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After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Describe the nature of communication.1.

Appreciate the differences and similarities between business communication and

management communication.

Recognize the functions and activities involved in managing and management

communication.

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Use the types of communication that take place at the primary levels of management.4.

Understand how business and communication trends in luence careers and career success.5.

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From a child's irst words to inal

pronouncements at a funeral, communication

in luences how and what we learn, how we

interact with others, and how we make a

living.

Communication touches nearly every aspect of life.

From a child's irst words to inal pronouncements at a

funeral, communication in luences how and what we

learn, how we interact with others, and how we make

a living. Those who experience dif iculty

communicating, for whatever reason, face a major

disadvantage. Also, those who are gifted at

communication often achieve a great deal of success,

in their personal lives and on the job.

One of the great truisms of business may be that

innovative ideas lead to big pro its. The Internet and

e‐commerce resulted from the idea that computers

could be linked together through new technologies.

The concept that people would like made‐to‐order

sandwiches in a fast‐food mode became transformed

into Subway restaurants. The notion that consumers would respond to a low‐priced, no‐frills‐

but‐friendly airline brought Southwest Airlines to life. Many companies, products, product

improvements, and improvements in production systems resulted from a great idea that one person

was able to transmit to others, and then turn into action (Gomez‐Mejia, Balkin, & Cardy, 2005).

This text focuses on communication in the world of business. Two themes run throughout all of the

chapters. The irst concentrates on presenting individual communication skills that you need to

enjoy a successful business career. The second is to adapt those skills to the task of managing in an

organization. These themes are both enhanced by an emphasis on the importance of critical thinking

and decision‐making skills.

This chapter opens with a very basic discussion about the nature of information, communication,

and meaning. The concepts are then applied to business situations. Next, the chapter provides a

detailed description of management communication. It also explores the differences and similarities

that exist in the areas of business communication and management communication. The chapter

continues with a discussion of the basic management activities and functions and how they relate to

the communications process. The chapter also describes the changing context of business and

management communication. Finally, it discusses the role communication plays in career success.

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Herb Kelleher encouraged his employees

to have fun and be merry while on the

job; here he talks to a Southwest Airlines

pilot.

One of the true success stories in United States commerce can be found in the birth,

growth, and development of Southwest Airlines. The central igure in the story, Herb

Kelleher, has been widely noted as an architect of a career model that would succeed in

nearly any industry. Among Kelleher's many talents, the ability to communicate stands out.

Southwest Airlines owns the reputation of being

a place where employees are empowered and

loyal. To build this type of environment,

Kelleher's management style includes the

following concepts:

Share your purpose, vision, and values.

Make people heroes.

Be honest and consistent in

communication.

Make sure you can see that communication

is open and lowing through all

departments.

Make sure all the staff has the information

they need to make decisions (Frieberg &

Frieberg, 2010).

Among these ive principles, elements of a successful management communication style

are apparent. The ideas suggest a strong set of personal principles as a guideline for

interpersonal relationships, effective interpersonal communication, and the development

of communication systems that help people succeed on the job.

Kelleher's methods included staff meetings that resembled pep rallies as much as business

programs. The management team he led took a light‐hearted approach to the business.

They encouraged light attendants to show their personalities, if the attendants felt like it.

Some would wear Hawaiian shirts as they tended to passengers. Others sang while going

about their duties. Southwest's managers did not train people to do so, but, as Kelleher

noted, "I just thought most people would rather be entertained than bored on a light"

(Dell, 2007).

Even as Kelleher encouraged his employees to have fun and be merry while on the job, he

also exhibited an iron will when dealing with outside forces. Kelleher and Southwest

engaged in numerous legal battles to get the airline off the ground. Industry rivals did not

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want additional competition in the Texas area, where Southwest launched operations. The

company endured lawsuits and other maneuvers before eventually beginning lights.

Kelleher's communications model differs somewhat from traditional management and

marketing thinking. While many organizations believe the starting point will be keeping

customers happy, Kelleher instead concentrated on keeping employees happy—believing

that they would in turn provide the high‐quality customer service that helps an airline

succeed.

At the end of his time as CEO of Southwest Airlines, Kelleher was in high demand as a

speaker for other companies and organizations. His fun‐loving, self‐effacing, and genuine

style of leadership earned him many accolades as the personi ication of a charismatic

leader. The birth and growth of his popular airline suggests such a title is well‐deserved.

What was the primary message that Herb Kelleher communicated to the employees at

Southwest Airlines?

How does Kelleher's communication style link to his success story at Southwest

Airlines?

Following Kelleher's departure, Southwest Airlines encountered several problems with

airplane safety, incurring history's biggest ine for safety violations. Ignoring passenger

and employee safety to increase pro its represents a failure of ethical reasoning. What

communication failures may have contributed to this problem, and how can a

management communication system help ensure that it does not happen again?

Communication may be de ined as transmitting, receiving, and processing information. Information

consists of any item that evokes or has meaning. Communication therefore involves the transfer of

meaning or information from one person or group to others (Fabun, 1968). Note that "information"

and "meaning" range from the most trivial tidbit ("Look at that bird on the back fence") to the most

complex ideas possible ("The meaning of life is. . ."). Information takes a variety of forms, including:

terms or words

symbols

igures or numbers

a single concept

sets of concepts combined

For any of these to evoke meaning, a recipient must understand them. For instance, most people

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older than 25 years of age who grew up in the United States understand this combination of letters

and numbers:

Y2K

A child of 10, who knows how to read, probably does not. The young person does not process the

information, owing to a lack of frame of reference. Consequently, actual communication occurs only

when all three elements of the de inition: (1) transmitting, (2) receiving, and (3) processing take

place, because each is necessary to transfer meaning from one person to another (Berlo, 1960).

De ine communication. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Communication is transmitting, receiving, and processing information.

Explain the three main elements of the de inition of communication as they relate to

the concept of meaning. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The three elements are transmitting, receiving, and processing of information. Each is

necessary to transfer meaning from one person to another.

In the world of commerce, a great deal of information lies about. Some is processed and has

meaning; some does not. One purpose of this book is to help you become a better communicator by

framing information in such a way that your intended audience understands the meaning, as you

intend it. Business organizations rely on information being correctly sent and interpreted in a

variety of ways and to a variety of audiences. Beyond interpersonal communication and

communication systems in organizations, other levels exist. In this text, four levels of communication

receive attention: (1) individual (interpersonal), (2) within organizations, (3) across organizational

boundaries, and (4) across international boundaries.

Communication Within Organizations

In business organizations, two levels of communication are present: interpersonal communication

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and communication within the organization itself. In that context, interpersonal communication

takes place between individuals or one individual with a small set of other people. Communication

systems are the methods and technologies that transmit information throughout an organization.

Communication systems include group dynamics intra (within) and inter (between) groups as well

as the most complex methods of moving information throughout an organization. Table 1.1 provides

examples of interpersonal communication and communication systems in an organization (Bedeian,

1986, pp. 522–541).

Table 1.1: Forms of communication within organizations

Interpersonal Communication Communication Systems

Supervisor with employee Between members of a team or group

Employee with employee Between two or more groups

Supervisor to a team of employees Formal management channels

Informal channels (gossip, rumors)

The coming chapters highlight all of the methods that facilitate communication in these

circumstances. The material also notes the many obstacles to communication, both in interpersonal

settings and in communication systems. Quality communication takes place only when the proper

methods are used to overcome those barriers.

What two levels of business communication are present in the business community?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The two levels are interpersonal and business communication systems.

Communications Across Domestic and International Boundaries

Additional vital information lows across organizational boundaries to other individuals, groups, and

organizations. Communications across domestic boundaries include messages sent to suppliers,

retailers, governmental organizations, special‐interest groups, and individual customers. These take

the forms of letters, reports, statements, interpersonal contacts, public relations statements, and

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marketing messages. A company cannot survive unless quality interactions take place between it and

these persons and groups.

Furthermore, in today's global marketplace, many organizations form contacts and partnerships with

businesses in other countries. Some of these contacts take the form of supplier–manufacturer and

manufacturer–retailer relationships. Others involve interactions with foreign governments and other

agencies. A complete business communication program effectively accounts for all four levels of

communication (McCune, 1998).

Just as communication in luences nearly every aspect of life, communication affects every element of

an organization. As an entrepreneurial idea germinates into a new company, the need for quality

communication becomes evident with every step of the way. In other words, each stage of the

business life cycle requires quality communication. Figure 1.1 displays an example of a life cycle.

This concept applies to products, companies, and industries (McCarthy, 1981).

Figure 1.1: A life cycle model

The life cycle model depicts the evolution of a company from when it is born,

through its stages of greatest success, to eventual decline and death. The company

starts with growth, when sales are low but increasing; moves to maturity, where

sales peak; then moves into decline, where sales decrease.

As a company is born, it takes a great deal of time, money, and effort to make the irm known to

potential employees, suppliers, and customers. Unless the word gets out, the company will be

doomed to failure. About 15 percent of new businesses survive past the irst two years (Belmont

University, 2005). Firms that survive the initial shake‐out do so, in part, by effectively transmitting

messages to customers, retail outlets, and every other person or group that has contact with the

company.

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As irms grow, an increasing number of groups require attention. Most of the time, the management

team adds additional specialists to respond to this increase. For example, the production department

might be divided into those who purchase and store raw materials, those who physically assemble

the product, and the group who stores inventory and ships items to customers. The marketing

department will likely be divided into areas such as sales, advertising, and public relations. This

specialization allows for more precise messaging and servicing to various groups.

Mature irms require sophisticated information systems to ef iciently and effectively conduct

operations. Managers in these irms are expected to effectively transmit information to internal

employees and departments as well as interact with members of other organizations and the general

public.

