaching ability every class ses- sion. That experience planted the seed for teaching at the university level. The only problem was that I didn’t think I was smart enough to get through a PhD program, let alone conduct worthy research and teach college students.

After a few more years working for various companies, I realized I could not shake an urge to try my hand at teaching and that I had a growing desire to go after a PhD. I happened to meet the chair of what would become my department the day after a lecturer had decided suddenly to stop teaching. As it happened, I had the exact marketing background they were looking for to step into a course for which students had already registered for the upcoming semester. I took that teaching role as a part-time lecturer, and I assumed that I would apply to a doctoral program in marketing. An advisor suggested that I think deeply about the types of research problems in which I was interested. Understanding that the bigger problems I wanted to work on were aligned with my desire to be a better instructor led me to consider a doctoral program in education. I ultimately chose educational psychology because it seemed to be at the root of understanding the many branches in the education field.

It did not take long to realize that the educational psychology themes of motivation, engage- ment, self-determination, and more were extremely similar to themes I had studied and prac- ticed in my marketing career. If educational psychology is focused on understanding why stu- dents do what they do in an educational context, then marketing is focused on understanding why customers do what they do in a consumption context. I am aware of how heretical this comparison would be to many in both fields, but I have only found more evidence along the way that these disciplines, along with others in which understanding human behavior is at the core, are linked. This broader understanding has deepened my interest in both education and marketing, which motivated me to search for opportunities to bring the two together more substantially in order to create a bigger impact for more students.

I eventually became aware of an opportunity to lead my university’s continuing education programs. These programs include an online high school, college credit, professional educa- tion, and lifelong learning enrichment offerings. As we attempt to grow these programs so that the university can extend its impact beyond our traditional degree-seeking students, the role requires me to bring all of my marketing and educational psychology understanding and prac- tice together. It is in this nexus that I find absolute fulfillment—that I have the good fortune to use my skills to get more people involved in quality education programs and to lead a team dedicated to changing people’s lives through educational opportunity. It is such a gift.

Section 7.4Careers in Educational Psychology

Student Development and Learning Support Just as educational psychology can be applied in the service of college professors’ teaching, it can also be applied in the service of college students’ learning. Some college students face unique challenges as they transition from adolescence to adulthood, navigating milestones in physical, intellectual, and identity development, and the insights provided by educational psychology can be very valuable. For example, researchers Marcia Baxter Magolda and Patri- cia King (2004) have identified three essential aspects of human development in the young adult years: cognitive maturity, integrated identity, and mature relationships. They present these ideas as a three-part framework called “self-authorship,” which has been used to orga- nize institutional outcomes as well as programmatic foci within student development offices. This is a great example of how theories of how people develop and how people learn combine to provide insights into students’ educational experiences.

Many universities have centers that support student success throughout their degree pro- gram. Some services focus on directly supporting learning by offering study skills and self- regulation workshops for student groups as well as individualized, class-specific tutoring support. These are often led by learning specialists with a background in educational psy- chology. Other services focus on the developmental and broader psychological well-being of students. Educational psychology is a strategic degree to have for those interested in working in student life offices, which usually manage residence life programs, student success initia- tives, and student organizations. Those pursuing a degree in school psychology can also spe- cialize in higher education and serve college students through university mental health and counseling centers. These professionals meet with students individually and in group set- tings and visit student organizations, faculty committees, other staff events, and classrooms promoting wellness among the entire campus community.

Corporate Training and Educational Businesses Most businesses and organizations have an educational component, even if it is only informal. In other words, you might not find a job posting for a company looking to hire an “educational psychologist” per se, but if you read between the lines, you might see a connection. Whether in the direct role of trainer or consultant, or the more indirect application in one’s role as supervisor, man- ager, or executive leader, the principles of educational psychology can have a big impact on a company’s success.

Another application of educational psychol- ogy outside of the formal education systems is in educational businesses or organiza- tions with some educational aspect to their mission. The corporate landscape is full of companies that exist to create, publish, and distribute educational products such

Basar17/iStock/Thinkstock Given that educational psychology does not indicate any particular career path, there are a myriad of ways to apply the discipline, for instance, in the service of businesses that sell/ create educational products or administer academic testing.

