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General Information  Language and Naming:  Alaskan Entities - Some define as Aleut and Inuit (but these are only two distinct culture groups within this area)  First Nations/First People – This categorization is used mostly in Canada and was first adopted by the Native People of Canada.  There are some more recent ways of identifying Native People from Canada, but this is a more generally accepted term.  American Indian/Native American/Native – American Indian was used comfortably through the 1960/70s.  Native American was adopted into use around the 1980/90s.  Native has been used since the 1990s to present.  These terms begin to be viewed interchangeably depending upon the Tribe/People in question.  A more accurate way of discussing Native People within the U.S. was described by Devon Mihesuah who states that Native people should be defined by how they describe themselves.    Indigenous – For academic purposes this does define People by where they are located.  With that, this term is used most often when referring to People in the Central/South American regions.  People of the Western Hemisphere – This is used generally to describe the broad number of various People who exist within the Western Hemisphere.  This has been known to be used in describing People of the further South American regions.  Organizational Structures:  Nation – The largest organizational area of Native people.  This is constructed through the similarities which connect different Native people together (culturally, linguistically, artistically, traditionally, etc.)  Tribe – A focus of Native people who have a more concentrated form of location.  The organizational characteristics of Nation apply, but on a more local level.  Clan – A more specific focus of Native people who are embedded within a Tribe.  This can almost be understood as an “extended family” where certain rituals/rites/ceremonies/traditions apply on an even more internal level while maintaining those from the larger Tribe affiliation.  There will a head person/leader (i.e., Clan Mother) within this structure who assists in the passing and hierarchy of the Clan unit. The Clan may also identify with a particular animal, symbol, color and even cardinal direction.  Lodge – Much like the Clan but viewed in different parts of the US, particularly the Northeast.  A Lodge will also have a head person/leader and the Lodge may also be named after, or identify with a particular animal, symbol, color and even cardinal direction.  Band – A smaller grouping of people similar to a Clan, but on a much smaller level and, again, defined based upon location of the culture. 

North America subdivisions: (Sutton, 4) 7 subdivisions Arctic  Coniferous Forest  Mountains  Pacific Coast  Desert  Plains  Temperate Forest Geography and Culture Areas: (Sutton, 5) 10 Culture areas  Arctic  Subarctic  Northwest Coast  Plateau Great Basin  Southwest  Plains Southeast  Northeast California  

Culture Areas - with detailed information

http://www.american-indians.net/cultures.htm#top

Information from the History Channel - includes videos and culture area descriptions

http://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/native-american-cultures

Encyclopedia Britannica (on-line version) – includes images and useful maps

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1357826/Native-American/57803/Native-American-culture-areas

•    First identified in 1890s   •    These are not “exact” divisions of the North American continent, but serve as a means of viewing this land mass and the different culture groups here in Native Population: Federally Recognized Tribes http://www.indians.org/Resource/FedTribes99/fedtribes99.html http://www.artnatam.com/tribes.html http://www.census.gov/pubinfo/www/FRN02.pdf Non-Federally Recognized Tribes http://www.kstrom.net/isk/maps/tribesnonrec.html http://www.manataka.org/page237.html Alaskan Entities http://www.artnatam.com/alaska.html Census http://www.census.gov/geo/www/aian/aian.html Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) http://www.doi.gov/bia/ Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) http://enan.bia.edu/home.aspx Major Languages distributed throughout North America: (Sutton, 9) Eskimo-Aleut Athapaskan Algonquian Salishan Penutian Hokan Uto-Aztecan Siouan Caddoan Muskogean Timucuan Tanoan Keresan Zuni Chumashan “unclassified region(s)” Gender Roles: (Sutton, 11) Men  Women Other sexual orientations (bisexual, homosexual, transvestites) Anthropological Study/Survey of Native Americans: (Sutton, 13 - 15) •    Mistaken concepts - primitive, savage, barbarian, uncivilized •    Franz Boas – “Father of American Anthropology” •    Preservationist Ideals •    Museum collection •    Cultural Imperialism and Cultural Colonialism •    The “Dominant” Society (aka, non-Native European society) Prehistory of Native Americans: (Sutton, 17 – 19) •    “Discovery” in 1492 •    1512 – “Pope declares that Native people of the New World were people, and thus began the attempts by Europeans to explain their origin.” (Sutton, 17)

In a papal bull, Sublimis Deus, issued in 1537 (May 29) Pope Paul III declared that Indians were not to be enslaved nor are they, "to be deprived of their liberty or the possession of their property, even though they be outside of the faith of Jesus Christ."

•    The idea of “lost” people – lost continent, lost tribes, Atlantis (Mu), etc.

"The Spanish theologians, firm in their belief that all people descended from Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, attempted to explain the presence of Indians in a land far away from where the Garden of Eden was supposed to have existed. In Historia natural y moral de las Indias, published in 1590, Spanish Friar José de Acosta postulated that American Indians arrived in the New World by walking across a land bridge from Asia. This reason was not based on Indian oral tradition or on any "hard" evidence. Faced with the task of explaining how the descendents of Noah had become the idolatrous barbarians of the New World, de Acosta provided a theory of their degeneration to a state of savagery and a posterior reinvention of culture under the tutelage of Satan."

•    1590 – first impressions of the Bering Straight concept.  Still prominent today; refuted by Vine Deloria Jr. in Red Earth, White Lies Paleolithic Era (aka "The Stone Age") in human prehistory is the name given to the period between about 2.5 million and 20,000 years ago. It begins with the earliest human-like behaviors of crude stone tool manufacture, and ends with fully modern human hunting and gathering societies. Paleoindian Period (c. 14,000 B.P.) - aka "Old Indian Period" •    Identified as the first migration and arrival of “native people, called Paleoindians…into the New World” (Sutton, 19).   •    This “migration” continued through the Western Hemisphere into Central and South America (c. 13,500 B.P.) (Sutton, 19).   •    Radiocarbon dating is still not scientifically conclusive with these dates.   Paleoindian Cultures: •    Clovis (11,200 – 10,900 B.P.)– Named after the archeological site in New Mexico.   •    Folsom  - Slightly later than the Clovis period and named after another archeological site in New Mexico.   •    Plano Culture Emphasis from these cultures is upon game hunting and tool technology. Archaic Period (c. 10,000 B.P.) – Follows the Paleoindian Period and is recognized as a transition period into agricultural practices and into the first contact with Europeans.  (Sutton, 22).

3. I.  Norse Influence  (Sutton: 24) A. Earliest documented contact - 982A.D. B. A.D. 1004, Newfoundland, Leif Eriksson C. By A.D. 1400 Norse abandoned Greenland II.  Columbus A. October 12, 1492 unaware of what he discovered (Sutton: 25) B. Spanish to Central and South America C. English and French (French Basque) fishermen arrival in Newfoundland (1497-1536)  III.  European Colonization  (Sutton: 26 - 28) A. Reasons: 1. Conquer people ("...white man's burden" to bring civilization to them [Indians]") (Sutton: 26) 2. Loot resources 3. Later to colonize a. Spanish (1526, South Carolina) b. English (1585, Roanoke); (1607 - 08, Popham Beach, Maine); (1607, Jamestown) c. Dutch- New Netherland later remaned New York 1.) Fur traders 2.) Farmers

Saul Bass' "Jazzy 1962 animation...the 1626 Sale of Manhattan"

Important Terms:

Colonialism - "import one culture and place it upon another" (Anthias, Floya, 2002)

Post-Colonialism - the understanding that a group of people exist following the actions introduced through colonialism.