Even companies in decline need to communicate. A irm that goes out of business still needs to be

liquidated, with remaining inventories and structures eventually sold to inal buyers.

The messages sent out change as a irm passes through the stages of its life cycle. The media

available to send messages evolve, and the audience shifts. Company leaders succeed when they are

able to identify the right voice and message for each phase. Skills in the areas of business

communication and management communication are vital to each operation.

What are the four parts of a life cycle? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The four stages are introduction, growth, maturity, and decline.

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Every type of organization, whether it is pro it‐seeking, a nonpro it, or a government, engages with a

series of individuals and groups that affects its operations, and it is important to understand who

these groups are before exploring how they communicate with one another. The names given to

those that interact with an organization are publics and stakeholders. Publics include every group

that has contact with a company or organization. One set of publics is essentially neutral regarding

what takes place within a irm. The media, for example, may report on a company's success or

failure without being affected in any way other than having a story to write. Employees in other

companies that make contact with a irm are publics as well. Stakeholders consist of the publics

that have vested interests in an organization. Table 1.2 displays two sets of stakeholders that

interact with the management of an organization (Phillips & Freeman, 2003).

Table 1.2: Stakeholders

Internal

Stakeholders

External Stakeholders

Employees Suppliers

Unions Customers (individual and other

businesses)

Shareholders Government

Local community

Educational institutions

Special‐interest groups

Internal stakeholders derive their vested interests from wanting the organization to succeed, in

terms of pro its, growth, and stability. Employees want to believe their jobs are secure, as do unions.

Shareholders seek evidence that the stock will retain its value or grow in value as well as pay

dividends.

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External stakeholders have more diverse vested interests. Suppliers want ongoing customers to buy

their raw materials. Retail and business‐to‐business customers desire quality products at favorable

prices. The government works to maintain a business environment in which companies thrive while

limiting illegal activity and unfair competition. The local community wants an employer that treats

workers in a fair and equitable manner and that maintains a safe environment. Educational

institutions like to know that their graduates have places to apply for work and jobs waiting for

them. Special‐interest groups pursue various agendas that at times in luence a company's

operations, such as when People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) protested the use of

animals in circuses, rodeos, motion pictures, and in product research and testing (as cited in

Freeman, 1984, pp. 3–30).

De ine publics and stakeholders. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Publics include every group that has contact with a company or organization. Stakeholders

consist of the publics that have vested interests in an organization.

Business communication consists of the total set of venues used to transmit messages to all

publics and stakeholders, within the company and outside the company. The range of contacts

included in business communication extends from a single person illing out a blank application and

submitting a cover letter to complex internal reports on technological innovations, trade secrets, and

reports to the government. Business communication consists of numerous modes, including those

shown in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Modes of business communication

Written Verbal

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Letters

Memos

Job application forms

Business proposals

Internal Reports

Reports to shareholders

Contracts

Company manual or

handbook

Company magazine or

newspaper

Bulletin board

Public relations releases

Email/social media

Website

Advertisements

Face‐to‐face interactions

Meetings

Presentations

Speeches

News conferences

Business communication can be directed from outside the company to someone inside (letter of

application, letter of reference) or from inside the company outward (shareholder reports,

presidential speech). Business communication also moves internally from one employee to another

and from one department to another.

De ine business communication. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Business communication consists of the total set of venues used to transmit messages to all

publics and stakeholders, within the company and outside of the company.

List ive modes of written and verbal business communication.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Written includes letters, memos, job application forms, business proposal forms, internal

reports, reports to shareholders, contracts, company manuals and handbooks, company

magazines and newspapers, bulletin boards, and public relations releases. Verbal

communication includes face‐to‐face interactions, meetings, presentations, speeches, and

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Social media and the Internet have changed

the nature of management and business

communication.

news conferences.

Over the years, management communication has been compared to a variety of concepts. Some

suggest it resembles electricity, or the energy that makes a company run. Another perspective argues

that communication takes the form of the glue that holds a business together. A third vantage point

is that communication is most like gasoline, a fuel that keeps the business engine running. No

matter which perspective you believe, it is easy to conclude that management communication

represents an integral part of the business.

In this text, we de ine management communication as

the following: all efforts to systematically plan,

implement, monitor, and upgrade the channels of

communication within the organization and with

outside organizations that affect a company's internal

operations. Managerial communication applies to the

functions and activities of the management team. In

essence, management communication is a subset of the

overall subject of business communication. In this

book, both topics receive coverage. Much of the time,

the analysis of a subject includes both business and

management communication. When the topic is a

speci ic management activity, conclude that

management communication concepts are being

applied.

The de inition of management communication suggests

two important concepts. First, management

communication is an ongoing process that goes beyond simply installing a system. Effective

management communication relies on continual monitoring and upgrading of channels. In an age in

which communication technologies develop and evolve quickly, successful companies take advantage

of the innovations to provide better‐quality products and services, and to create a better workplace

environment for employees. For example, many companies now use instant messaging systems to

communicate with employees. Nearly every company has adjusted to the new world of social media

by creating a Facebook page and a Twitter account.

Second, the de inition identi ies two key channels of communication. The irst set of channels moves

information within the company. The second set of channels creates contacts with outside groups

that affect internal operations. These include suppliers, retail outlets, the government, and other

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agencies. Company accounting systems and inventory‐control mechanisms are internal channels.

Reordering raw materials by using the Internet involves channels with outside groups.

What, then, are the key differences and similarities between management communication and

business communication? Obviously, a great deal of overlap exists. The common elements between

business communication and management communication include:

internal contacts and activities

external interactions with publics and stakeholders

use of verbal, nonverbal, and written channels

common skill sets required

The primary difference between business communication and management communication lies in

the range of functions. Business communication applies to every aspect of a company's operations,

including some activities that do not have a managerial component. For example, writing a

high‐quality letter of application and making an impressive appearance in a job interview are parts

of the business communication process that do not involve any managerial activity.

De ine management communication. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Management communication consists of all efforts to systematically plan, implement,

monitor, and upgrade the channels of communication within the organization and with

outside organizations that affect a company's internal operations.

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To better understand management communication, it is best to begin with the basic concepts and

function of management. Management can be de ined as getting things done through others. The

essential point of such a simple de inition rests with the word "others" (Trewatha, Newport, &

Johnson, 1997).

In most companies, the entry‐level person with the highest level of technical skill most quickly

stands out from the crowd. That individual may be a gifted salesperson, production employee,

information technology operator, server in a restaurant, or worker in another capacity. After some

successful time on the job, that person is likely to be considered for promotion. Those who are

promoted and become supervisors may quickly become frustrated with entry‐level employees who

are not as talented. The tendency, then, is to want to do everyone else's job for them; however, that

is not managing. Managing shows others how to improve their levels of performance. The task of

managing others encompasses two areas: (1) completing the basic managerial functions or

processes and (2) engaging in the everyday managerial activities and interactions.

De ine management. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Management is getting things done through other people.

The standard approach to management involves four functions: (1) planning, (2) organizing, (3)

directing, and (4) control. Each requires key communication skills and activities.

Planning involves preparing a course of action for the future, in the short, medium, and long range.

Short‐term plans include budgets, projects, and programs. Budgets are inancial plans. Projects are

plans spelled out for a single‐time activity, such as renovating a store or repaving the parking lot.

Programs consist of sets of projects that lead to a long‐term change. Bringing a new product to

market requires several projects, including developing the physical product and creating a package,

label, brand name, logo, and other items. Creating an e‐commerce program to supplement a brick‐

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Hemera/Thinkstock

Managing involves directing

others to achieve organizational

goals.

and‐mortar store also involves several projects. Medium‐range

plans, which cover periods of one to three years, are tactics.

Long‐term plans are strategies.

Organizing combines people and resources to create goods and

services through the processes of job design, departmentalization,

and drawing lines of authority and responsibility. Job design

includes the steps of stating the tasks that are part of the job.

Departmentalization means placing the jobs into individual groups

or departments. Drawing lines of authority and responsibility

creates the organizational structure and hierarchy of the company.

Directing, or actuating, involves seeking to achieve the highest

levels of performance. Teaching, motivating, leading, and working

with teams and groups improve the odds of success. Actuating

represents the people side of business.

The control process consists of comparing performance to

standards, making corrections when needed, and rewarding

success. Control occurs at three levels: (1) individual, or the

performance appraisal process, (2) departmental, and (3) companywide. Control includes correcting

problems and making sure to recognize those who succeed with tangible rewards (Trewatha,

Newport, & Johnson, 1997).

Note that communication is essential to each of these management functions. Table 1.4 outlines the

forms of communication that accompany each function.

Table 1.4: Communication and management

Management

Function

Description Management Communications

Planning Short‐term Sales forecast, budget

Project plan

Program

Medium‐term Tactical plans

Long‐term Strategic plans

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Organizing Job design Job descriptions (formal lists of employee

duties)

Departmentalization Organization chart

Organizational

hierarchy

Organization chart

Company manual or handbook

Directing Teaching On‐ and off‐the‐job training

Motivation In‐person

Motivational systems including goal‐setting

programs

Leadership Meetings

Speeches

Formal reports

Teams and groups Group reports

Control Short‐term Inventories

Daily reports

Annual income summary

Annual balance sheet

Internal ratio analysis and reports

Financial reports including reports to

shareholders

Performance appraisal reports

Long‐term Strategic control

Formal reports

Brie ly describe the four main managerial functions. (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The four managerial functions are planning, organizing, directing, and maintaining control.

