Sociology of Race and Ethic Relations

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Chapter 6

Native Americans:

The First Americans

Early European Contacts

Misunderstood and ill treated by their conquerors for several centuries
Diverse Ethnicity
Culture; Kinship system; Political – economic
In 1500, 700 distinct languages spoken in the area north of Mexico

Early European Contacts

Columbus’ diary
Estimated 10 million in 1500
About 600,000 in 1800
1n 1900, less than 250,000
This loss of human life can only be judged as catastrophic

Treaties and Warfare

US formulated a policy that followed precedents est. during colonial period
Not to antagonize Native Americans unnecessarily
Exploits of the Forty-Niners were glorified
Authorities offered bounties to settlers for the heads of American Indians

Treaties and Warfare

The Case of Sioux
Treatment was especially cruel; remains fresh in the minds of tribal members even today
Fort Laramie Treaty (1868)
Whites entered Sioux territory spurred by Col. George Custer’s exaggerated reports of gold
Battle of Little Big Horn (1876)
Last great Sioux victory

Treaties and Warfare

Millenarian Movement (Ghost Dance)
Originated among the Paiutes of Nevada
Functionalist perspective
Views millenarian movement as a means of coping with the domination of White intruders

Treaties and Warfare

Battle of Wounded Knee (1890)
Cavalry arrived & random shot led to death of 300 Sioux and 25 government soldiers
Despite effects of disease and warfare, 250,000 Indians still lived in 1890
According to the government, Indian problem still remained

Ruling The Native Americans

Internal Colonialism
The treatment of subordinate groups like colonial subjects by those in power
The Allotment Act (1887)
The Reorganization Act (1934)
Tribes could adopt a written constitution and elect a tribal council with a head

Reservation Life and Federal Policies

Over 1/3rd of Native American live on 557 reservations and trust lands in 33 states
A bit more than 2% of the land throughout the US
Many 20th century policies were designed to “get out of the Indian business”

Native American Legal Claims

Native Americans could not bring a claim against government; need Act of Congress
Prevented most charges of treaty violations
Only 142 claims were heard during this period
Indian Claims Commission (1946)
Established by Congress to hear claims against government

Native American Legal Claims

Commission extended until 1978
Cases are now heard by the U.S. Court of Claims
The federal government agreed to a settlement of $3.4 billion
Including individual payments of at least $1,500 to 300,000 individual American Indians

Native American Legal Claims

Congress agreed to pay $106 million for land seized in aftermath of Little Big Horn
The original settlement, the subsequent unaccepted payments, & accrued interest:
Brought the 2011 total of funds being held for the Sioux to more than $1 billion

The Termination Act of 1953

Policy proposed as attempt to give Native Americans greater autonomy
And at the same time reduce federal expenditures
Services tribes received should not be viewed as special
And deserving to be discontinued

The Termination Act of 1953

Unfortunately, it reduced costs and ignored individual needs
Services were to be withdrawn gradually but were stopped immediately
Effect on Native Americans disastrous
Unable to establish some of the basic services

The Termination Act of 1953

In 1975, the government resumed the services
Signaled the end of another misguided policy
Intended to be good for Native Americans

Employment Assistance Program

(1952) BIA began programs to relocate young Native Americans
(1962) Employment Assistance Program (EAP)
Provided educational and business assistance
Impact on the economic development of the reservation and the brain drain

Collective Action

Pan-Indianism
Intertribal social movements; several tribes joined by political goals
Vividly seen in cultural efforts and political protests
National Congress of American Indians (NCAI)
Founded in 1944 in Denver, Colorado

Collective Action

American Indian Movement (AIM)
Founded in 1968 by Clyde Bellecourt and Dennis Banks in Minneapolis, MN
More radical & created a patrol to monitor police actions & document police brutality
1969 Alcatraz takeover by Francisco Indian Center

Collective Action

Fish-ins
Red Power movement
Alaska Native Settlement Act (1971)
Claim of land rights by Inuit Eskimos and other Aleuts
Alaskan Federation of Natives (AFN)
Native Claims Settlement Act (1971)

Collective Action

Battle of Wounded Knee II
Most dramatic confrontation between Native Americans and government recently
Powwows (Pau Wau)
Medicine man/spiritual leader of Algonquian tribes
But Europeans used word to refer to entire events

Sovereignty

While collaborative action gathering cannot be minimized
There continues to be a strong effort to maintain tribal sovereignty or tribal self-rule
Sovereignty remains linked to both the actions of the federal government
And the actions of individual American Indians

Native Americans Today

The continuing use of American Indian names as mascots for athletic teams
Native American population is split between those on and off reservations
And those living in small towns & central cities
Economic Development
High rate of unemployment and poverty

Native Americans Today

Tourism and the double edged sword
Source of income but also a source of degradation
Indian Arts and Crafts Act
Cottage industries
Income from mineral rights

Casino Gambling

Recent source of significant income and some employment
Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (1988)
Gaming money
Supports tribal members, is used to buy back tribal lands, and help underwrite cost of the:
Smithsonian Museum of the American Indian

Casino Gambling

Three important factors:
Tribes do pay taxes
Nationwide, economic and social impact of gambling revenue is limited
Levels of unemployment are higher and family income lower than for the nation as a whole

Casino Gambling

Another major source of employment for Native Americans is the government
BIA, federal agencies, military, and state and local governments
Dominant feature of reservation life is unemployment
About 50% unemployed

Native American Education

Dropout rate about 15% compared to 6.4% of Whites
Many found their educational experience so hostile that they had no choice but to leave
Kickouts/Pushouts
More appropriate terms experience of Native Americans with school system

Native American Education

Problems in Native American Education include:
Under-enrollment at all levels, from primary grades through college
Need to adjust to a school with values dramatically different from those of the home

Native American Education

The need to make the curriculum more relevant
The under-financing of tribal community colleges
Language barrier faced by the many children who have little or no knowledge of English

Healthcare

For Native Americans, “healthcare” is a misnomer:
Another broken promise in the long line of unmet pledges the government has made
Contributing to the problems of healthcare and mortality on reservations are often:
High rates of crime

Religious and Spiritual Expression

American Indian Religious Freedom Act passed by Congress in 1978
Concern with stockpiling Native American relics, including burial remains
Native American Church - ritualistic use of peyote and marijuana

Environment

Concerns:
Environmental literature stereotypes
Many environmental issues rooted in continuing land disputes arising from treaties
Environmental issues reinforce tendency to treat first inhabitants of Americas as inferior

Environment

CERT was formed in 1976 - Council of Energy Resource Tribes
Consisted of 25 of the West’s largest tribes
Other tribes were added later
Purpose to protect and develop tribal natural resources such as natural gas
Environmental justice