B. Differing Approaches: Eurocentric ideology 1. Primitive 2. Nobel Savages Nativecentric ideology 1. "Blood thirsty savages" (Sutton: 26)

4 philosophical forms of "slavery":

1.  Physical

2.  Mental (aka, "The Missionized Mind" - see further information in the Case Study on the Missions Lecture Notes)

3.  Territorial

4.  Political

1. Spain a. Establish imperial presence b. Control Native populations and economies c. Convert Indians to Christianity d. Primary interest - Native riches, not land e. Pacified Natives (techniques of colonialization) 1. War and Disease - forms of extermination 2. Encomienda feudal system (Sutton: 27)—form of slavery  with Indian labor 3. Repartimiento system (Sutton: 27)— break lands into smaller haciendas, still Indian labor Walter D. Mignolo - Currently one of the leading scholars on the colonialization of the "New World" and the impact which Europe has had upon the Indigenous cultures of the Western Hemisphere.     2. France and Russia (Sutton: 27) a. Primary interest - fur trading b. Not interested in land 3. England a. "Wanted the land for themselves..." (Sutton: 27) b. Sought to ease English unemployment in England c. Place for criminals d. Trade and taxes e. Commit genocide to take land Three processes of used genocide: Physical, Mental and Environmental 4. Indian Slavery a. Exported Indian slaves to Spain but high losses (Sutton: 28) b. Needed labor—Spain turned to Africa c. English encouraged native warfare in South East to  procure slaves d. All European powers were perpetuated through/by slave trade e. Spanish/European powers used slaves f. Use of Indian slaves in California, c. 1850s, even though California is a non-slave state IV.  Governmental Policies  (Sutton: 28 - 34) A. Areas: 1. Spanish in South East, South West, and West 2. French in Canada, along Mississippi River 3. English presence on East Coast B. French/Indian War; British/Indian Wars - Indians loose battles 1. Indians were used by both French and British 2. British win (1763) 3. Pontiac’s Uprising (Ottowa Chief) 4. Proclamation Line ignored by settlers C. US/Indian Policies 1. A "new" US after 1783 - more than 400 treaties signed (Sutton: 29) 2. “Civilize” vs. eliminate 3. Tribes are sovereign but not foreign a. Supreme Court affirmed sovereignty (1831/2) - Cherokee Nation v. The State of Georgia b. Natives considered dependent nations in 1830s V.  Brief History  (Sutton: 29 - 34) A. (1775) Indian Commissions established B. (1790) US recognized 1763 Proclamation Line   C. Settlers push westward - "...preferable to fight Indians rather than its own citizens." (Sutton: 30) 1. Population pressures 2. Sense of US Nationalism beginning to develop 3. Competition among European powers 4. “Civilizing” is the moral justification for taking land D. 1781 Indian Department created within War Department E. 1824 Indian Department became Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) 1. Independent agency in 1834 2. Relocated into the Department of Interior (1849) 3. Mission of the BIA a. Originally to maintain good relations between Native/non-native settlers b. Incorporated removal and assimilation policy as designed by Federal Government 4. Principal Federal agency for welfare of Native Americans 5. Four Primary Responsibilities a. Education b. Other governmental services (e.g. law, health) c. Land Management of 56.2 million acres held in trust (as of 2008) d. Fostering Indian self-determination 6. 1969 - first Native Director appointed: Louis Bruce (Mohawk, Commissioner from 1969 - 1973) F. Manifest Destiny 1. Acquisition of Territory - "...to tame the wild lands of the west and to bring 'civilization' to its native inhabitants." (Sutton: 30) a. (1846) Oregon Territory acquired b. (1848) further movement into California and South West 2. Responsibility to conquer and settle lands 3. (1849) Gold Rush in California 4. 1848/49 - created "Indian Country" 5. Wagon trails and railroad become more visible in use 6. Set up Indian Wars G. Removal and Reservations 1. After War of 1812 policies change a. (1830) Indian Removal Act (IRA) b. Cherokee Trail of Tears c. Oklahoma as Indian Territory (Choctaw for "red man") 1. Rejected as Indian state (1904) 2. Admitted as state (1907) d. (1865) put Indians on reservations to protect them from white settlers (Sutton: 31) 2. Military Solution a. (1867) Peace Policy (Sutton: 32) 1. William T. Sherman, General of U.S. Army (1869) 2.) Peace is interpreted as  extermination -  populary opposed, but persisted. Indians needed to be  "crushed"  in order to ensure  "peace" b. (1871) No more treaties negotiated with Indians (Sutton: 32). Conflicts between Indians and whites became an internal affair. H. Assimilation: (Sutton, 32) 1. By 1870s shift from segregation to assimilation into  mainstream society by “civilizing” which was viewed as a "humane" switch to the "Indian problem" by: a. Education b. Conversion to Christianity c. Transforming economy to farming 2. Dawes Act (1887) aka General Allotment Act - named for Senator Henry Dawes (Mass.) a. Individual land ownership (40 - 360 acres) b. Less land needed, much land loss for Natives c. Citizenship if accepted and move from the reservation

"Federal Indian policy during the period from 1870 to 1900 marked a departure from earlier policies that were dominated by removal, treaties, reservations, and even war. The new policy focused specifically on breaking up reservations by granting land allotments to individual Native Americans. Very sincere individuals reasoned that if a person adopted white clothing and ways, and was responsible for his own farm, he would gradually drop his Indian-ness and be assimilated into the population. It would then no longer be necessary for the government to oversee Indian welfare in the paternalistic way it had been obligated to do, or provide meager annuities that seemed to keep the Indian in a subservient and poverty-stricken position.

On February 8, 1887, Congress passed the Dawes Act, named for its author, Senator Henry Dawes of Massachusetts. Also known as the General Allotment Act, the law allowed for the President to break up reservation land, which was held in common by the members of a tribe, into small allotments to be parceled out to individuals. Thus, Native Americans registering on a tribal "roll" were granted allotments of reservation land. “To each head of a family, one-quarter of a section; To each single person over eighteen years of age, one-eighth of a section ; To each orphan child under eighteen years of age, one-eighth of a section; and To each other single person under eighteen years now living, or who may be born prior to the date of the order of the President directing an allotment of the lands embraced in any reservation, one-sixteenth of a section…”

Section 8 of the act specified groups that were to be exempt from the law. It stated that "the provisions of this act shall not extend to the territory occupied by the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles, and Osage, Miamies and Peorias, and Sacs and Foxes, in the Indian Territory, nor to any of the reservations of the Seneca Nation of New York Indians in the State of New York, nor to that strip of territory in the State of Nebraska adjoining the Sioux Nation on the south."

Subsequent events, however, extended the act's provisions to these groups as well. In 1893 President Grover Cleveland appointed the Dawes Commission to negotiate with the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles, who were known as the Five Civilized Tribes. As a result of these negotiations, several acts were passed that allotted a share of common property to members of the Five Civilized Tribes in exchange for abolishing their tribal governments and recognizing state and Federal laws. In order to receive the allotted land, members were to enroll with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Once enrolled, the individual's name went on the "Dawes rolls." This process assisted the BIA and the Secretary of the Interior in determining the eligibility of individual members for land distribution.

The purpose of the Dawes Act and the subsequent acts that extended its initial provisions was purportedly to protect Indian property rights, particularly during the land rushes of the 1890s, but in many instances the results were vastly different. The land allotted to the Indians included desert or near-desert lands unsuitable for farming. In addition, the techniques of self-sufficient farming were much different from their tribal way of life. Many Indians did not want to take up agriculture, and those who did want to farm could not afford the tools, animals, seed, and other supplies necessary to get started. There were also problems with inheritance. Often young children inherited allotments that they could not farm because they had been sent away to boarding schools. Multiple heirs also caused a problem; when several people inherited an allotment, the size of the holdings became too small for efficient farming." [emphasis added ] (borrowed with

"An Act to provide for the allotment of lands in severalty to Indians on the various reservations, and to extend the protection of the laws of the United States…over the Indians....

The President of the United States is hereby authorized…to allot the lands in said… reservations in severalty to any Indian located thereon in quantities as follows:

To each head of a family, one quarter of a section; To each single person over eighteen years of age, one-eighth of a section.... To each other single person under eighteen years... one-sixteenth of a section.       The United States does and will hold the land thus allotted, for the period of twenty-five years, in trust for the sole use and benefit of the Indian to whom such allotment have been made... and that at the expiration of said period the United States will convey the same by patent to said Indian....       Each and every member of the respective bands or tribes of Indians to whom allotments have been made shall have the benefit of and be subject to the laws of the state or territory in which they may reside.... And every Indian born within the territorial limits of the United States to whom allotments shall have been made... [or] who has voluntarily taken up... his residence separate and apart from any tribe of Indians therein, and has adopted the habits of civilized life is hereby declared to be a citizen of the United States, and is entitled to all the rights, privileges, and immunities of such citizens..." 