Section 7.5Educational Psychology in the 21st Century

as textbooks, online courses, and instructional software and services such as testing centers and standardized test preparation. These types of companies employ instructional design- ers, course builders, training coordinators, program evaluators, and psychometricians (i.e., those skilled in test construction and validation, survey or assessment design, and quantita- tive analysis)—all roles typically enabled by a degree in educational psychology. Even not-for- profit groups such as zoos, museums, science and discovery centers, libraries, and religious institutions develop and disseminate educational literature or programming. A demonstrated awareness of what makes people tick and a working knowledge of how people learn can go a long way in making a case for how you can benefit a prospective employer’s team. No mat- ter what sector of society or type of industry you are interested in working in, knowledge of educational psychology could prove to be a desirable qualification.

Education and Certifications The most direct path to studying educational psychology is beginning with a bachelor’s degree with a major in some variation of psychology or education and following with a graduate degree in educational psychology. A master’s degree could support another field of study or area of expertise and create career opportunities for those working in school systems. How- ever, most of the work that is considered core to the profession of educational psychology requires a doctorate degree. This terminal degree, which could take between 3 and 7 years to complete, is required to teach at most institutions and is necessary to build the skills and credentials for conducting original research. Depending on the institution and the structure of its academic units, sometimes educational psychology is housed in colleges of education, and other times within departments of psychology. Specialists within educational psychology, such as school psychologists and counselors, require additional certifications and licenses, usually regulated by the state where one is practicing. These take additional time, sometimes up to 2 to 3 years, and usually involve internships and supervised hours of a practicum.

Career Development Educational psychologists who have already attained the appropriate terminal degree con- tinue learning throughout their careers. For most, this will mean staying well read in the scholarly literature for their area of interest. Those directly involved in original research must maintain proficiency using the most up-to-date statistical analysis software and methodolo- gies. Specialists will most likely need to continually renew their licenses. Those working in schools will have additional training and professional development required of them to serve students or teachers in ways that are consistent with the district’s or institution’s vision and values. The good news is that most people who pursue a career related to educational psy- chology love learning and intrinsically enjoy the challenge of investigating questions and dis- covering new insights into how to help people.

7.5 Educational Psychology in the 21st Century Educational psychology continues to carve new routes through human existence, explor- ing new applications and discovering new insights. Its course is affected by various political agendas, philanthropic initiatives, the globalization of world markets, the increasing interdis- ciplinary nature of complex issues, and rapid advancements in technology and infrastructure.

Section 7.5Educational Psychology in the 21st Century

Politics and Economics Education in the United States takes on a variety of models, including public, private, and homeschooling, but as long as there is compulsory education, there will be questions of quality, equality, and accountability. In the United States, federal legislation has, among other things,

• supported equity of access to educational resources (e.g., GI Bill for veterans, 1944; Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990; Civil Rights Act, 1964),

• expanded the development of certain resources themselves (e.g., National Defense Education Act, 1958; Excellence in Mathematics, Science and Engineering Act, 1990),

• and shifted educational priorities in the pursuit of accountability (No Child Left Behind Act, 2001; Every Student Succeeds Act, 2015).

These laws keep the boundaries around education as a public service, while state and local governments implement the priorities of their communities. As a nation, the United States has made great strides beyond some of its earlier errors in the educational system, such as segregation, but many issues of equality and access are still debated today.

Standardized Testing The educational landscape will continue to shape and be shaped by the sociocultural forces of the day. One of the most hotly debated topics at both the state and the federal level is standardized testing and the appropriateness of a common core cur- riculum. These accountability measures have huge implications for students and teachers alike—affecting what gets taught, emphasized, prioritized, and neglected. For example, the need for a consistent form of measuring students and holding educa- tors accountable for the use of government funds is understandable. Where resistance mounts is when a particular set of standards is elevated above others that might account for other expressions of achievement; when all children are assumed to be able to meet the standards in the same way, at the same

time on the school calendar; and when the educational system is scrutinized while major contributing factors to variability, such as home environment and socioeconomic status, are ignored. The effect this often has on the classroom is that more of the teachers’ time, increas- ingly starting even at the youngest grade levels, is spent teaching to the high-stakes standard- ized exams and preparing to pass them.