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How do managers carry out the processes of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling? If you

were to follow a manager around during the course of the day, it would be tempting to think you

never saw any of the functions being carried out. Instead, you would observe the following activities:

talking on the phone

making conversation in the hallway

running formal meetings

talking in informal groups (such as in the hallway or break room)

having lunch with key constituents

socializing with various publics (golf, tennis, cocktails)

answering correspondence (printed and electronic)

reviewing and "signing off" on paperwork

preparing formal reports

preparing and delivering speeches for electronic or public transmission

The phrase MBWA applies to managers: Managing by Wandering Around. Most of the time, it

involves interactions with other people (Horne & Pupton, 1965). Many conversations are interrupted

or are disjointed, covering a series of topics in the same meeting. In essence, the job of manager

largely consists of communication activities.

During these interactions, managers identify problems, gather information, try to gain consensus for

plans of action, give orders, enhance interpersonal relationships, and even gossip. All this data helps

the manager make quality plans, reinforce the organizational hierarchy, lead others, motivate

employees, direct groups, and collect information that will help in the control process (Pondy, 1978).

Henry Mintzberg conducted one classic study of managerial activities, observing a series of top

managers as they worked over an extended period of time. Mintzberg discovered that managers

spent a considerable amount of time engaging in activities such as conversing in hallways, answering

correspondence by mail and by phone, holding both formal and informal meetings, and socializing at

events such as lunch, cocktail hours, and golf or tennis matches. He concluded that, by engaging in

these activities, managers play various roles in their daily activities. Table 1.5 lists these roles.

Table 1.5: Managerial roles

Interpersonal Roles Example Communication Skills

Needed

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Figurehead Ceremonial; give out

retirement gifts; ribbon‐

cutting ceremonies

Short speeches, handshakes

and informal greetings,

writing

letters/acknowledgments

Leader Bargaining with unions;

meeting with

governmental of icials;

making public speeches

Negotiation, problem‐solving,

public speaking, writing

Liaison (internal boundaries) Resolving internal

disputes; assigning tasks

to departments;

coordinating between

departments

Negotiation, problem‐solving,

con lict resolution,

goal‐setting, team‐building,

interpersonal communication

Liaison (external boundaries) Meeting with other

company managers

Interpersonal communication,

negotiation, con lict resolution,

listening

Informational Roles Example Communication Skills

Needed

Collector Collecting information

from other companies;

reading reports

Analysis of information;

problem‐solving; interpersonal

communication

Processor From the government;

reading business journals

and industry trade

journals

Communication listening

Processor Passing information to

internal employees and

departments;

Interpersonal communication

public speaking

Spokesperson Acting as company

spokesperson

Public speaking

Decisional Roles Example Communication Skills

Needed

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Resource Allocator Complete budgeting

process

Negotiation, interpersonal

communication

Negotiator Bargain with suppliers,

retailers, unions

Negotation, problem‐solving,

con lict resolution

Entrepreneur Develop new products;

expand internationally

Problem‐solving, negotiation

Disturbance Handler Resolve strikes and

disputes

Con lict resolution

Sources: The Nature of Managerial Work, by H. Mintzberg, 1973, New York: Harper & Row. "The Manager's Job,

Folklore and Fact," by H. Mintzberg, 1975. Harvard Business Review (July–August), pp. 49–61. Management, by A. G.

Bedeian, 1986. Chicago: The Dryden Press.

Interpersonal Roles

Many of the personal contacts made by managers relate to interpersonal roles they are expected to

play. Some of these originate from the duties associated with organizational rank. The igurehead

role consists of the many ceremonial activities present in the company. When someone retires and is

awarded a gold watch or present, often a top manager presents that gift. Members of the

management team are among those selected to cut the ribbon at the opening of a new unit or wing

of a building. They often double as MCs (master of ceremonies) for events or ill requests to make

short, appropriate comments. Managers are expected to respond to important incoming mail and

make acknowledgments for various types of requests, including items as benign as a tour of the

business facility.

In the role of leader, the manager takes charge and directs activities. Leadership goes beyond

planning, directing, and control. It encompasses personal skills and characteristics such as

persuasiveness, charisma, and team‐building (Kotter, 1999). Leaders are the visible persona of the

overall organization and communicate in individual, group, and organization‐wide settings,

effectively using verbal and written skills.

The liaison role emerges when a manager bridges an organizational boundary. Some boundaries

divide parts of the organization internally. Effective managers build cooperative relationships with

managers in other parts of the organization. At times, doing so includes overcoming problems and

disputes. When a manufacturing manager seeks to standardize products to the greatest degree

possible and the sales manager wants every item tailor‐made, the top management expects them to

resolve the differences by understanding the goals and perspectives of each side. The production

manager wants to optimize output at the best possible cost. The sales manager wishes to serve the

customers' needs. Many managers spend nearly half their time working with managers from other

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Informational roles for managers include

collecting and disseminating information.

departments (Horne & Lupton, 1965; Bedeian, 1986, p.

13).

The second boundary to be crossed is the one that

divides the organization from its larger environment. A

liaison also forms relationships with leaders in other

organizations, including those who conduct business

with the company, and members of the government

and local community. Socialization at this level

includes belonging to civic organizations and attending

civic events as well as quieter, less‐visible connections

(Dollinger, 1984).

Informational Roles

Management communication skills directly apply to the informational roles managers play. In the

role of monitor, one key managerial activity consists of collecting information about the company's

external environment that might affect the irm's operations. This is called scanning the

environment, and it involves attending meetings and social events, reading news releases and

stories, making phone calls, sur ing the web, and other methods. Ineffective managers are constantly

taken by surprise if they do not scan the environment. Effective managers are on top of things.

The role of disseminator includes decision‐making and information transmission. Disseminators

make decisions about which individuals and groups should receive key information. Information

transmission takes several forms, such as an informal conversation, a formal meeting, an email or

letter, and satellite transmissions or teleconferences with employees in distant locations. Successful

managers know how to keep the right people in the loop so that they can effectively perform their

jobs.

Managers who serve as spokespersons probably assume the most visible informational role,

presenting messages to the media. Some of these messages are limited to the transmission of facts,

such as when an accident or emergency occurs. Other messages take the form of persuasion and

opinion. A hospital executive serves as a spokesperson when writing an op‐ed piece for the local

newspaper about ways to manage rising health care costs.

Decisional Roles

One of the most exciting aspects of serving as a manager results from the decisional roles played.

This is especially the case when the manager serves as the organization's entrepreneur. The

manager initiates change by leading the way in creating new goods and services, delivering the

products using innovative methods, and inding methods to enhance and upgrade older products in

a manner that refreshes interest in them. In addition to designing and bringing new products to

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market, company leaders make decisions to delete some aspects of its operations, such as choosing

to close certain operating locations or eliminate products. When activities stop, these managers help

soothe the raw emotions of those who are displaced by the changes. Managers engaged in

entrepreneurship require conceptual understanding of the marketplace, the company's customers,

and the organization's capacity to adapt to changing circumstances.

As disturbance handlers, managers take the lead in helping to resolve any type of organizational

crisis. Some of these result from managers failing to properly oversee an activity, where the event

evolved due to negligence or misunderstanding of the circumstances. For example, failing to take

seriously employee complaints about unhealthy working conditions, or ignoring the actions of an

overly aggressive supervisor, can lead to a crisis in which a strike or work slowdown results. Other

crises result from unpredictable events, such as a natural disaster or terrorist attack. In both

situations, the manager identi ies the source of the problem and inds reasonable solutions.

Resource allocation goes beyond signing off on an annual budget. While the distribution of inancial

resources constitutes a major part of this role, other resources are allocated as well. A manager

decides who receives a choice of ice space. A manager may decide which employee receives

secretarial support and who does not. Managers allocate time to various projects and ideas,

developing some and rejecting others. Every type of allocation contains the potential for con lict.

Employees become unhappy when their budgets are lower or their needs are not met. Resource

allocation requires wise judgments and the ability to effectively communicate decisions and the

rationale for each decision.

The role of negotiator closely relates to resource allocation. This element of the role includes

bargaining within the organization, most notably with unions and employee groups as well as with

outside organizations. Managers negotiate terms of relationships with suppliers and retail outlets.

Retailers and manufacturers negotiate, as do wholesalers and other intermediaries.

As Table 1.5 indicates, various communication skills are part of every role that Mintzberg suggests

managers play. Some of these activities take place at the interpersonal level; others require use of

communication systems within the organization. Others still depend on contacts made across

organizational boundaries. Managers must effectively communicate to enact their interpersonal,

informational, and decisional roles. Managers who adeptly apply these skills achieve the greatest

levels of success, in terms of both organizational effectiveness and being viewed as talented and

worthy of promotion.

Name the three categories of managerial roles Henry Mintzberg suggested and

provide examples of each type of role. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The three categories are interpersonal, informational, and decisional.

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The activities and functions of management take place on three primary levels: (1) strategic, (2)

tactical, and (3) operational (Gomez‐Mejia, Balkin, & Cardy, 2005, p. 9). The level of management

involved affects management communications. Each type of manager relies on a different set of

communication venues, depending on the person's rank and position in the organization (Bateman &

Snell, 2002).

Strategic managers include the company's chief executive and those of the next highest rank. Typical

names for the top manager are chief executive of icer (CEO) or president. The strategic executive

team consists of individuals with titles such as chief operating of icer (COO) or the vice president of

a function, such as vice president of marketing or vice president of production. Together these

individuals plot the course of the overall organization. Strategic plans and decisions made by this

group extend for many years. The strategic management team creates policies, which are the

organization's general guidelines. One policy of Southwest Airlines is to maintain an employee‐

friendly environment. A policy for the Mountain Dew line of products, which is a part of PepsiCo, is

to sell high‐energy soft drinks to a target market largely consisting of younger consumers. The

documents produced by the top management team include:

strategic plans

policies

statements to shareholders

of icial decisions

Verbal communications at this level include group meetings, speeches to groups of employees,

speeches to external publics, and interactions with the media.