3. Boarding schools, 1877-1960s a. Removed from homes b. Native students trained as domestics (women) and laborers (men) I. Indian New Deal--John Collier, Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) (1934 - 45); movement from assimilation to cultural pluralism (Sutton: 33) 1. Ended allotment system 2. Unsold land returned to tribes 3. Improved education 4. Organized tribal governments "...although to a limited extent..." (Sutton: 33) 5. Preferential jobs at the BIA J. Indian Claims Commission [ICC] (1946) K. WWII, participation and move to cities L. 1940 -50s Termination Policy in full effect 1. Ended recognition/status/rights of Natives 2. Move into White society 3. Eliminate the reservation system M. (1958) US no longer attempts to eliminate Tribal Governments N. 1960/70s Red Power Movement O. Indian Civil Rights Act (1968) P. (1970) BIA switch from management to service Q. (1975) Indian Self-Determination Act—new legal rights R. (1978) American Indian Religious Freedom Act S. (1988) Indian Gaming Regulatory Act T. (1990) Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) U. (1994) and today/present, majority of political policy is a government-to-government relationship VI.  Canadian Indian Policies  (Sutton: 34 - 35) A. 610 Native groups/cultures identify as “First Nations” B. Reserves held in trust by Canadian government (2, 240 reserves as of 2001) C. Slavery outlawed, 1834 (Indians = primary slaves) D. Canada becomes independent - Dominion status (1867) 1. Office of Indian Affairs within Dept. of Interior (1873) 2. (1880) - Department of Indian Affairs becomes the new name for the former Office of Indian Affairs 3. Presently known as The Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (1966) 4. Indian Act of 1876, applied to Eskimo groups in 1939, defines: a.Status Indians are tribes formally recognized by treaty rights b. Non-Status Indians c. No religious rights = symbol of mistreatment d. Act repealed (1969) - moved to break up reserves e. 1927 Northwest coast small land claims case victorious for Natives. Canada passes law forbidding collective political action. 5. Métis are known as the "Third aboriginal group" (Sutton: 34) a. Mixed heritage of European fur traders and Indian wives (mainly Cree) b. Languages spoken: Michif (Cree/French), French and English 6. Eleven major treaties from 1871-1921 7. (1888) Laws passed similar to Dawes Act of 1887 in the US E. Indian Act ratified (1951) to include: 1. Citizenship 2. Voicing rights (opened to National elections in 1960) 3. Religious freedom 4. Pursue claims against government 5. Bands establish council G. Move to terminate fought successfully H. Couldn’t vote nationally until 1960 I. Comprehensive Land Claim Settlements (1974) J. Nunavat = new province in North West Territory governed by Eskimos (Inuit) VII.  Northern Mexico and Indian Policy  (Sutton: 35 - 36) A. 20% Indios B. (1821) Mexico independent of Spain, continued repartimiento C. (1850s) "reform laws" forbade communal property, abolished Indian status a. "anyone could colonize 'unoccupied' lands - Indian land - if promised to develop" (Sutton: 35) b. "...only Mexicans would be recognized." (Sutton: 35) D. Yaqui resistance, many fled to Arizona E. (1910) Mexican Revolution 1. Assimilation through education and economic programs 2. Preserve heritage (culture and art) a. established Asuntos Indigenas b. established Insituto Nacional Indigenista F. Troubled Areas 1. Zapotecs in Oaxaca (1980s) 2. Maya in Chiapas (1990s) VIII.  Cultural and Biological Impacts of European Intrusion  (Sutton: 36 - 38) A. 12 - 18 (possible 20) million people in North American before 1492 B.Population loss 1. Up to 95% 2. Diseases brought to the New World (see list in Sutton: 38) 3. Malnutrition 4. Murder, warfare and slavery C. Loss of culture and traditional knowledge D. Loss of Land E. Health Problems - alcoholism most serious (as high as 85% for some tribes) F. Racial Problems IX.  Fur Trade  (Sutton: 41 - 42) A. Major economic endeavor by all European powers (French, Dutch, British, Russians 1600 - 1850) B. Impact on Native people (dominant role on Arctic/Subarctic economies with decline in 1950s) 1. Changes in political/social structures to suit Europeans 2. Economy from subsistence to trapping 3. Dependency on trade 4. New emphasis on territorial defense and technology use 5. Larger groups settlements locate near trading posts a. Competition with other tribes a. Violence increased - Domestic violence b. Alcoholism c. Health problems develop  (i.e., refined sugar, poor nutrition, poor sanitation, increased disease, etc., Sutton: 43) d. Soaring death rates 7. Loss of tradition (knowledge, skills, technology) and increased dependence on Euro-technology 8. “Scorched stream” policy used to killed off all animals in an area to prevent competition XI  Spanish Mission System  (Sutton: 38 - 40) A. Conversion important B. Jesuit and Franciscian (1767) orders C. Four major centers 1. 17 missions built in Baja, CA (Jesuits) 2. 21 additional missions built in Alta, CA (Franciscans) 3. other systems: Rio Grande Valley (South West) 4. La Florida (South East) 5. most extensive - Northern Mexico C. Missions were like “ concentration camps where the natives were imprisoned, forced to abandon their culture, and enslaved as labor..." (Sutton: 39) D. Impact on Indians 1. Loss of culture—“Cultural Genocide” (Sutton: 39) 2. Increased deaths from overwork, disease, unable to reproduce E. Other locations and structures within Mission system 1. Reduccion or Congregacion - separate Natives from their social, economic, political communities and concentrate them under Spanish control (Sutton: 39) 2. Presidios - military garrisons 3. Asistencias - smaller mission with only a few people F. Indians forced into Spanish culture ("...although it was technically illegal for Spanish to force someone into conversion" Sutton: 40) 1. New religion - Christianity 2. New foods, clothing and trades 3. New language - Spanish 4. Economies changed toward European agriculture 5. Famine and drought 6. Overcrowding and unsanitary conditions 7. Revolts occurred: 1. La Florida (1597) 2. Southwest (1680) 3. Some in CA (1824) 4. Colorado River (1781 - 1860s) Extra information~ XI. SIDELIGHT: Native Tobacco, Then and Now A. Indigenous to New World B. Used in North America primarily for ceremonies, sometimes recreational C. Sometimes cultivated D. Europeans originally considered tobacco a medicine E. Less harsh species imported from Caribbean by John Rolfe (Jamestown) F. Largest grower and consumer today is China