Funding It is one thing for policies and popular demand to point in a particular direction. It is quite another to get there. One of the ongoing challenges for education systems, regardless of which direction they are heading, is funding. Economic pressures to find more efficient ways to excel

Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock One of the most prominent modern debates regarding education surrounds standardized testing and a common core curriculum. There is an increasing pushback from educators against “teaching to the test,” or developing curricula specifically to achieve standardized outcomes.

Section 7.5Educational Psychology in the 21st Century

are constant. Beyond the financial resources available through federal, state, and local govern- ments’ annual budgets or special grants, educational research, instructional innovation, and teacher development can also find significant support from private donors and foundations (e.g., the James S. McDonnell Foundation and the Spencer Foundation). For example, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (http://www.gatesfoundation.org) has invested massive funds toward educational causes at both the K–12 and postsecondary levels. The foundation’s goals include improving college readiness, access, and quality, focusing on, among other things, mak- ing higher education in the United States more personalized, affordable, flexible, and clear.

Sources of funding are significant for the field of education because unlike some industries, such as science, technology, and engineering, that tend to make more money and attract more investments, educators do not usually have extra money in their budgets to invest in new ideas. This creates a situation where they rely on external funding, which not only pays the bills, but also influences what ideas are promoted. One more recent trend that is flattening the economics of the education business is crowd funding (e.g., teacherspayteachers.com and donorschoose.org). This movement seeks to achieve a free market of ideas where educational innovations of the people, for the people, compete to be supported by the people. One chal- lenge introduced by a broader pool of ideas is how to control for the quality of educational interventions or filter for the potential merit of innovative ideas. Educational psychology can help inform these decisions, for example, by applying lessons learned from previous research projects. Issues of focus and funding will continue shaping the contexts in which educational psychology will be applied and could affect what opportunities are available for someone with educational psychology credentials. This represents a larger trend of transcending tra- ditional boundaries of education.

Technology and Pedagogy The digital revolution, and especially the explosion of the Internet, has transformed the nature of education. Like radio and television broadcasting, and the printing press before that, or writing itself, for that matter, the Internet has fundamentally changed humans’ relationship with information and with each other.

Technology Advances in technology and expansions of the transportation, communication, economic, political, and knowledge networks have forever changed the way we experience the world. Digital media allow teaching to transcend limitations of time and space, granting global access to world-class experts. Open access digital resources abound, making educational experiences available for free to the public. These opportunities continue to expand as mobile technolo- gies allow learning experiences to be engaged in virtually anywhere, anytime. Visual design and content authoring tools are becoming more sophisticated, less expensive, and more user- friendly. How can we help teachers and learners alike navigate this overly saturated market- place of ideas to find quality resources for the right purposes? How can we overcome barriers to access for those on the still-developing side of the digital divide?

With the proliferation of digital and online media, there has also been an explosion of user data. Much like online retailers use their knowledge of their customers’ habits and prefer- ences in order to customize users’ online shopping experiences, education providers have been exploring similar ways to use data from online learners to provide personalized and

Section 7.5Educational Psychology in the 21st Century

adaptive learning experiences. This area of work, known as learning analytics, provides an unprecedented view into students’ behaviors as they interact with material. In some ways, this big data is a solution without a problem yet, but new fields are emerging in big data min- ing and learning analytics to address the chasm between what technology can achieve and what we need to know. Through original research and creative applications of evidence-based best practices, educational psychologists can help spearhead educational innovation while also channeling new discoveries to the most important and impactful areas.

Pedagogy Advances in human-computer interaction are shedding new light on how users are motivated to engage digital content, virtual environments, or online spaces. Educational psychologists, instructional designers, and learning technologists took note of the success of the gaming industry and have become interested in the gamification of education. More than just the creation of educational games (i.e., the use of games to teach concepts), this movement is interested in applying principles of game design to instructional design. For example, online education is experimenting with new ways of keeping distance learners engaged in their online coursework and motivated to persist despite not having direct access to the instruc- tor or other students. Video games have no trouble keeping their players’ complete attention and in sync with their geographically distributed teams while they accomplish some mission. Educational technologists are studying these designs to incorporate appropriate principles when architecting and engineering new educational experiences. This is another way that affordances of new industries have had carryover effects into the educational mainstream.