The middle tier of managers directs speci ic functions and activities, such as information technology,

production, quality control, research and development, marketing, sales, and accounting. These

managers have risen through the ranks because of a combination of technical skills and managerial

success. They are pro icient at their functions (selling, producing products, developing new products,

managing accounting operations) and have exhibited the ability to raise the performance levels of

others. Their planning process involves creating programs that support strategic plans. These plans

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are called tactics. Tactics in marketing include a new advertising campaign, combined with a new

package or label, in order to invigorate a product's appeal. Tactics in the warehouse include the shift

from standard inventory control methods to more modern approaches, such as the just‐in‐time

system, which more ef iciently coordinates the low of merchandise from the manufacturer to the

retail store. Tactics normally run for about three years.

Tactical managers create directives called functional area policies, which take company policies and

apply them to speci ic activities. In the case of Mountain Dew, the functional area policy in human

resources is to hire people who relate well to youngsters. The functional area policy in research and

development is to create products that are high energy, brightly colored, and appealing to a youthful

audience. In accounting, ongoing systems continue, such as rapid depreciation methods, and

methods of valuing inventory, such as FIFO ( irst in, irst out) or LIFO (last in, irst out). These

provide continuity for the department over time.

Tactical managers engage in a variety of communications. On a verbal level, this includes:

interactions with managers in other departments

interactions with top management

interactions with irst‐line supervisors

Many times, tactical or middle managers must adapt to the "superior‐subordinate syndrome," which

means that at times they deal with people of higher rank and that at others they lead people at

lower levels in the hierarchy. Seamlessly adjusting to both roles requires quality verbal

communication skills (Robbins & Hunsaker, 1996, pp. 73–75).

Written communications by middle‐level managers include functional area policies, medium‐range

plans, notations of speci ic decisions and directions related to departmental activities, and notes or

minutes of meetings with other departmental leaders.

Operational managers are irst‐line supervisors, department managers, and of ice managers. They

direct the activities of speci ic functional employees. A supervisor in the production department

oversees the actual manufacture of products. A supervisor in the accounting department manages

payroll, accounts payable, and accounts receivable. A head waiter oversees all servers. An of ice

manager in a physician's of ice takes care of the nurses, patients, paperwork, and the doctor's

schedule.

Operational managers engage in direct, interpersonal conversations and interactions as a primary

part of the job. Much of this work is verbal. First‐line supervisors train employees, correct their

mistakes, and teach them about the company's rules and discipline system. First‐line supervisors

also provide mentoring, counseling, and coaching, as well as motivational and leadership activities.

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Operational managers engage in direct,

interpersonal conversations and interactions

as a primary part of the job.

Other verbal interactions include team meetings with

employee groups and with other supervisors.

The written forms completed by irst‐line supervisors

include:

daily reports

notices of disciplinary actions

work schedules

inventory reports

memos to middle managers

Operational managers may not need the same level of

writing skills as a middle‐ or strategic manager,

because less written communication is required at that

organizational level. At the same time, however, a supervisor who writes a crisp and informative

memo or report will likely capture the attention of those at higher ranks. This can bode well for

being admitted to a manager training program or being promoted to middle management.

Strategic, tactical, and operational managers all engage in managerial communications. The modes

and messages vary, as do the skills needed evolve as a person moves through organizational ranks.

Table 1.6 notes the blend of technical, human‐relations, and conceptual skills required in managerial

functions.

Table 1.6: Managerial focus

Rank Conceptual/Technical Skills Human Relations

Skills

Required Writing

Skills

Strategic High conceptual, low technical High human

relations

High

Tactical Moderate conceptual, moderate

technical

High human

relations

Moderate to high

Operational Low conceptual, high technical High human

relations

Low to moderate

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What are the three levels of management? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The three levels are strategic or top level, tactical middle managers, and operational

irst‐line supervisors.

Explain how conceptual, technical, and human relations activities are part of the

three primary management levels. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

As a manager is promoted to higher levels, the job becomes less technical and more

conceptual. The degree of human relations activities changes, from direct supervision to

interacting with publics and stakeholders as well as other managers.

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Business and management communication are among the most rapidly changing areas of commerce.

As technology creates new products, product improvements, and improvements in production

methods, it affects the ways in which individuals, managers, and companies communicate. Social

trends also in luence business communication. Immigration patterns have altered the composition of

the United States population. Advances in medical technologies allow people to live longer.

To communicate effectively in business and management communications, you must be aware of

several current trends. These factors play key roles in company operations and in luence individual

career success. Business and management communication practitioners must adapt to the following

trends:

diversity

globalization and outsourcing

pace of life and work

evolving workplace technologies

in luence of social media

ethical challenges

These factors have reshaped the ways in which many jobs are performed and the management

processes that guide employees.

Management and business communication skills include the ability to adapt to an increasingly

diverse work force that includes persons from a variety of backgrounds. The most commonly cited

facets of employment diversity are race and ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic

status, and physical abilities and challenges.

Race and Ethnicity

African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans constitute three of the largest minority groups

found in the United States (United States Census, 2011). Statistical racial composition pro iles are

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

An increasingly diverse work force shapes the

modern business landscape.

somewhat skewed, however, because Hispanic is not

considered to be a race. The presence of majority and

minority groups in luences numerous company

activities.

Racial and ethnic groups of all kinds create unique

marketing opportunities. Target markets re lecting

different cultural values have emerged (Haddad, 2003).

Increased interest in the requirements of a speci ic

culture can make a culturally distinct product, such as

the Japanese futon bed, that appeals to a greater

number of customers in a variety of countries.

Furthermore, persons from various backgrounds bring

unique perspectives to the work force. Managers who are adept at incorporating such perspectives

into the organization create a healthy work environment that is inviting to new applicants. For

example, Fortune magazine annually lists employers that are most hospitable to individuals from

various ethnic backgrounds (CNN Money, 2011).

Continuing cultural bias and discrimination toward certain groups by some in the United States

creates challenges to managers in diverse organizations. At times, language barriers also exist, such

as when a manager who speaks only English has employees whose irst language is Spanish.

Age

Differences in age can be expressed as cultural differences. Each generation's distinct experiences

lead to communication dif iculties. Currently, the irst members of the Baby Boomer generation

(those born between 1945 and 1955) are beginning to reach retirement age. Many are reconsidering

retirement, because of a series of poor judgments regarding ways to spend and save money,

combined with recent economic turmoil. The Baby Boomer generation also works with persons who

are currently in their 30s and 40s, known as Generation X (those born between 1956 and 1981).

Many of these younger individuals are frustrated by being unable to move up in the organizational

hierarchy because of the continued presence of older workers. Generation Y workers (those born

after 1981) often express different values from Generation X, including the unwillingness to

exchange personal and family time for long hours sitting at a desk. Managers working with persons

from these different generations, sometimes called generational cohorts, help smooth over these

divergent views of the world and communicate in a way that is appropriate for all.

Gender

Among the continuing differences between men and women in organizations are pay differences,

tendency toward various types of jobs, and the glass ceiling effect in which women are less likely to

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Stocktrek Images/Thinkstock

The repeal of "don't ask, don't

tell" re lects new attitudes

toward sexual orientation in the

workplace and in other

organizations.

become top executives. Communication patterns and how they differ between men and women on

the job garner attention, as will be described in Chapter 2. These differences in communication at

times serve to disrupt the business environment, and good managers know how to address them.

Some gender issues have been improving, such as recent legal

gains in the areas of pay equity through the Lilly Ledbetter Fair

Pay Restoration Act of 2009. Also, a growing number of women

hold the rank of CEO, and increasing equality among men and

women has begun to emerge in certain professions.

In the area of business communication, greater numbers of

individuals know how to remove gender bias and gender

connotations in both verbal and written messages. These include

even basic changes in language choices, such as using the gender‐

neutral "server" rather than "waiter" or "waitress," or "chair"

rather than "chairman," "chair woman." Still, most business

communication experts agree that issues of gender insensitivity

remain in many organizations.

Sexual Orientation

More people now willingly identify their sexual orientation to

others. Recent changes, including the repeal of the "don't ask,

don't tell" policy within the United States military, have altered

the landscape. Still, sexual taunting and harassment continues as

well as demeaning language targeted at various individuals.

Management and business communications lead the way in making the workplace a more

comfortable environment for persons who have been subject to such bullying.

Socioeconomic Status

Socioeconomic status is determined by a series of factors, including ethnicity, income level, and

degree of educational attainment. The gap widened between those of high income and educational

levels and those of lower economic status in the early 2000s. In the workplace, managers often ind

that one set of employees has received advanced training and that another has lagged behind.

Communicating effectively with both groups, as well as bridging divides between them, constitutes

another important management challenge.

Physical Abilities and Challenges

Physical challenges come in many forms, including those associated with hearing, seeing, and

speaking; abilities related to mobility; problems associated with socialization; and dif iculties in

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communication and comprehension. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 makes it clear that

organizations must ind ways to accommodate persons with such challenges. The irst part of the

law applies to discrimination by state and local governments, and requires those entities to provide

structural accessibility. Another element regulates private enterprises that provide public

accommodations, including hotels, restaurants, and transit systems. The law also makes

telecommunication devices and services available to hearing‐impaired people and provides for

dispute resolution (Municipal Research and Services Center, 2011).

The language used to describe individuals with disabilities affects management and business

communication. Individual companies seek to ind ways to communicate how access is being

provided to those looking for jobs and persons conducting business with them as customers,

suppliers, or other publics.

Diversity issues are important to keep in mind in business and management communication.

Effective managers recognize that employees are unique individuals with varying backgrounds,

values, interests, and communication styles. Successful managers adjust to these differences and

encourage others to work in an accepting, responsible manner. They also work to improve

management communication systems to ensure a better workplace for persons of all backgrounds.