4. Three Major zones: •    Coastal Region •    Saint Lawrence-Lowlands Region •    Great Lakes-Riverine Region General Geographical background: •    Vast deciduous forest •    Game available for hunting •    Abundant precipitation •    Agriculture more present in the southern portion Historical Background: Paleoindian Period (c. 15,000 BP – 10,000 BP) (Sutton: 300 – 304)  •    “Tundra-like environment existed” – mastondons visible after mammoths disappear •    Earliest known archaeological site in the Northeast is Meadowcraft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania – occupied for 19,000 years beginning c. 14,000 BP (Sutton: 301) •    Derbert – Nova Scotia is better documented with occupation dating c. 10,000 BP (Sutton: 301) •    Weaponry to assist dating – fluted points Archaic Period (c. 10,000 -3,000 BP) (Sutton: 301) ➢    Early Archaic – 10,000 – 8,000 BP •    Human Occupation of the Northeast in “small, highly mobile groups” (Sutton: 301) •    Koster site, Illinois (c. 9,500 BP) “…contains human occupation that spans the entire Holocene…” (Sutton: 301) ➢    Middle Archaic Periond (c. 8,000 – 5,000 BP) •    People congregate into larger numbers and move into more permanent settlements (Sutton: 301) •    c. 6,000 BP – “…cemeteries began to appear in association with permanent settlements, fixed territories and political organization…” (Sutton: 301) ➢    Late Archaic Period (c. 5,000 – 3, 000 BP) •    Population growth is substantial •    Experimentaion with cultivation and/or domesticaion of native plants – gourds, sunflowers and sumpweet. •    The Old Copper Culture (c. 5,000 – 4,500 BP) – known for cold-hammered copper artifacts…became widespread in the western Northeast The Woodland Period (c. 3, 000 BP – Contact) •    Complex cultures and agriculture are more visible •    3 innovations: (Sutton: 301) 1. manufacture of pottery (c. 4,500 BP) 2. cultivation of native plants around similar time period 3. use of burial mounds  ➢    Adena Complex (c. 3,000 BP) •    Located in the central Ohio Valley •    A cluster of smaller, related Early Woodland culture groups (Sutton: 301) •    Visible use of Mounds – burial, social, political ➢    Late Adena Period (c. 2, 200 BP) More complex mound system – use of log tombs (Sutton: 302) ➢    Middle Woodland (c. 2,200 – 1,700 BP)  •    Hopewell culture develops in Ohio River Valley •    A cluster of smaller, related Middle Woodland culture groups (Sutton: 302) •    Larger mounds and occupations sites more widespread and visible “…very complex, with impressive mounds…” (Sutton: 302) •    Mounds connected by “Great Hopewell Roads” – “…wide lanes (c. 150 ft) bordered by high (8 – 10 ft.) parallel earthen walls.” (Sutton: 302) •    Political system was highly complex (Sutton: 302) ➢    Late Woodland (c. 1,700 – contact) •    Spread of maize across much of eastern North America – popular crop by 1,200 BP •    Hopewell tradition begins to decline; (Sutton: 302) •    due to overpopulation •     climate changes •     introduction of the bow and arrow  •    increase warfare •    other factors •    South tradition of the Hopewell developed into the Mississippian cultures of the Southeast (which includes some mounds as well!) Contact Period (Sutton: 302 – 304) •    Basque possibly fished the Brand Banks of the Nova Scotia prior to 1492 •    Whaling was in operation off northeaster North American (Newfoundland) by 1536 •    Early 16th Cent. - Dutch, French, English, Portuguese and Spanish competed in fur trading. •    English established first colony – Roanoke, Virginia (1585); second colony – Jamestown, Virginia (1607) •    Pilgrim colony in Plymouth, Massachusetts (1620) •    Puritan colony in Boston, Massachusetts (1630) •    French established colony in south Canada (1608) Political allies: French – Huron and northern Algonquian (upper Northeast area) English – Iroquois (southern Northeast) •    Dutch establish colony in early 1600s – Fort New Amsterdam (Manhattan Island) and in present day Albany, New York •    Dutch conquered by English (1664), renamed New Netherland colony to New York (Sutton: 303) •    Pequot War of 1637 – English massacred most of the Pequot tribe (they Mystic Massacre) and claimed Connecticut (Sutton: 303) •    King Philip’s War (1675 – 1676) – Metacom (Algonquian leader) defeated King Philip (Sutton: 303) •    The French and Indian War (1754 – 1763); part of the larer Anglo-French conflict (Sutton: 303) – French cede land to Canada, which is not theirs, British begin “rule…over Indians.”  •    Pontiac’s War ; (1763) – “to expel the British from the Great Lakes area and restore Indian diplomatic power.” Peace restored in 1766 •    Lots of Native movement into the Ohio Valley area due to conflicts with the US.  1795, Natives were forced to cede most of the Ohio Valley. •    Tecumseh’s Wars – first (1811 – 1812) with defeat at the Battle of Tippecanoe by General Tyler; second (1812 - 1813) with defeat at the Battle of the Thames in southern Ontario. •    Indian Removal Act (1830) forced Northeast Indian groups to the Indian Territory Impact of  European Contact: o    Disease – “Many settlers viewed the epidemics among the Indians as an act of God to depopulate the region in order to make room for the colonies.” (Sutton: 304) o    Genocide o    Warfare •    Mortality rate of about 50% and, occasionally, 95% (Sutton: 304) Brief History and Ethnographic Research: (Sutton: 305 - 306) League of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee (1851) published by Lewis H. Morgan – first important research document by a non-native on the cultures of the Native people from this area. Political Organization: •    3 types of Organization – Bands (families), Tribes (aka Nations) and Confederacies (with leaders from all the incorporated Tribes) •    Leaders are called Sachems or Sagamores •    League of the Iroquois – largest and most successful organization: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca -  The Five Nations Tuscarora (added 1722)  The Confederation becomes knows as  The Six Nations http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MwpG78_IEBw Iroquois Nation - co-founded by Deganawidah (The Peacemaker) and Hiawatha (Onondaga - Keeper of the Fire). First written history of the "legend" of Deganawidah and Hiawatha was by Seth Newhouse on the Six Nations Reserve (Canada) in 1885. http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1955/2/1955_2_26.shtml http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2536600097.html •    Powhatan Confederation – named after chief Powhatan and formed in the Chesapeake Bay area Warfare: (Sutton: 307 – 308) •    Important and common to the tribes •    Opportunity for men to gain prestige and power •    Increased in frequency with arrival of Europeans •    Torture was prominent (Sutton: 308) Social Organization: (Sutton: 308) •    Extended family was most important lineage •    Clans and moieties were visible •    “Women shared political power in many Northeaster groups with the best example being the Iroquois” (Sutton: 208) Ohwachira  (maternal family) Economics: (Sutton: 308 – 310) ➢    Hunters/gatherers: seen throughout the expansive region: •    Ex: •    Eastern Canadian -  fishing, shellfish, sea mammals, large/small animals, birds •    Northeastern – deer, elk, bear, rabbits, porcupines, foxes, wolves, bison, etc. (Sutton: 309) ➢    Farming: •    to supplement diet •    family involvement: men cleared area, women planted crops, children protected crops •    Slash and Burn technique for agriculture ➢    Wampum: a form of currency and transaction (European influence) Used as a form of documentation http://www.kstrom.net/isk/art/beads/wampum.html •    shells used as a medium of exchange •    documenting agreements and important records •    distinctive patterns illustrate the event •    identical belts made for all inclusive parties Wampum colors: Red - North, White - East, Black - South, Blue - West These coincide with the Two Serpent Prophecy (Iroquois) that tells of the coming of Europeans. Material Culture and Technology: (Sutton: 310) •    Longhouse – large communal living area that could range from 150 feet long to 20 feet wide •    Iroquois name Haudenosaunee, “People of the Longhouse” (Sutton: 313)   •    Use of Canoes: •    Dugout •    Bark canoes •    Clothing: •    Children – wore little clothing •    Men – loincloths •    Women – skirts •    Everyone – robes/blankets and moccasins in winter •    Face and body painting – common (mostly men) •    Hair – worn in elaborate styles (men and women) •    Jewelery – worn by all Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy Dance Styles Part 1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WdYByMddJEo Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy Dance Styles continued; Part 2 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pq8We0FS4nU •    Tools – mortars, pestles, bowls, dishes and spoons made form stone and wood •    Art Technology included: Pottery, basketry and textiles (rugs, blankets, etc.) •    Weaponry – advanced after the arrival of Europeans (Sutton: 310) Religion: (Sutton: 310 – 311) •    Spirits exists in all things •    Two major goals of religion: •    Keep spirits happy •    World renewal •    Green Corn Ceremony – annual renewal ceremony held at the beginning of the corn harvest •    Shaman – present at ceremonies and assist in curings/healings •    Dreams – important as a means of communicating with other worlds/spirits •    Feast of the Dead – held every few years (Huron, Neutral, et al) to mourn those who have passed on. A form of a renewal ceremony Northeast Indians at the Present: (Sutton: 311 – 312) Ex. of current Tribal resource See Course Documents for other supporting information! Article: Fenton, William N. The Lore of the Longhouse: Myth, Ritual and Red Power. The George Washingron University Institute for Ethnographic Research.  Washington D.C, 1975.

5. Southeast Cultures – General Information (Sutton 334 – 336): Three Environmental Zones Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Southern Appalachian Mountains Characterized by agriculture and hunter/gather cycle Complex political and social organizations (i.e. chiefdom-level organization) Large sedentary populations (1, 250,000) 5 major Language Groups (Sutton 342) – Muskogean, Southern Iroquoian, Siouan-Catawba, Caddoan, Timucuan Paleo-Indian (to c. 10,000 BP) (Sutton 336) Cactus Hills, VA – Clovis projectile points (c. 15,000 BP) – suggestions a “pre-Clovis” occupation. (Sutton 336) Topper, SC (c. 12,000 BP) – coupled with the Cactus Hills site suggests that the Clovis period began in the Southeast (Sutton, 336) Archaic Period (c. 10,000 – 3,000 BP) (Sutton, 336 – 337): Early Archaic Period Large Villages, such as Icehouse Bottom, TN (Sutton 336 – 337) Genetic DNA testing on preserved brain 7,3000 (BP) found in Windover, FL suggests a relation to current South American populations (Sutton, 337) – also the dating of pottery from the Valdivia style (c. 5,000 BP) even more strongly solidifies this “suggestion” with relations between Veracruz coast, Panama, Guatamala and Colombia. Found by voyagers from Japan (c. 5,000 BP) [Josephy, 100 – 101]. Middle Archaic Period (c. 8,000 – 6,000 BP) Cemeteries become more common suggesting a more sedentary settlement Fixed territories Complex political and social organizations Late Archaic Period (c. 6,000 – 3,000 BP) Hunter/gather cycle continues Large earthen mounds appear (i.e., Poverty Point) Diversity of trade item increased Mesoamerican influences become more prominent Diffusion of corn agriculture Experimentation with domestication of native plants (gourds, sunflowers, sumpweed) Woodland Period (c. 3,000 – 1,100 BP) (Sutton 337 – 338) Increased visibility of pottery [Josephy, 101 – 103] Diffusion of corn Elaborate burials in cemetery mounds (“Mound Culture”) Adena Complex – refers to a group of related cultures and not a single culture group Development of Mounds Extensive trade Dramatic in crease in sociocultural complexity Hopewell (c. 2,000 BP) – refers to a large number of related cultures [Josephy, 104 – 105] More widespread than Adena Complex Larger sites and complex earthen mounds   "The Hopewell Hand" High social stratification Development of roadways linking Mounds together Decline of Hopewell c. 1,700 BP Suggestions are: overpopulation, climate change, increased warfare, increase hunting efficiency (Sutton, 337) Mississippian Period (C 1,100 – 500 BP) (Sutton, 338) Refers to a number of related cultures, not a specific culture Corn is major agricultural crop; beans introduced c. 1,000 BP (Sutton, 338) Hunting/gathering cycle becomes a staple (…”secondary”) Large platform topped earthen Mounds increase in number with surrounding plaza areas Ranked social organizations – labor, political, chiefdom-level Southeastern Ceremonial Complex – system of warfare, ancestor worship and fertility (even more involved within the Natchez –Sutton, 359 – 367) Examples of Mound Cultures: Cahokia (near present day St. Louis) - thousands of inhabitants, hundreds of Mounds (some ranging over 5 square miles, ex. Monk’s Mound) http://cahokiamounds.com/