Technological advancements have opened up new possibilities for what educational psy- chologists study and how they study it. The globalization of the world’s knowledge has also called for new frontiers of intellectual exploration. Just as educational psychology formed out of psychology and philosophy, it too is now evolving into new fields. Some of these include human factors and human-computer interaction. One particularly noteworthy field is learn- ing sciences. The learning sciences draw heavily from educational psychology, but also from neuroscience, artificial intelligence, cognitive science, machine learning, and so on. This is an exciting new trajectory, to see educational psychology at the cutting edge of some of the most innovative and transformative technological and pedagogical developments for the future. For example, conventional ways of organizing educational pathways and degree plans are becoming disrupted by new models. Instructional technologies, increased access to the Inter- net, and powerful computer programs are supporting learning experiences that are tailored to individual learning needs (i.e., personalized and adaptive) and emphasize students’ learn- ing over students’ completion of courses (i.e., competency-based).

Technological advances in learning applications and instructional tools create a broad range of possibilities for how to facilitate connections between the teacher and the student, between the student and the subject, and among the students themselves. Educational psychologists can ensure that any and all tools that are employed are used for the sake of the best possible educational outcomes, not just for their own sake. With all the increasing opportunities for educational psychology to be applied to everyday modern life, the responsibility will be on a new generation of educational psychologists to use their many roles and their multifaceted expertise in the science and art of learning and teaching to pursue the good life for the benefit of the world. The world is full of students like Johnny, fellow learners who each find that point of struggle, and in that moment when the learner, the instructional community, and the sub- ject at hand all converge, an opportunity for life-changing learning arises.

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Chapter Summary Educational psychology is the study of how people learn and how to help people learn. It builds on ancient themes of philosophy and modern questions of psychology to understand and influence all aspects of education, including the learner, the teacher, and the subject being learned. Learning is a process that involves the body, from how we experience the world through our senses to how our brain processes those signals; the mind, from how we make meaningful sense out of what we are perceiving to how we contemplate and imagine beyond what is within our immediate experience; and our whole self, from our sense of identity to what motivates us to continue learning.

The earliest studies in educational psychology focused on learning as an observable change in behavior, primarily based on signals and responses in the environment. The dominant view of learning shifted in the middle of the 20th century to become interested in the cognitive activ- ity of the learner, especially as it acknowledged the active role of the learner in the meaning- making and knowledge construction process. The field then broadened its understanding of learning to take into account the social context of learning and the influence of interaction on the learner. A more holistic treatment of learning emerged as humanistic and developmental theories helped illuminate how learning is a personal matter, including one’s identity, needs, values, and goals.

Educational psychologists rely on many methods to answer questions about teaching and learning. These methods include historical and descriptive approaches to accounting for the current and existing state of affairs, as well as correlational methods that allow research- ers to observe and even predict how different variables relate to each other. Educational psychology research also includes experimental designs, either in the field or in the lab, that allow researchers to explain how one thing influences or causes another. Educational psychologists also develop skills in assessment, testing, and evaluation of both individuals and programs.

A background in educational psychology has far-reaching applicability in education at all lev- els. Pursuing advanced degrees in educational psychology can prepare someone to serve in primary and secondary schools as the primary person who identifies children with special learning needs and recommends courses of action to improve their education. Foundations in this field will also support many other disciplines in academic fields of research, and in many non-education businesses as well. Examples include working closely with adult learners in higher education or professional settings, or working to design the instructional materials and learning experiences.

Educational psychology continues to evolve as new insights emerge about how people learn and as new needs and opportunities arise through the fast-paced change of technology and knowledge in general. Education continues to play a prominent role in the U.S. political scene, which calls for greater wisdom about what changes are advisable for teachers, administra- tors, and students. Greater pressure to have students performing at higher standards and economic pressures to improve teaching with fewer resources are leading to more creative sources of funding and more innovative uses of technology and instructional methods. New academic fields of study are emerging that take into account the many issues facing the next generation of learners and citizens.