Doing so includes monitoring of communication patterns in formal channels and in terms of what is

said informally, through gossip, rumors, and other statements (Business Week, 2003).

Throughout this text, it is noted that business is no longer con ined to a nation's borders. Many

companies now engage in operations with international partners. International conglomerates are

only one form of globalization. Small manufacturers obtain component parts from companies in

other countries through the process of outsourcing. Service providers ind ways to enter new

international markets, such as the Bank of India operating in the state of New York. Business and

management communication functions must adapt to cultural differences, new markets, increasing

competition, and even time differences as part of the everyday work experience.

Operating in real time has become commonplace in today's business world as employees keep pace

with rapidly changing events. New technologies make it possible to maintain contact with the

company on a continuing basis. One communication challenge results from employees feeling as

though they are bombarded with information and manager demands. It becomes dif icult to know

which response to offer irst, when a person opens a laptop to discover 30 emails are waiting. Many

of today's workers also feel somewhat trapped by company cell phones that they are required to

answer on the weekends and tablet computers with GPS devices that make it possible to track their

every movement. Management communication consists of building trust. Constantly watching over

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someone's shoulder implies something else.

Communication technologies make it possible to work in a variety of new settings and new ways.

Telecommuting jobs, in which employees work at home and maintain electronic contact with the

company, are more common. Teleconferencing and satellite transmissions make it possible to create

business contacts around the world. Technologies such as Skype allow face‐to‐face conversations

from remote locations. Today's employees are expected to operate, understand, and adapt to new

devices and programs on a continuing basis. Some older managers need to adjust to far fewer

in‐person conversations and to rely more on electronic contacts than in the past.

The emergence of social media has been well documented. People are communicating in different

ways—tweeting or texting rather than talking. In the world of commerce, social media sites change

the ways in which business is conducted. Table 1.7 identi ies popular social media websites.

Customers can friend a product, form brand communities to share experiences with others who

purchase the same items, or complain about poor treatment by a company to a wide audience. For

most irms, a website is not a complete presence in the marketplace: Links to social media have

become vital ingredients. Management communication has changed to account for these new venues,

as they create a series of new contacts with various publics and stakeholders. Individual employees

rely on sites such as LinkedIn to maintain contacts with business associates. These relationships

may help during a job search or when someone seeks career advice or assistance.

Table 1.7: Popular social media websites

Facebook Meetup

Twitter Bebo

MySpace Mylife

LinkedIn Friendster

Google+ Flickr

Ning myHeritage

Tagged Multiply

hi5 Orkut

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myyearbook

Source: The Most Popular Social Networking Sites, eBiz. 2011, May.

Retrieved May 6, 2011 from http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/social‐

networking‐websites (http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/social‐networking‐

websites)

New technologies, increased globalization, and other trends complicate our understanding of what is

legal, ethical, both, or neither. Never before in history has a person been able to cyberbully a rival.

Never before have managers been able to so closely look into an applicant's personal life, including

videos or photos of youthful indiscretions. The entire world of commerce has been rocked by

scandals in the areas of market manipulation, pyramid and Ponzi schemes, inancial market failures,

and more.

Many of today's managers and employees operate in a cloudy, frustrating, and confusing

environment, especially those seeking to maintain high ethical standards. For example, in the ield of

business communication, one inancial tactic, short‐selling, included the transmission of false or

tainted information about a company in order to drive down the organization's stock price, solely for

the purpose of generating personal pro its and returns for investing clients.

As this brief review indicates, change is a dominant theme in business. It also applies to business

and management communication. Career success for many individuals involves the ability to respond

to the issues and challenges created by diversity, globalization, and a new, fast‐paced workplace that

is strongly affected by the presence of social media, along with the many emerging ethical and moral

challenges. Beyond training in the area of communication, managers constantly evaluate and

upgrade how they do their jobs, how they supervise others, and how they send, receive, and process

messages.

What factors have had an impact on business and management communication in

the past decade? What has the impact been? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The areas are:

• diversity

• globalization and outsourcing

• pace of life and work

• evolving workplace technologies

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• in luence of social media

• ethical challenges

Many high school seniors write essays as part of the application process to a college. Others write

statements designed to help them receive inancial assistance and scholarships. These basic writing

assignments are only the beginning of using communications skills to advance a career. From there,

verbal and written communications skills help promote people in ways that lead to being noticed

and achieving career goals throughout the rest of their working lives.

One of the primary purposes of this book is to make sure you understand the pivotal role

communications skills will play in your personal and professional future. Professionally, you must

understand the importance of quality communication in any type of organization: pro it‐seeking,

nonpro it, or governmental.

If you make a trip to a local bookstore and stop in the "relationships" section, one thing that might

jump out will be how many titles in some way connect communication to romantic success. The case

can easily be made that communication enhances or destroys a romantic involvement and the same

holds true for an employment experience. Sypher (2006) identi ied four key communications

abilities: (1) cognitive differentiation, (2) self‐monitoring, (3) perspective taking, and (4) persuasive

ability. In a study of members of an East Coast insurance company, the data indicate that the four

abilities are related to each other, and more important, are also predictive of upward mobility.

Studies such as this con irm that communication skills strongly relate to career success.

At work, at least three forms of communication take place on a daily basis: (1) interpersonal

business communication, (2) interpersonal social communication on the job, and (3) building

friendships and relationships through the combination of both. Your skills in each of these areas

help determine whether the workplace is a pleasant or dif icult environment.

Interpersonal—Business

Effectively communicating with others in order to complete workplace assignments is one primary

focus of this book. In the chapters ahead, every form of written and verbal communication on the

job receives attention. You have probably heard someone comment that an employee "acted in a

professional manner" or "was really unprofessional." A great deal of these impressions results from

how that individual communicated with others, in person, on paper, and through electronic

interactions.

More often than not, you encounter at least one individual whom you do not like, somewhere in the

company. The ability to maintain cordiality and to have professional relations with that person

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suggests a level of maturity and professional competence that indicates you are management

material. Petulant or aggressive interactions present an image of someone who is not quite ready to

move up the ranks (Osborn, 2001).

Interpersonal—Social

Many friendships begin with two people who meet on the job discovering common interests and

developing bonds that go far beyond the workplace. Communication skills that serve you well

include those that are part of engaging in the many social activities taking place at work, as well as

creating friendships and mentoring relationships.

Social interactions are part of daily work life. Chance meetings in a hallway, of ice parties to

celebrate birthdays, holiday parties, celebrating promotions, off‐site dinners, and cocktail hours are

examples of socialization on the job. If you watch carefully, someone will stand out because of his or

her ability to "work the room" in those situations. This individual seems to know everyone's name

and something about each person. Chances are the conversation concerns the other person's

interests and activities. Everyone comments that the person is a "good guy" or a "great lady."

Knowing how to build those bonds, without appearing to be phony or political, is a useful skill in

management.

Friendships and partnerships at work take time to develop. Building friendship often involves

overcoming disagreements and con lict along with enjoyable bonding activities. Eventually respect

and closeness emerge.

Combining Business and Social Relationships

Long‐term employees normally discover that business relationships and social relationships begin to

merge. Meetings include the nuts and bolts of a company issue combined with friendly banter. Those

become the circumstances in which the workplace environment feels comfortable and accepting.

Reaching that point requires the people involved to communicate effectively with one another.

As described in detail in later chapters, the ability to

communicate clearly creates many advantages related

to your personal success. Among the topics examined

in the pages ahead are the relationships between

communication skills and:

obtaining a job

perceptions of competence

con lict management

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Digital Vision/Thinkstock

Con lict management skills are key to a

successful career.

con lict mediation

Obtaining a job represents one of the irst career

challenges an individual encounters. Experts in the

area of human resource management point out that a lengthy, gaudy, or hard to read resume likely

ends up "in the circular ile" (the wastebasket or trash folder). A poorly written cover letter

probably meets a similar fate. This means that you need quality writing skills before entering the

doors of a potential employer. During an interview, many human resource managers make the

decision to eliminate a person from consideration within the irst 10 minutes. Effective

conversational skills and interviewing acumen can make the difference in getting over that hurdle. A

career in management doesn't begin until that irst job has been attained.

Perceptions of competence, including acting in a professional manner, largely depend on the ability

to present ideas in an engaging way. Both verbal and written communications create perceptions of

competence or lead the receiver to believe the sender does not have them. These make the

difference internally in terms of promotions and more exciting job assignments as well as externally

when dealing with customers and persons from other organizations.

Con lict management, when carried out effectively, can be a key career advantage. The ability to

disagree without being disagreeable has been cited as a sign of maturity and intelligence, which in

turns makes you a viable candidate for promotion. Staying out of unnecessary squabbles also pays

personal dividends in terms of working in a less stressful environment.

Con lict mediation requires someone, usually a manager, to step into a situation, identify the issue

and the people involved, and then ind a resolution. Most organizational leaders value the ability to

settle con licts in ways that are perceived as fair and reasonable (Rackham, 1976).

Explain how communication skills are related to career success.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

They in luence interpersonal business relationships, social relationships, and combinations of

business and social relationships.

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Before communication occurs, a talent many employers desire is critical thinking. The ability to

analyze a situation and produce an effective response is based on a series of activities, of which

communicating is only the end result, including:

assessment of the problem or situation

application of a theory or model

analysis of potential courses of action

discovery of the best option or combination of options

communicating a plan of action

Employers value individuals who do not make knee‐jerk reactions. Even in situations in which time

is of the essence, critical thinking demands correct identi ication of the problem. Applying a theory

or model involves two activities: (1) choosing which to use, and (2) correctly adapting the approach

to the issue. Critical thinkers use both inductive and deductive reasoning processes to assess a

circumstance and all possible alternatives. Many business leaders ind methods such as

brainstorming helpful in discovering innovative answers to dif icult questions. Finding the optimal

alternative or alternatives to resolve a problem may include the application of various analytical

approaches. The ield of decision science offers several methods that are useful to unique situations.