Cahokia - Mound Builders - Echoes of the Past (video) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xLoqU-IObvs

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Cahokia - Mound Builders - Echoes Of The Past

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Moundville, in present Alabama – covers “300 acres with more than twenty large mounds and plazas”(Sutton 338) http://www.greatdreams.com/mounds.htm Contact Period: Earliest Europeans – Spaniards Juan Ponce de Leon – arrived in Florida (1513) Spanish slaves – arrived in South Carolina (1521) Spanish colony established in South Carolina or Georgia (1526), with another founded in Florida Hernando de Soto – arrives in the Southeast (1539) 1565 – Spanish founded St. Augustine, FL which established a series of 130 missions from north Florida through Georgia and, perhaps, into Virginia Missions destroyed the Calusa People English – arrival to La Florida through Carolina (late 17th century) 1702 – war between Spanish and English 1704 – English destroy Spanish mission system 1763 – Spanish ceded La Florida to the British, but was later reverted back to Spain in 1783 (Treaty of Paris), and entered into the US 1821 French – explored the Mississippi River (1673) 1682 – explorer La Salle claims this region for France 1682 – French encounter the Natchez, destroy Natchez by 1731 Indian slavery becomes very useful and in demand in the Southeast by Europeans (Sutton 339). Black slaves held prior to 1865 More information on Black Slaves see: Jack Forbes, Africans and Native Americas (1993), William L. Katz, Black Indians (1997), Theda Perdue, Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540–1866 (1979). Early 18th Century – British dominant control of the Southeast Yamasee War (1715 – 1717) – revolts against the British 1783 – US controlled the region, obtaining Louisiana Territory from French (1803), Florida from Span (1821). Native removal to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma) – 1830 with the Indian Removal Act: 1830 – Choctaw first to be removed. 1837 – Creeks follow (some flee to Florida and become “Seminole” (see Sutton 340) 1838 – Cherokee and Chickasaw removed 1842 – Seminole were removed The Five "Civilized" Tribes: Choctaw, Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw and Seminole Partly attributed to adoption of European ways/styles Partly because they were in the midst of “wild” tribes on the Plains 1831 – Cherokee Nation v. State of Georgia The concept of Blood Quantum Later establishes the Certificate of Indian Blood (C.I.B.) Political Organization: Chiefdoms – various in size and complexity. Chiefs – mostly men, but women were able to hold this position as well. (Sutton, 343) Power division: Red Council – younger men who were anxious to prove themselves in war. White Council – men over 50 years who had experienced war, but now favored peace These two Councils established a checks-and-balances of each other.  Used the “White Drink” (aka by Europeans as “Black Drink”) during ritual.  Warfare – revenge and/or honor.  Scalping was “fairly common” (Sutton, 344) and slaves were kept after war(s). Social Organization: Matrilineal – predominant social organization Major life events – Birth, marriage, death.  Girl’s first menses was important.  Various organizational levels: •    Clans – ex. Cherokee •    Moieties – ex. Creek •    Class System (without clans) – Natchez Kinship – family (generational terms) or enemy Binary system: Rigid and intricate, used to maintain balance, “things that crossed these boundaries were considered somehow contaminated, believed to have special powers, and were both respected and feared.” (Sutton, 344) Ball games: double-stick game now called “lacrosse” (and only has one stick presently); Chunkey (variation of the hoop-and-pole game) Economics: Agriculture was the primary economic pursuit in the South. (Sutton, 345) Hunting was a critical source of food and materials. (Sutton, 345) Exchange was done by barter and redistribution (of materials) (Sutton, 346) Material Culture and Technology: Homes – Square and rectangular with gabled roofs. Round houses were rare (but more prevalent in the Northeast) Single Home dwellings – some would live in for the entire year Summer/Winter homes – some used depending upon the weather conditions Earthen Mounds Religion: Three understandings of the world: •    This World – “present” location in which we inhabit as people •    Upper World – place about the sky.  People who lived here were bigger than humans and used the same social organization system.  •    Under World – place below “This World.”  Disorder and opposition reigned where monsters lived and only came to “This World” to harass the inhabitants.  Sun – source of light and importance Moon – deity of the “Upper World” and associated with rain and fertility. Four Cardinal Directions (North, South, East, West) – held great importance People (human beings) – had both souls and ghosts.  Proper burial was important. Green Corn Ceremony – Three-day event held in late summer to celebrate the harvest and renew purity and harmony. (Sutton, 347)