Summary and Resources

Resources for Future Exploration AERA (American Educational Research Association) http://www.aera.net From the website: “The American Educational Research Association (AERA), a national research society, strives to advance knowledge about education, to encourage scholarly inquiry related to education, and to promote the use of research to improve education and serve the public good.”

APA (American Psychological Association), Division 15 http://apadiv15.org From the website: “Division 15: Educational Psychology provides a collegial environment for psychologists with interest in research, teaching or practice in educational settings at all levels to present and publish papers about their work. Division members’ work is concerned with theory, methodology and applications to a broad spectrum of teaching, training and learning issues.”

Journal of Educational Psychology http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/edu/index.aspx From the publisher: “The main purpose of the Journal of Educational Psychology® is to publish original, primary psychological research pertaining to education across all ages and educational levels. A secondary purpose of the Journal is the occasional publication of exceptionally important theoretical and review articles that are pertinent to educational psychology.”

Review of Educational Research https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/review-of-educational-research/journal201854 From the publisher’s website: “The Review of Educational Research (RER) publishes criti- cal, integrative reviews of research literature bearing on education, including conceptual- izations, interpretations, and syntheses of literature and scholarly work in a field broadly relevant to education and educational research.”

Key Terms action research A methodology for study- ing phenomena in their natural setting by involving the participant as researcher and working together as a community of prac- tice to progressively solve problems.

behaviorism A theory of learning that focuses on observable actions over men- tal processes and emphasizes the role of conditioning in shaping one’s actions and reactions.

cognition The act or process of knowing and the arena of thought.

cognitivism A theory of learning that

focuses on mental processes and empha- sizes the role of thought as a mediator of environmental conditioning.

constructivism A theory of learning that focuses on how individuals make personal sense of the world by actively assembling knowledge for themselves.

correlational research Investigation of a relationship among two or more variables.

curriculum The subjects and materials of an instructional sequence.

descriptive research Investigation of the

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characteristics of a phenomenon.

design-based research Investigation of a phenomenon within its natural context where theory and practice can be updated in close proximity to the question being asked.

education The process of giving or receiv- ing systematic instruction.

educational psychologist In the United States, this title refers to professional schol- ars, researchers, and professors in the field of educational psychology.

educational psychology The application of psychology to education; the study of how people learn and how to help people learn. More specifically, it is the organized attempt to identify the factors that affect learning and the conditions that make learning bet- ter or worse.

experimental research Investigation of the effect of a treatment by randomly assigning participants to different groups.

gamification The application of typical ele- ments of game playing (e.g., point scoring, competition with others, or rules of play) to other settings, such as education.

hierarchy of needs A model proposed by Abraham Maslow to describe the different levels of human drives, from basic survival, such as the need for food and water, to more relational and psychological, such as the need for love and fulfillment.

historical research Investigation of what is already known about a particular phe- nomenon or subject.

information processing model A cognitiv- ist view of learning that uses the modern computer as an analogy for how human brains move data along from the environ- ment into thoughts and memories and back

out again at some point in some fashion.

instruction The preparation and presenta- tion of content to be learned.

learning The acquisition of new knowl- edge, skills, behaviors, or values.

learning sciences An interdisciplinary field combining perspectives such as neuro- science, machine learning, educational psy- chology, and cognitive science to improve the scientific understanding of learning and promote educational innovation.

memory The mental activity whereby something is encoded, stored, and later retrieved.

metacognition Thinking about one’s own thinking; reflectiveness about one’s own state of knowledge.

pedagogy The method and practice of teaching.

scaffolding The process of teachers provid- ing support to learners during the learning and slowly fading that support away as the learners become more capable of progress- ing on their own.

school psychologist A professional who is uniquely qualified to diagnose special needs of students and recommend appropriate interventions.

sensation The ability to detect something by seeing, hearing, tasting, touching, or smelling.

social constructivism A theory of learning that focuses on how individuals make per- sonal sense of the world by actively assem- bling knowledge for themselves in interac- tion with others around them.

social learning theory A theory of

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learning that focuses on how individuals change their knowledge, skills, or disposi- tions by observing models of such in others.

zone of proximal development (ZPD) The gap between what an individual can learn on his or her own and what he or she is capable of learning with the help of a more knowledgeable other.