Those who know how to apply the methods reach more‐rational solutions with better chances to

succeed.

The inal step of critical thinking and decision‐making is communicating what is to be done in a

clear and con ident manner. Conviction plays a key role in making an alternative work. The ability to

inspire con idence in others that a problem can be resolved and that the correct option has been

selected constitutes another valuable management communication skill.

Critical thinking and decision‐making often involve making ethical choices. Various ethical

frameworks can guide these moments. Business ethics are moral principles that provide standards

and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce. Four frameworks assess ethical components of

decisions and other thought processes: (1) utilitarianism, (2) individualism, (2) the rights approach,

and (4) the justice approach (Velasquez, 2005).

Utilitarianism is a means of making decisions based on what is the greatest good for the greatest

number of people. Utilitarianism is sometimes referred to as the "calculus of pain," because it tries

to minimize pain and maximize pleasure for the greatest number of people. Those who are not

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among the greatest number of people, the minority, may not fare well under utilitarian reasoning.

Individualism is the degree to which society values personal goals, personal autonomy, privacy over

group loyalty, commitments to group norms, involvements in collective activities, social cohesiveness,

and intense socialization. Based on these values, ethical decisions are largely based on personal

self‐interests, so long as one's actions do not harm others.

The rights approach is a means of making decisions based on the belief that each person has

fundamental rights that should be respected and protected. These rights include freedom of speech,

privacy, and access to due process, plus the right to a safe and healthy environment at work and at

home.

The justice approach is a method of decision‐making based on treating all people fairly and

consistently when making decisions. Distributive justice concentrates on the fairness of rewards,

punishments, and outcomes. Procedural justice focuses on fair and consistent application of rules

and protocols.

Throughout, this text describes ethical implications of various business communications efforts.

Often, no clear‐cut resolution to an ethical dilemma appears; however, ethical reasoning makes it

possible to reach informed, responsible choices.

De ine business ethics. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Business ethics are the moral principles that set standards and provide guidelines regarding

the conduct of commerce.

What are the four primary ethical frameworks? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

They are utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach, and the justice approach.

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Communication may be de ined as transmitting, receiving, and processing information. Interpersonal

communication takes place between individuals or is directed by one individual to a set of people,

such as a group or audience. Communication systems are the methods and technologies used to

transmit information throughout an organization. Communication systems include group dynamics

(intra‐ and inter‐group) as well as the most complex methods of moving information throughout an

organization.

As a irm passes through the stages of its life cycle, the messages sent out change, the media

available to send messages evolve, and the audience shifts. Company leaders succeed when they are

able to identify the right voice and message for each phase. Skills in the areas of business

communication and management communication are vital at all times.

Publics include every group that has contact with an institution. One set of publics is essentially

neutral regarding what takes place within a irm. Stakeholders consist of the publics, or individuals

and groups, that have vested interests in an organization. Business and management

communications are used to reach both groups.

Business communication consists of the total set of venues used to transmit messages to all publics

and stakeholders, within the company and outside the company. Management communication

includes all efforts to systematically plan, implement, monitor, and upgrade the channels of

communication within the organization and with outside organizations that affect a company's

internal operations. Managerial communication applies to the functions and activities of the

management team. Effective management communication relies on continual monitoring and

upgrading of channels.

Management is getting things done through others. It involves four functions: planning, organizing,

directing, and control. Each requires key communication skills and activities.

Managers play interpersonal, informational, and decisional roles, each requiring communication

skills. Interpersonal roles include igurehead, leader, and liaison. Informational roles consist of

monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson. Decisional roles involve being an entrepreneur, disturbance

handler, resource allocator, and negotiator. The activities and functions of management are carried

out on three primary levels: strategic, tactical, and operational. Each requires speci ic

communication skills.

Business and management communication practitioners must adapt to many trends, including

diversity, globalization and outsourcing, the increased pace of life and work, evolving workplace

technologies, the in luence of social media, and ethical challenges. Employees in today's work

environment have improved chances for success when they are effective communicators.

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Interpersonal business communication, interpersonal social communication on the job, and building

friendships and relationships take place on a daily basis. Your skills in each of these areas help

determine whether the workplace is a pleasant or dif icult environment.

Critical thinking is another talent employers desire. In addition, an increased emphasis on business

ethics, or standards and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce, has taken place. Four

frameworks used to assess ethical situations are: utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach,

and the justice approach. It helps to remember that, in the world of business, everything

communicates.

Click on each key term to reveal the de inition.

business communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The total set of venues used to transmit messages to all publics and stakeholders, within the

company and outside the company.

business ethics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Standards and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce.

communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Transmitting, receiving, and processing information.

communication systems (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The methods and technologies used to transmit information throughout an organization.

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interpersonal communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Communication that takes place between individuals or directed by one individual to a small set of

people.

management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Getting things done through others.

management communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

All of the efforts to systematically plan, implement, monitor, and upgrade the channels of

communication within the organization and with outside organizations that affect a company's

internal operations.

publics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Every group that has contact with an institution.

stakeholders (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Individuals and groups holding vested interests in an organization.

Information takes the forms of terms or words, symbols, igures or numbers, a single concept, and

sets of concepts combined. Explain how nonverbal communications, such as gestures, facial

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expression, physical distance in a conversation, and posture, relate to the concept of information.

In which stage of the life cycle would you place Southwest Airlines? Defend your answer. Would

your answer be the same for the overall airline industry? Why or why not?

Make a list of publics and stakeholders for the following organizations:

Ford Motor Companya.

Revlon cosmeticsb.

United States Postal Servicec.

Roman Catholic Churchd.

Craigsliste.

Provide examples of how Managing by Wandering Around is part of planning, organizing,

directing, and control functions.

Make a list of the managerial roles provided by Henry Mintzberg. Place them into categories

explaining how they could be played out by operational, tactical, and strategic managers. Why do

some of the roles only apply to top level management?

Make a list of how the trends of diversity, globalization, pace of life and work, evolving workplaces,

in luence of social media, and ethical challenges create (a) problems and (b) opportunities for

managers. Apply the lists to these circumstances:

manufacturing operationsa.

companies that sell servicesb.

nonpro it organizationsc.

governmental organizationsd.

Explain how social media such as Facebook and LinkedIn blur the line between what would be

considered formal, business‐oriented communication and informal, social communication.

Gather ive friends. Ask each one to make a list ranking the top ive communication skills they

think are most important to having a successful career. Compare each of the lists. Choose one

partner. Make a list of the communication skills your partner possesses. The partner should

prepare his or her own personal list. See if you agree or disagree on the skills mentioned in the list.

Then, reverse the roles to see if there is agreement or disagreement about your skill set.

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In this clip, Herb Kelleher explains his belief that happy employees

mean happy customers. Kelleher extends his belief into action by

showing his empolyees how to have fun on the job.

Take Care of Your Employees

From Title: CNBC Titans: Herb Kelleher (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47299)

What does Herb Kelleher communicate with his employees

in this clip?

What methods does Herb Kelleher use to communicate to

his employees?

Would Herb's methods be effective at every company? Why

or Why not?

The Home Center is a national chain of retail stores that offers a wide variety of home

improvement products to individuals, construction professionals, and companies. The

variety of products sold include plumbing, heating, lumber, electrical, carpeting,

appliances, tools, paints, garden equipment and supplies, a limited line of garden furniture,

0:00 / 2:22 1x

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and other items. Its primary competitors are similar chains such as Lowe's and

Sutherlands.

The Home Center had enjoyed a decade of strong growth in sales, market share, and

customer loyalty. When CEO Floyd Mason announced his retirement, the news swept

through the company. Many were nostalgic and saddened that he was leaving, grateful for

his style of leadership. Mason had modeled much of his style from legend Sam Walton,

who pioneered the growth of Wal‐Mart. Mason would travel to various stores in everyday

attire, visiting with customers and employees, whom he called "partners." The longer

version of the name was "partners in the journey." He responded to employee letters and

regularly read from the company's suggestion box. Any suggestions that led to change

were rewarded with recognition and company merchandise.

The Home Center's Board of Directors hired Robert Marconi as the new CEO. Marconi had

spent most of his career in retail sales, leading a regional retailing chain to modest pro its

and growth. The Board of Directors believed Marconi's ability to enhance pro its would

serve The Home Center well.

After watching operations and studying company documents for the irst few months on

the job, Marconi believed that cost‐cutting would lead to higher pro its. He concluded that

The Home Center's loyal customer base would not be affected by the changes he was

about to implement.

Marconi noted that many of The Home Center's employees were formerly trade workers,

such as carpenters, painters, and electricians. Many had retired from the trade, because

the physical demands of the job became too dif icult. Others had been employed by

companies that had failed. These individuals were paid far above minimum wage, as much

as $4.00 per hour over the standard rate in most states.

The irst directive Marconi sent to store managers was to begin reducing the number of

trade employees and replace them with part‐time workers. He believed the cuts in payroll

would generate substantially higher margins on sales. Also, by utilizing part‐time workers,

the company was able to cut payments to employee bene it plans, including health

insurance. In the irst six months following the changes, pro its began to increase.

Not long after, sales and pro its began to plummet. The Board of Directors hired an

outside consulting irm to investigate the causes. The consulting irm's report suggested

that several problems had emerged. First, employee morale began to sag, as many workers

lost friends and associates from the cutbacks. The employees also believed that they were

being squeezed so that stockholders could receive greater dividends. They resented the

new part‐time workers. The resentment deepened when it was announced that Marconi

received a $10 million bonus for his irst year's work.