6. Four major regions (Sutton 202 – 204) • Colorado Plateau—mesas, deep canyons, some mountains and forests • Sonoran Desert—arid with hot summers, saguaro cactus • Mountains—Rockies, Sierra Madres, forests • Major river valleys—Rio Grande, Colorado, San Juan, Gila, Rio Yaqui, Rio Mayo Climate - hot summers, cold winters, and variable rainfall http://www.climas.arizona.edu/forecasts/swconditions.html Historic Cultural Information: (Sutton 204 – 207) Paleioindian Period (c.12,000 - 10,000 BP) • Clovis, New Mexico sites • Folsom, New Mexico sites Archaic Period (c. 10,000 to 2,000 BP) • Picosa Culture - generalized hunting and gathering cultures  • Basketmaker I (2,100 – 1,500 BP) - transition from hunting/gathering into farming Farmers and Pueblos • Ancestral Puebloans (“Anasazi”) c.2,100 BP to present • Basketmaker II-III (1,500 – 1,300) – agriculture slowly improves and building begins to flourish • Pueblo I (1,300 – 1,100 BP) – similar to Basketmaker II-III • Pueblo II (1,100 – 900 BP) – population growth and village size increase. Chaco Canyon complex is constructed http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/northamerica/chaco.html • Pueblo III (900 – 700 BP) – “great” Pueblo building complex  • Pueblo IV (700 – 500 BP) – drought brings about consolidation of people/dwellings • PuebloV (500 – present) - people merge into Western and Eastern (Rio Grande) Pueblos • Mogollon (c.1,700 - 500 BP) – lived in pit houses, later adapted Pueblo style dwellings. Zuni may be descendents (Sutton 207) • Hohokam (c. 1,800 to 500 BP) - small scale dwellings, large-scale irrigation system • Patayan (“Hakataya”) (c.1,000 - 150 BP) – developed out of the hunter/gather traditions and were recognized as Yuman cultures by the time of European contact Contact Period: (Sutton 207 – 210) • Fray Marcos de Niza (1539) – Spanish explorer whose stories lead formal expedition of the Southwest region. • Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (1540) – lead the formal expedition into the Southwest. • Juan de Onate (1598) - first Spanish colonists into the Rio Grande Valley at the Tewa pueblo of Yuqueyunque (renamed: San Gabriel) • 1610 – Santa Fe founded becoming Spanish capital of the region. • Catholic Missions – formed within the region c. 17th century. • The Pueblo Revolt (1680) – led by Pope (San Juan Pueblo) and a gathering of Pueblo Natives.  This was a successful revolt for twelve years! http://www.nativepeoples.com/article/articles/121/1/The-Pueblo-Revolt-of-1680/Page1.html • 1692 - Spanish returned in larger numbers • 1696 – Spanish reconquest of the region was complete. Cultures within this region go “underground” • 1823 – Spanish power begins to decline, Mexico takes over the region, cultures expanded (ex. Dine [“Navajo”] and Apache) • 1848 – Southwest under U.S. jurisdiction, Navajo and Apache expand further • 1860 – U.S. begins conflict with Navajo and Apache. • 1864 – U.S. defeat Navajo in “total war” (Sutton 208). Navajo imprisoned until 1868 before going to reservation.  • 1886 – U.S. defeat Apache. Reservations established on/near traditional lands. Chiricahua were moved to Florida (1886), then Alabama, then Fort Sill (Oklahoma). 1913 Chiricahua offered to move onto Mescalero Reservation or remain in Oklahoma.  PUEBLOS  (Sutton 211 – 215): http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/pueblo/indianpueblohistory.htm Two Main Categories – Eastern (aka Rio Grande) and Western Pueblos http://courses.washington.edu/anth310/EWPueblo.htm http://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Pueblo-Indians.html General Information –  Western Pueblo • Reside West of the Rio Grande Valley and include the Hopi, Zuni, Acoma and Laguna • Matrilineal clans, matrilocal residence, important status of women • Kachina (“katsina”) culture is important [Sutton 214 – 215 for more info]   http://www.nau.edu/~hcpo-p/arts/kachina.htm http://www.native-languages.org/kachinas.htm • Main language bases - Uto-Aztecan, Zuni, and Western Keresan • Multi-story housing complexes (kivas) http://www.cliffdwellingsmuseum.com/arch3.htm http://www.hp.uab.edu/image_archive/up/upb.html General information –  Eastern (aka Rio Grande) Pueblo • Reside along the Rio Grande River (New Mexico) • Bilateral kinship and loose clan structures • Dual social organization with ceremonial moieties • Greater emphasis on hunting and warfare • Less emphasis on kachina (“katsina”) culture • Main language base - Tanoan or Eastern Keresan  • Single-story Housing spread out around central plaza Political and Social Organization of Pueblos (Sutton 212) • Intertwined with social and religious • Independence of town, tied to others for ceremonies • Secular chief in each town • Religious leaders made important decisions • War mostly for defense • Social Organization of East and West differ Economics of Pueblos (Sutton 213) • Relied on agriculture: corn, beans, squash (aka "The Three Sisters") and cotton • Complex planting system • Drought - a concern managed by a variety of techniques (West and Eastern) • Minimal hunting practice Material Culture and Technology of Pueblos (Sutton 213 – 214) • Tools made from stone or wood • Manos and metates for corn grinding   http://www.crowcanyon.org/EducationProducts/peoples_mesa_verde/archaic_artifacts.asp http://www.spiriteaglehome.com/Betatakin07pix.html • High level of artistry including - gourds, basketry and pottery http://www.canyonart.com/pottery.htm   • Cotton and deerskin for cloth. Wool arrives after European contact • Hairstyles, showed status for women http://www.native-languages.org/hair.htm Religion of Pueblos (Sutton 214 – 215) • Dominant factor in everyday life • Ceremonial cycle for year that is divided into two halves. Eastern Pueblos – “male and female duality” (Sutton 214) • Religious societies kept secret. Mostly for men with few for women. • Ex. Snake Ceremony, Flute Ceremony • Kiva – inside and outside used for Ceremonies. • Katsina (“kachina”)     http://www.support-native-american-art.com/hopi-masks.html http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EIJBIpUKRR4&feature=related Current views of Pueblos (Sutton 215 – 216) • Western Pueblos established reservations fairly early • Eastern Pueblos not recognized until 1920s (ex. Taos Pueblo land claims not settled until 1970) • Ceremonial cycles continue, mostly in private conditions • Mostly agricultural business augmented by some wage labor, tourism, arts and crafts sales http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKMYpwUANKY&feature=related NON-PUEBLO (Sutton 216 - 218): Three broad groups: • Apachean groups – Southern Athapaskan language group • Farmers and hunters/gatherers of Sonoran Desert – Yuman or Southern Uto-Aztecan language group • Farmers of Northern Mexico – Southern Uto-Aztecan language group Apachean http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/apache/apachehist.htm • “presumably” migrated from subarctic region, c. 1500 • Most of the small bands moved into the Southwest, Kiowa-Apache and Lipan Apache moved (“remained”) onto the Plains • Groups include – Mescalero, Jicarilla, Chiricahua, White Mountain Apache, San Carlos Apache and Navajo (“an Apachean group that was later to develop into the largest tribe in the region” Sutton 216) • Economy was comprised of warfare, raiding later hunting/gathering Sonoran Desert  Groups include: • Mohave, Quechan, Cocopa, Maricopa and Halchidhoma (lower Colorado and western Gila Rivers) • Yavapai, Hualapi, Havasupai and numerous other “Pai” groups (Sonoran Desert) • O’odham, Akimel O’odham, Tohono O’odham (southern Sonora Desert, eastern Gila River) http://www.itcaonline.com/index.html Cultures – farming/agriculture, fishing, dependence upon water irrigation Northern Mexico Groups include: • Tarahumara, Yaqui, Mayo, Lower Pima http://www.manataka.org/page129.html#Yaqui%20Culture http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_CK0aLVUqx0&feature=related Cultures – framing/agriculture Social and Political Organization of non-Pueblo (Sutton 217 – 218): • Part-time farmers  • Organized into bands with relatively small populations • Full-time farmers (extended families, patrilineal clans) • Mostly sedentary tribes with larger populations • Hunting/gathering communities focused on nuclear family with patrilineal definition • Apachean groups held matrilineal lineage that matrilocal in formation Economics of non-Pueblo (Sutton 218): • Primary agriculture - corn, beans, squash with some fishing • Flood irrigation and control used by those along the Rio Grande/Colorado Rivers • Plant resources – pinyon, oak, juniper, cactus, grass seeds Current views of non-Pueblo (Sutton 218):  • Most groups survive and exist on/within a reservation system • CRIT - Colorado River Indian Tribes organization (established March 3, 1865)

7.

Four major regions (Sutton 202 – 204) • Colorado Plateau—mesas, deep canyons, some mountains and forests • Sonoran Desert—arid with hot summers, saguaro cactus • Mountains—Rockies, Sierra Madres, forests • Major river valleys—Rio Grande, Colorado, San Juan, Gila, Rio Yaqui, Rio Mayo Climate - hot summers, cold winters, and variable rainfall http://www.climas.arizona.edu/forecasts/swconditions.html Historic Cultural Information: (Sutton 204 – 207) Paleioindian Period (c.12,000 - 10,000 BP) • Clovis, New Mexico sites • Folsom, New Mexico sites Archaic Period (c. 10,000 to 2,000 BP) • Picosa Culture - generalized hunting and gathering cultures  • Basketmaker I (2,100 – 1,500 BP) - transition from hunting/gathering into farming Farmers and Pueblos • Ancestral Puebloans (“Anasazi”) c.2,100 BP to present • Basketmaker II-III (1,500 – 1,300) – agriculture slowly improves and building begins to flourish • Pueblo I (1,300 – 1,100 BP) – similar to Basketmaker II-III • Pueblo II (1,100 – 900 BP) – population growth and village size increase. Chaco Canyon complex is constructed http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/northamerica/chaco.html • Pueblo III (900 – 700 BP) – “great” Pueblo building complex  • Pueblo IV (700 – 500 BP) – drought brings about consolidation of people/dwellings • PuebloV (500 – present) - people merge into Western and Eastern (Rio Grande) Pueblos • Mogollon (c.1,700 - 500 BP) – lived in pit houses, later adapted Pueblo style dwellings. Zuni may be descendents (Sutton 207) • Hohokam (c. 1,800 to 500 BP) - small scale dwellings, large-scale irrigation system • Patayan (“Hakataya”) (c.1,000 - 150 BP) – developed out of the hunter/gather traditions and were recognized as Yuman cultures by the time of European contact Contact Period: (Sutton 207 – 210) • Fray Marcos de Niza (1539) – Spanish explorer whose stories lead formal expedition of the Southwest region. • Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (1540) – lead the formal expedition into the Southwest. • Juan de Onate (1598) - first Spanish colonists into the Rio Grande Valley at the Tewa pueblo of Yuqueyunque (renamed: San Gabriel) • 1610 – Santa Fe founded becoming Spanish capital of the region. • Catholic Missions – formed within the region c. 17th century. • The Pueblo Revolt (1680) – led by Pope (San Juan Pueblo) and a gathering of Pueblo Natives.  This was a successful revolt for twelve years! http://www.nativepeoples.com/article/articles/121/1/The-Pueblo-Revolt-of-1680/Page1.html • 1692 - Spanish returned in larger numbers • 1696 – Spanish reconquest of the region was complete. Cultures within this region go “underground” • 1823 – Spanish power begins to decline, Mexico takes over the region, cultures expanded (ex. Dine [“Navajo”] and Apache) • 1848 – Southwest under U.S. jurisdiction, Navajo and Apache expand further • 1860 – U.S. begins conflict with Navajo and Apache. • 1864 – U.S. defeat Navajo in “total war” (Sutton 208). Navajo imprisoned until 1868 before going to reservation.  • 1886 – U.S. defeat Apache. Reservations established on/near traditional lands. Chiricahua were moved to Florida (1886), then Alabama, then Fort Sill (Oklahoma). 1913 Chiricahua offered to move onto Mescalero Reservation or remain in Oklahoma.  PUEBLOS  (Sutton 211 – 215): http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/pueblo/indianpueblohistory.htm Two Main Categories – Eastern (aka Rio Grande) and Western Pueblos http://courses.washington.edu/anth310/EWPueblo.htm http://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Pueblo-Indians.html General Information –  Western Pueblo • Reside West of the Rio Grande Valley and include the Hopi, Zuni, Acoma and Laguna • Matrilineal clans, matrilocal residence, important status of women • Kachina (“katsina”) culture is important [Sutton 214 – 215 for more info]   General information –  Eastern (aka Rio Grande) Pueblo • Reside along the Rio Grande River (New Mexico) • Bilateral kinship and loose clan structures • Dual social organization with ceremonial moieties • Greater emphasis on hunting and warfare • Less emphasis on kachina (“katsina”) culture • Main language base - Tanoan or Eastern Keresan  • Single-story Housing spread out around central plaza Political and Social Organization of Pueblos (Sutton 212) • Intertwined with social and religious • Independence of town, tied to others for ceremonies • Secular chief in each town • Religious leaders made important decisions • War mostly for defense • Social Organization of East and West differ Economics of Pueblos (Sutton 213) • Relied on agriculture: corn, beans, squash (aka "The Three Sisters") and cotton • Complex planting system • Drought - a concern managed by a variety of techniques (West and Eastern) • Minimal hunting practice Material Culture and Technology of Pueblos (Sutton 213 – 214) • Tools made from stone or wood • Manos and metates for corn grinding   • High level of artistry including - gourds, basketry and pottery http://www.canyonart.com/pottery.htm   • Cotton and deerskin for cloth. Wool arrives after European contact • Hairstyles, showed status for women http://www.native-languages.org/hair.htm Religion of Pueblos (Sutton 214 – 215) • Dominant factor in everyday life • Ceremonial cycle for year that is divided into two halves. Eastern Pueblos – “male and female duality” (Sutton 214) • Religious societies kept secret. Mostly for men with few for women. • Ex. Snake Ceremony, Flute Ceremony • Kiva – inside and outside used for Ceremonies. • Katsina (“kachina”)     Current views of Pueblos (Sutton 215 – 216) • Western Pueblos established reservations fairly early • Eastern Pueblos not recognized until 1920s (ex. Taos Pueblo land claims not settled until 1970) • Ceremonial cycles continue, mostly in private conditions • Mostly agricultural business augmented by some wage labor, tourism, arts and crafts sales http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKMYpwUANKY&feature=related NON-PUEBLO (Sutton 216 - 218): Three broad groups: • Apachean groups – Southern Athapaskan language group • Farmers and hunters/gatherers of Sonoran Desert – Yuman or Southern Uto-Aztecan language group • Farmers of Northern Mexico – Southern Uto-Aztecan language group Apachean http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/apache/apachehist.htm • “presumably” migrated from subarctic region, c. 1500 • Most of the small bands moved into the Southwest, Kiowa-Apache and Lipan Apache moved (“remained”) onto the Plains • Groups include – Mescalero, Jicarilla, Chiricahua, White Mountain Apache, San Carlos Apache and Navajo (“an Apachean group that was later to develop into the largest tribe in the region” Sutton 216) • Economy was comprised of warfare, raiding later hunting/gathering Sonoran Desert  Groups include: • Mohave, Quechan, Cocopa, Maricopa and Halchidhoma (lower Colorado and western Gila Rivers) • Yavapai, Hualapi, Havasupai and numerous other “Pai” groups (Sonoran Desert) • O’odham, Akimel O’odham, Tohono O’odham (southern Sonora Desert, eastern Gila River) http://www.itcaonline.com/index.html Cultures – farming/agriculture, fishing, dependence upon water irrigation Northern Mexico Groups include: • Tarahumara, Yaqui, Mayo, Lower Pima Cultures – framing/agriculture Social and Political Organization of non-Pueblo (Sutton 217 – 218): • Part-time farmers  • Organized into bands with relatively small populations • Full-time farmers (extended families, patrilineal clans) • Mostly sedentary tribes with larger populations • Hunting/gathering communities focused on nuclear family with patrilineal definition • Apachean groups held matrilineal lineage that matrilocal in formation Economics of non-Pueblo (Sutton 218): • Primary agriculture - corn, beans, squash with some fishing • Flood irrigation and control used by those along the Rio Grande/Colorado Rivers • Plant resources – pinyon, oak, juniper, cactus, grass seeds Current views of non-Pueblo (Sutton 218):  • Most groups survive and exist on/within a reservation system • CRIT - Colorado River Indian Tribes organization (established March 3, 1865) • Northern Mexico • Most groups still live traditionally where slow assimilation into Mexican culture is becoming visible • Do not reside or have reservations  • Generally not protected by non-native communities moving into their areas

8. California Chapter 8 - Sutton text Four major geographic areas (Sutton 178) • North Coast Range • Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains • Central Valley • Southern California Major Characteristics of California (Sutton 177 – 178) • Most populous region in North America • Culturally complex and diverse • Acorn is a staple food • Dense and sedentary populations • Fine basketry/arts throughout the state • Complex market/barter economic systems • Various shells used as money Archeological History of California (Sutton 178 – 181) Paleo-Indian (c. 12,00 BP - 10,000 BP) • Clovis hunter/gather trademarks visible throughout the state • Wetter climate, “…lakes, rivers, and marshes were common.” (Sutton 178) • Mega fauna and agriculture present Archaic Period (c. 10,000 BP - contact) • Warmer and drier climate at the start of the Holocene Period • Pleistocene extinction of animals due to climate change and other factors • Generalized hunting/gathering and fishing (cycle of sustainability) Generalizations of other regions during the Archaic Period North Coast Ridge • Little is known (10,000 – 3,500) • Cycle of Sustainability more present (c. 2,200) Cascade Mountains/Sierra Nevada • Even less is known • Major occupation of the regions around 3,500 • Population growth with quick decline c. 1,500 • 500 years ago new population develops Central Valley • Very little known about the Early Archaic (10,000 – 6,000) • Early Period (c. 6,000 – 4,000_ people adapted to the environment • Middle Period acorn usage is visible throughout this region • Late Period (2,000 – contact) population intensified, cycle of sustainability improves, bow and arrow introduced c. 1,500 Southern California • Human occupation c. 10,000 (ex. Chumash in Santa Barbara area c. 9,000) • c. 5,000 years ago acorn usage becomes prominent • Population increase and cultural complexity begins to be more visible • c. 2,000 Mojave people self relocated into the Southern California region (Sutton 180) European Contact (Sutton 180 – 181) First European contact - Juan Cabrillo (1542) Spanish: • Establish mission system • Jesuits (1697) – establish seventeen missions in Baja California • Spanish expel Jesuits (1767) • 1769 – Father Junipero Serra establish mission system in Alta California • San Diego (1769) to Sonoma (1823) – total twenty-one missions • Desire - conversion to Catholicism and cheap labor Russians: • Establish fur trade (1803) • Establish Bodega Bay and Fort Ross (1812) • Reside among Pomo (1803-42) • Abandon Fort Ross (1842) Americans: • 1825 California becomes provide of the new Republic of Mexico (Sutton 181) • Secularization of Missions (1848) – ended the mission system • 1848 Alta California becomes part the U.S. • 1849 Gold Rush in California • 1850/60s advancement of Americans into California • Remaining Native people lost land, assimilated, moved onto reservations, died of disease or were massacred

The arrival of EuroAmerican settlers into California following the 1848 discovery of gold - at the present day location of Sacramento by Swiss immigrant Sutter - lead to a devistation of California Indian culture.  "This onslaught was especially disastrous to the Indians because the gold seekers did not remain in the valleys, as ranchers had, but swarmed over the hills, where the Indians had been accustromed to finding refuge from foreigners.  Many of the miners were vicious men contemptuous of anything but money, booze, and sex.   Many thought it good sport to gun down Indians on a Sunday afternoon  (emphasis added).  Others went with their guns to rape Indian women, beating the men who tried to protect them" (Koehe, 411).

Left homeless, hungry, plagued with disease and defeated, "the California Indians of the 1850s and 1860s became pariahs in their own homelands, the men accepting petty wages for hard laborers' jobs, the women degraded into prostitution, the children beggars" (Koehe, 411).

"Act for the Government and Protection of Indians" (1850)

The act provided for the following:

1. The Justice of the Peace would have jurisdiction over all complaints between Indians and Whites; "but in no case shall a white man be convicted of any offense upon the testimony of an Indian or Indians."

2. Landowners would permit Indians who were peaceably residing on their land to continue to do so.

3. Whites would be able to obtain control of Indian children. (This section would eventually be used to justify and provide for Indian slavery.)

4. If any Indian was convicted of a crime, any White person could come before the court and contract for the Indian's services, and in return, would pay the Indian's fine.

5. It would be illegal to sell or administer alcohol to Indians.

6. Indians convicted of stealing a horse, mule, cow, or any other valuable could receive any number of lashes not to exceed 25, and fines not to exceed a00. (It should be noted that the law provided that abusing an Indian child by Whites was to be punished by no more than a <0 fine. It is hard to compare the penalty with the crime.)

7. Finally, an Indian found strolling, loitering where alcohol was sold, begging, or leading a profligate course of life would be liable for arrest. The justice, mayor, or recorder would make out a warrant. Within 24 hours, the services of the Indian in question could be sold to the highest bidder. The term of service would not exceed four months.