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More extensive research revealed that customers had also become frustrated. They had

been willing to pay slightly higher prices for products in exchange for being able to

consult with a professional about their home improvement tasks. Someone painting a den

could visit with a painter. A person trying to install drywall could get tips from a former

drywall installer. Now, customers more often encountered uninterested part‐timers who

acted like they didn't want to be bothered.

Within two years, Marconi was ired. He received a $40 million exit check. Morale at The

Home Center worsened. The new CEO spent the next three years trying to repair all of the

damage that had been done and put the company back on track.

Review Questions

What was being communicated by CEO Floyd Mason to his stakeholders?1.

What was being communicated by CEO Robert Marconi to his stakeholders?2.

What types of messages would help rebuild employee morale at The Home Center?

What format should be used to present those messages?

What types of messages would help restore customer con idence in The Home Center?

What formats should be used to present those messages?

Rachel Peterson served as the human resource director for a regional upscale retail chain

that featured men's, women's, and children's clothing, fragrances, high‐end cutlery, some

sports attire, and other sundry items. The chain consisted of 17 stores in a ive‐state area.

All but two of the stores had grown by more than 10 percent in total sales over the past

three years.

Peterson was in charge of helping to select the next manager who oversaw all of the

children's clothing departments. Only internal candidates were considered. Five children's

department managers applied for the position, and three managers from other

departments also submitted applications. After reviewing the records of the applicants and

conducting interviews with each one, Rachel narrowed the list to three inalists. She was

asked to write a summary report for these individuals. The results were as follows:

Whaley has been with the company for 12 years. She was in charge of children's clothing

in one of the smaller stores in a town with a lower population than the cities in which

other stores were located. Due to the local circumstances, Meg worked more hours and

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had fewer sales associates in her department than were found in other stores. Still, Meg

consistently met and exceeded target sales quotas. In her interview, Meg commented, "I

don't see people in my store as customers. I see them as new friends." She had received

praise for excellent customer service on numerous occasions, and had a series of letters

and thank‐you notes from customers in her iles.

Whaley's employees were mostly positive. They noted that she would take the time to

explain things and rarely became irritated or angry. The primary complaint was that Meg

would "steal" sales by stepping in when a customer seemed to be wavering about making

a purchase. Meg also knew her best customers and made sure no one else waited on them.

Her employees believed that, as long as Meg felt like she was in charge, she was easy to

please.

Whaley's store manager noted that she was sometimes lax about completing paperwork

on time. She would also complain about how the store and chain were managed in the

presence of customers, using it as a tactic to gain the customer's con idence that she was

on that person's side. She also did not spend a great deal of time interacting with other

department managers.

Jablonsky joined the company eight years ago. He was department manager in the men's

clothing department in the largest and most successful store in the chain. His department

was near the top in every selling category, including overall sales, return visits, ticket

order size, customer service ratings, and credit applications taken during sales. The

department had the largest number of employees of any men's clothing department in the

chain.

Lawrence spent considerably less time with individual customers. He concentrated on

training and mentoring new sales reps while motivating longer‐term employees. He

believed that items such as merchandise displays and in‐store discounts were highly

important elements in generating the best sales igures.

The employees who worked for Lawrence often commented that they knew he had

aspirations to move up in the company. They would hear him make comments such as, "If

the store manager would just listen to me. . ." and some kind of marketing or management

suggestion would follow. The employees stated that Lawrence was always fair and

rewarded the highest performers. He was not always approachable in terms of hearing

suggestions.

The store manager for Jablonsky stated that he was a highly motivated manager who

understood retailing quite well. He exhibited a great deal of con idence. Some of the other

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department managers in the store thought Lawrence was somewhat arrogant and dif icult

to deal with, especially when they talked about how to improve operations.

Morales was the least‐seasoned of the three inalists, having been with the company for

only ive years. For the past two years, Jose was a children's clothing manager in a highly

successful department in a major metropolitan area. He had been able to persuade the

store manager to advertise on a local Spanish‐speaking radio station and in other venues,

which attracted a substantial number of new Hispanic customers to the overall store and

to his department.

Morales loved working with customers. Even though English was his second language, he

was able to converse with customers and make them feel comfortable, often by testing his

own language skills. Being bilingual made it possible to sell to those who spoke only

Spanish.

Jose's employees used terms such as "fun loving" and a "free spirit" to describe him. They

said he was not likely to discipline someone who had broken a rule or showed up late for

work. A few said it was clear he "wanted to be liked" by his employees.

The store manager had praise for Morales in several areas. Besides the advice to attract

Hispanic customers, he was willing to leave his own department to translate for other

salespeople when needed. He took time to make sure he invited every other department

manager to lunch during his irst year as department manager. The manager noted that

Jose sometimes was late turning in paperwork and that some of his memos were "hard to

follow."

Review Questions

List the communication strengths and weaknesses of each candidate.1.

List the management strengths and weaknesses of each candidate, including technical,

conceptual, and human relations skills.

On paper, which candidate should get the job? Defend your answer.3.

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iStockphoto

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Describe the essential parts of an interpersonal communications model.1.

Identify the barriers to interpersonal communication.2.

Overcome the barriers to interpersonal communication.3.

Recognize the additional challenges present in international interpersonal communication.4.

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Bill Marriott's communication style is an

integral part of the success of his

company.

One‐on‐one contact continues to be the most crucial form of business and management

communication. Interpersonal communication interactions take place between two or more people

—co‐workers, with customers, suppliers, and others in the marketing channel, with members of

governmental agencies, between supervisors and employees, and with a wide variety of publics on a

daily basis. Each represents the potential to build trust, loyalty, and other positive elements of a

relationship but also to generate disharmony, distrust, and, at times, hostility. An effective

communicator tries to maintain pleasant and positive relations with others, even when points of

disagreement arise. Understanding how interpersonal communication works helps form the

foundation for improving your social skills on the job and in everyday life.

The Marriott International chain of hotel properties has undergone a series of dramatic

success periods along with eras of change. Marriott International's "spirit to serve" culture

is based on a business philosophy established more than 80 years ago by founders J.

Willard and Alice S. Marriott, who often said, "Take care of the associates, and they'll take

care of the guests." By 2010, approximately 300,000 Marriott associates were serving

guests in Marriott‐managed and franchised properties throughout the world.

CEO Bill Marriot is responsible for much of the

company's current success. An ABC News story

about Marriott noted, "In the post‐Enron era,

when CEOs tend to generate publicity for cutting

corners and questionable business practices,

Marriott sets a different standard. His attention

to detail is legendary, as is his devotion to his

employees. He thinks both have been the key to

the company's success" (ABC News Nightline,

2007).

Marriott has built and maintained a culture

designed to enhance personal relationships with

individual employees that transfers to quality service to customers. He drops in to

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personally inspect hundreds of hotels a year. His style is "hands on," literally, with plenty

of pats on the back and even hugs from loyal workers. He insists on a irst‐name basis.

Marriott is so popular that company employees treat him with nearly "rock star" status

when he arrives at a property (ABC News Nightline, 2007).

Marriott learned much of his management communication style from his father. "I'd walk

with him into a hotel, we'd be late for a meeting, and he'd take 20 minutes and sit down

in the lobby and talk to the lobby maid. He wanted to know how her kids were, was she

making enough money, does she have enough work hours, was her health care good" (ABC

News Nightline, 2007).

Bill Marriott expects his managers to maintain high standards of quality, and he gives

them a 159‐ page checklist to make sure they take care of every detail. An interactive blog,

titled "Marriott on the Move" allows CEO Marriott to personally converse with the public

and with employees. Any complaint receives a prompt response and action as needed.

Bill Marriott has received the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC,

2007) Leadership in Communication Award. The award stipulated that "Marriott

International is also well known as a great place to work and for its commitment to

diversity and community service. It has consistently been named to Fortune's lists of most

admired companies, best places to work and top companies for minorities."

The J.D. Power & Associates 2007 North America Hotel Guest Satisfaction Study measured

overall guest hotel satisfaction across six hotel segments. The Ritz‐Carlton brand came in

No. 1 in the luxury segment. The JW Marriott brand came in No. 2. Business Traveler,

Executive Travel, and Condé Nast Traveler have also recognized the company

(Marriott.com, 2011).

Superior customer service is built on the foundation provided by a quality management

communication program. The Marriott International story serves as an example of the role

that excellent interpersonal communication skills play in a successful company and a

person's career.

What does Bill Marriott's management style communicate to employees?1.

Should a CEO insist that company employees call him/her by a irst name? Would the

CEO's gender make a difference in your answer?

Would Bill Marriott's hands‐on communication style succeed in every country?3.

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Over the years, several models of interpersonal communication have been created. The models

portray the movement of information from one person to another or to a set of people. Figure 2.1

provides one of the most straightforward models.

Figure 2.1: A simplified interpersonal communications model

This model depicts a conversation between a manager and an

employee, between co‐workers, a presentation by a salesperson

to a buyer or a buying committee, and numerous other

interpersonal exchanges.

Source: Adapted from Guffrey, M. E., & Loewy, D. (2011). Business Communication: Process and Product. Mason, OH: South‐Western Cengage Learning, pp. 13–14.

In the model, the sender is the person transmitting a message or an idea. In business settings, a

conversation is initiated with a communication goal in mind. The goals are as simple as an of ice

assistant reminding a supervisor about an upcoming meeting or as complex as a manager trying to

convince a key employee to stay with the company instead of accepting a job offer from another

irm. A salesperson who heads a team that is trying to win over a new client sends the message.

That person may speak to a set of receivers, the purchasing team from the client company, and

achieving the communication goal requires carefully chosen words, visual images on a PowerPoint

display, inspiring music in the background, and handouts provided to each person in the client's

buying group.

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Encoding is the presentation of verbal and nonverbal cues. Encoding takes four forms: (1) verbal,

oral cues, (2) verbal, written cues, (3) nonverbal cues, and (4) electronic transmissions that employ

both verbal and nonverbal elements.