This law was widely abused with regard to the use of Indians as laborers, though it did allow Indians to reside on private land.

During 1851 and 1852, the California Legislature authorized payment of <,100,000 for the "supression of Indian hostilities. Again, in 1857, the Legislature issued bonds for 3900449_110,000 for the same purpose." (Heizer, 1978:108) While theoretically attempting to resolve White-Indian conflicts, these payments only encouraged Whites to form volunteer companies and try to eliminate all the Indians in California.

http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/5views/5views1c.htm

http://www.indiancanyon.org/ACTof1850.html  (The complete published Act)

http://people.duke.edu/~agf2/history391/nativism.html  (Discusses the harsh conditions for Native Californians during the 1850 - 60s)

"Eventually, 115 reservations or racherias (small villages) were marked out for Indians in California" (Kehoe, 413).  This lead to the forced migration of Native Californias from their traditional lands into areas that were uninhabitable making way for the settlement of more plentiful lands by the incoming European/EuroAmerican settlers. HISTORICAL TIMELINE FOR CALIFORNIA NATIVE PEOPLE

YEAR

HISTORY

1539 

Francisco de Ulloa explored coast

1540

Yuma visited by Hernando de Alarcón

1542

Juan Rodriquez Cabrillo discovered San Diego harbor

1577

Sir Francis Drake explored coast, claimed California for Britain

1602

Sebastian Viscaino arrived at Monterey

1701

Colorado River tribes visited by Father Kino

1769

Portola overland expedition into southern territory, San Francisco Bay discovered by Sgt. Jose de Ortega

1774

Juan Bautista de Anza overland expedition into southern territory

1776

San Francisco presidio established; Digueños attacked San Diego mission

1781

Yumas closed land route to Whites

1785

Gabrielino revolt under medicine woman, Toypurina

1793

Capt. Vancouver visited Trinidad Bay, may have caused cholera epidemic

1800

Costanoan uprising at San Jose mission

1802

Pneumonia and diphtheria epidemics in missions

1806

Measles epidemic in missions

1809

Russians entered Pomo territory to hunt otter

1811

Serrano lead revolt against missions

1821

Most of tribes south of Sacramento River indentured to feudal Mexican barons

1824

Feeble La Purisma revolt by Chumash; Mojave attacked Jedediah Smith expedition killing several

1826

Jedediah Smith expedition entered state

1827

North penetrated by Hudson Bay Company traders

1833

Northern state malaria epidemic

1838

Northwest smallpox epidemic

1839

John Sutter established New Helvetia

1840

Smallpox epidemic in southern territories

1841

Russians leave California, otter hunted out

1845

Luiseño attacked by Cahuilla recruited by Mexico for war with U.S.

1846

Bear Flag Revolt by American settlers, U. S. troops occupied state

1848

Gold discovered

1849

Gold rush, miners begin to encroach into Indian territories, violence ensued

1850

Cahuilla, Cocopa, and Yuma revolted over property taxes; Miwok attacked miners under Chief Tenaya; measles and cholera epidemics in northwest

1851

Mariposa Indian War against peaceful Indians in gold country; California statehood

1855

Most reservations established

1859

Mojave defeated by Naval Lt. Beale

1863

Smallpox epidemic in south

1869

Hupas granted Hoopa Valley, transcontinental railroad completed

1870

Chief Kintpuash (Captain Jack) led militant Modoc group back to ancestral lands in California

1872

Modoc War, tribe retreated to lava beds for months, defeated

1893

Yuma forced into auctioning much of land

1921

Achomawi, Shasta smallpox epidemic killed 200

1924

Indians given the right to vote

1934

Federal Indian Reorganization Act

1969

American Indian Movement (AIM) occupied Alcatraz Island

1978

25,000 acres restored to Yuma reversing 1893 action

1998

Proposition 5 gave Indian tribes the right to have gaming on their land

1987 - In California vs. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians, the Supreme Court ruled that the states could not enforce any gaming laws or regulations on Indian reservations. In response to California vs. Cabazon, Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA) of 1988, that gives states limited power over tribal gaming.

1990s:

Current Reservations

Tribes Not Recognized by Federal Government

1996 - Ishi not last? 

1999 - Demands to return Ishi's remains. Ishi's Brain.

2000 - Ishi's brain returned.

Miwok Fight to Reclaim Tribal Status

2000 - According to US Census, 333,346 people reported as Native American in California, the highest population concentration in US. These people who reported being Native American in California represent many native nations, and, of course, not all were indigenous to California (for example,  Cherokees of California  who are not indigenous). Some people who filled out the census were of mixed race, but did not report as such. There is no procedure to check for accuracy in reporting.  The Native American category in the census made up 1% of Californians.  When adding reported Native Americans to those who stated a native heritage in addition to another heritage (mixed race), the total count was 627,562 or 1.9% of Californians. The Native American population count has grown significantly outstripping the national rate since the late 1980s. Some of the reason for this growth is a phenomenon called "switching"---meaning that some people did not report their race formerly as Native American, but have switched for various reasons, one being it is more acceptable now to be an American Indian than in previous decades.

2002 - California dedicates bronze plaque on the steps of the Capitol Building to California Indians.   California Indian Seal

2003 -  Professor Edward Castillo of Sonoma State University  receives grant to develop curriculum for grade schoolers about indigenous history.  Many students do not hear the real story of Native-American history until they come to college.

no date - Some time in the last few years, Capitol Park added a grinding rock to honor native peoples.

2005 - In January,  D-Q University  lost its accreditation.

2007 - December 15-Representatives of Miwoks accept apology. Francis Quinn, retired Catholic bishop of Sacramento, apologized for cruelties the Church committed against Native Americans at the 109th anniversary of Mission San Rafael Archangel. The mistreatment of Miwoks at the mission has rarely been acknowledged.

2007 - Remembering the old days, Yosemite / Paiute   Harold Miller , you-tube video

(Outlines a good working history of the laws facing California Natives)

Impact of European Contact (Sutton 181) • Disease (smallpox, measles and malaria) • Forced relocation (missions, reservations/ranchos/rancherias) • Military incursions by Spanish and Mexicans • Loss of territory to settlers • 90+% decline in population ("…3 00,000 reduced to 20,000 c. 1906"; Sutton 181) "The Missionized Mind" 1. Physical - The techniques of brutal punishment forced upon Native men, women and children with the specific intent of erasing any attribute of Native culture for those who lived-worked at the missions. 2. Pshycological - The trauma endured by Native people (men, women and children) steaming from the forced dislocation from traditional territories the and attempted dismantling of Native traditional cultural values that continues to be present through multiple generations. 3. Political - The process by which EuroAmericans established themselves as the dominant administrative and political force above Native socio-political standards that were already in effect. 4. Environmental - The impact of over farming, gaming/hunting and the stress of towns upon the land due to the influx of EuroAmerican standards and colonization. Political Organization (Sutton 182 – 183) • Tribes established with a formal leader (chief) • Few bands were established • Chiefdoms were used by several groups – “…large populations in permanent or semi-permanent villages” (Sutton 183) Social Organizations (Sutton 183) • Lineage often formed into clans • Moeities common in Southern California • Complex social stratification present – could be either matrilineal or patrilineal Economics (Sutton 183 – 185) • Complex and extensive trade system • Used money, market and barter • Hunting/gathering - ex. acorns, pine nuts, grass seeds, roots, berries, deer rabbits, rodents, insects, sea mammals, shellfish, salmon, tule elk, pronghorn antelope Material Culture and Technology (Sutton 185 – 186) • Highly evolved stone wares and tools • Use of natural elements – ex. plants (wood, bark, leaves) • Highly stylized tradition of Basketry  Basketry weaving materials  Pomo Burden Basket  Lusieno Rattlesnake Basket Religion (Sutton 186) • Centered on ceremonial cycles • Three main religious events: 1. World Renewal (Northwest California) - maintained world order, health, resource productivity, sought to prevent disasters 2. Toloache (visible south of San Francisco Bay) used datura, or toloache, a hallucinogen used to conjure visions 3. Kuksu cult (visible in the San Francisco Bay area and northern Central Valley) - to “ recreate original sacred and pure state of world and to return the living to that world” (Sutton 186) through secret ceremonies • Coyote – trickster used in tales/fables/mythology to educate and tell stories California Natives Today As of 2007: • c. 80,000 California Natives • c. 112 federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Tribes: Non-Federally recognized Tribes: Acjachamen Tribe video - background information • Nearly 600,000 acres of reservation/rancheria lands • Major battle over Gaming launched successfully in California (CALIFORNIA v. CABAZON BAND OF MISSION INDIANS, 480 U.S. 202 (1987) Morongo Band of Mission Indians - Gaming Compact Hearing (April 2007)