Verbal cues are words. They take the form of spoken language, printed matter, a text message, or

even a drawing used to represent a concept. Verbal encoding includes the abbreviations and

shortcuts that are part of tweets and text messages.

Nonverbal cues are all other forms of message‐sending, including posture, eye contact, physical

distance from the receiver, voice volume, gestures, and physical contact, such as touching someone

on a shoulder or arm. Most messages contain both verbal and nonverbal elements.

Electronic transmissions go beyond text messages and emails. Technologies such as Skype allow for

interpersonal meetings via televised images. The receiver encounters both verbal and nonverbal

cues in those conversations.

The transmission device is anything that carries a message, including sound waves, light waves,

pieces of paper, mobile‐phone signals and screens, the Internet, computer monitors, billboards, radio

and television signals, and an endless number of additional carriers. Modern management

communication features a variety of new transmission devices that add to speed and ef iciency but

also create confusion and disruption for individuals trying to communicate on the job.

Decoding occurs as the receiver encounters the message. Every sensory device can be part of

decoding, including hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling, and tasting various cues. In a standard

interpersonal interaction, sight and hearing are often used. Decoding involves interpretation of

verbal and nonverbal cues, normally at the same time.

The receiver is the sender's intended audience. It can be a single person or a small group of people.

Someone who passes by and hears a conversation is not considered a receiver, unless the sender

suddenly adjusts the message to make sure the intruder receives part of the message. A manager

who says, "We are going to be short‐handed for a while," and just as the outsider passes by adds, "So

everyone is going to have to pitch in," has expanded the audience to the second receiver.

Feedback returns to the sender in the form of evaluation of the message. The receiver transmits

verbal and nonverbal cues that suggest, "I don't understand," "I disagree," "You're absolutely right,"

"This is frustrating," and other forms of reaction to the sender, including, "I'm not really listening."

Then, most of the time, the conversation continues (Burgoon, Hunsaker, & Dawson, 2004; Shannon,

1948).

In an ideal world, the communication goal is met, the message travels without interruption, the

receiver understands the idea correctly, and feedback is transmitted con irming the message got

through. Unfortunately, the world is often not ideal. A variety of forces and factors can prevent

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messages from being sent correctly or accurately received. In Figure 2.1, the disruptions are shown

as noise, or the barriers to communication.

Evaluation

The simpli ied model of communication displayed in Figure 2.1 offers a method to explain how a

person seeks to transmit an idea or message to someone else or to a group of people. The concepts

of encoding, transmission devices, and decoding help explain the movement of a message from a

sender to a receiver. The model does not, however, accurately depict what transpires in an actual

conversation or exchange of ideas. This led to the evolution of more intricate models, discussed next.

Name and describe each part of an interpersonal communication model.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The sender is the person transmitting a message or an idea. Encoding is the presentation of

verbal and nonverbal cues. The transmission device is anything that carries a message.

Decoding occurs as the receiver encounters the message. The receiver is the sender's intended

audience. Feedback returns to the sender in the form of evaluation of the message.

In the 1960s, models were expanded to indicate the interaction of two people engaged in a dialog.

Figure 2.2 illustrates how models were expanded. The interaction model remains "linear" in the

sense that a message irst goes one way (Person A to Person B) then the other (Person B back to

Person A). Clearly, most conversations are not quite that stilted, leaving room for additional ideas

about how interpersonal communication transpires.

Figure 2.2: An interaction model of communication

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This model depicts mutual transmission, the reception of

messages, and feedback. In essence, a mirror was added to show

the more interactive nature of communication.

Describe the interaction model of interpersonal communication.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The interaction model applies to two people engaged in a dialog. The interaction model

remains "linear" in the sense that a message irst goes one way (Person A to Person B) then

the other (Person B back to Person A).

More recent conceptualizations of the nature of communication propose a far more complex and

sophisticated pattern of message generation and reception. Instead of viewing a conversation as

essentially a ping‐pong match, where one person sends and the other receives and then the process

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Jupiter Images/Thinkstock

The transaction model suggests

that conversations more closely

resemble a dance in which both

parties socially construct the

interaction.

reverses, actual discussions take place nearly simultaneously.

In the transaction model (see Figure 2.3), a person speaking

observes the intended audience as the message is being sent. The

speaker may observe a "receiver" or second person with a scowl,

a grin, or nodding in agreement before all of the words have been

transmitted. In essence, rather than a ping‐pong match,

conversations more closely resemble a dance in which both

parties socially construct the interaction. Such a model accounts

for interruptions, persons inishing each other's sentences, and

incomplete transmissions, inishing with phrases such as, "You

know what I'm talking about," or "You see what I'm saying" as the

other person nods "yes," or "I know you think I'm wrong" as the

person nods "no."

Further, the transaction approach models the movement from

misunderstanding to understanding, from disagreement to

agreement, as well as the escalation of a conversation into a

con lict. In essence, not every dance goes well. At times, the

partners move in perfect synch; at others, they stumble or step on

each other's toes.

Each of the three models—the simpli ied version, the interaction model, and the transaction

model—contains key elements of encoding, transmission, decoding, and feedback. More important,

the models also indicate that conversations can go awry and that misunderstandings occur. The

primary causes of these disruptions are called noise, or the barriers to interpersonal

communication.

Figure 2.3: A transaction model of communication

The transaction model of communication is similar to a dance between two

partners in a conversation. The messages low in both directions as each

communicator sends and receives based on responding to the other

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communicator.

Describe the transaction model of interpersonal communication.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

In the transaction model, instead of viewing a conversation as essentially a ping‐pong match,

where one person sends and the other receives and then the process reverses, actual

discussions take place nearly simultaneously.

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Many times, a message will be sent but not correctly received. Three categories of barriers to

individual communication explain this problem. Each of the items shown in Figure 2.4 can distort or

disrupt a message at any point, as depicted in Figure 2.1. The irst set of barriers—individual

differences—is present simply because of the characteristics of the two people involved in the

conversation. Effective communicators know about each of the potential barriers and ind ways to

overcome them.

Figure 2.4: Barriers to individual communication

Numerous factors can disrupt quality communication between individuals.

Any number of messages become lost because of a difference between the sender and receiver.

Sometimes the barrier emerges due to natural circumstances, such as age or gender. Social events

and the social construction of language generate others. Table 2.1 identi ies the individual

differences that can obstruct quality communication.

Table 2.1: Individual differences

Age

Gender

Exclusive language

Educational level

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Organizational rank

Personalities

Age

Differences in age lead to varying frames of reference. A Baby Boomer would likely be familiar with

a reference to Woodstock. Someone who was born in 1990 may not. A young employee probably

knows quite a bit more about a current cultural icon, such as Lady Gaga, than an older worker does.

Each generation shares markers, or mutually experienced events. The Greatest Generation (World

War II) veterans vividly recall the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Almost all Baby Boomers remember the

assassination of President Kennedy and the irst walk on the moon. Generation Xers have a irst

space shuttle disaster in common.

Age may become a barrier to management communication when an older worker offers constructive

criticism to younger employee, especially when the older worker is not a direct supervisor. The

more junior employee may respond ineffectively or defensively. Also, many younger supervisors

report problems managing more senior employees. Age discrimination occurs in a variety of

organizations. Sometimes it can be as subtle as a younger manager making the senior worker feel

unwelcome, or by telling crude, age‐based jokes about an older supervisor, thereby undermining the

individual's authority and ability to communicate with younger employees.

Gender

Historically, management communication writers and others, including those in the popular press,

have extensively explored differences in gender. One of the most noteworthy researchers, Deborah

Tannen, presented many gender‐based dif iculties in her book You Just Don't Understand and in

other works (Tannen, 1990). Subtle contrasts between genders sometimes in luence male‐female

interactions. Tannen has pointed out as many as 105 key differences. Note that not every man or

woman is inclined to exhibit these patterns. Even though some may be true of men in general or

women in general, many individual men and women do not exhibit these patterns.

In general, then, women are more likely to employ more expressive and effusive language, to use a

verbal hedge, such as "umm" when thinking something over, or "so" to add power to an expression

("She was so smart"), and are more likely to frame business requests as questions. A female

supervisor may say, "Would you mind making copies of this report?" Women are less likely to

directly criticize an employee, especially in public.

Males tend to use more direct language. Men are more likely to interrupt conversational partners,

especially when speaking to women. Males also often use sports metaphors as part of everyday

language, such as "She took one for the team"; "He gave a Hail Mary answer;" "This is our goal line

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Stockbyte/Thinkstock

People who rely on sports metaphors at work

create communication barriers as a form of

exclusive language, because not everyone

understands the meaning.

stand"; and "That was a back door play." Men are more inclined to aggressively disagree with

someone in public. They are also more prone to making declarative statements of fact (sometimes

when they don't actually know the facts). Men are more likely to ignore comments that have been

offered by another person, especially when that person disagrees with them. And inally, men tend

to ind ways to control conversations, especially by changing the subject when they feel they are

"losing" an argument.

Women and men have different experiences and operate in different social contexts, which lead to

differing genres of speech and skills for accomplishing things with words. Patterns of interaction in

rural areas vary from those in urban areas; differences may be found in various regions of a country,

and factors such as ethnicity also affect communication styles of both men and women. This, in turn,

shapes the diversity found in male/female communication patterns (Maltz & Borker, 2007).

Despite these prevalent tendencies and differences, recent formulations of communication and

gender issues add a more complex conceptualization of the relationship. Previously, male/female

communication patterns were viewed in a binary manner in which "men are likely to do this and

women are likely to do this." Current conceptualizations suggest a wider diversity of gender

identities and communication patterns (Cameron, 2005).

Exclusive Language

Exclusive language consists of terminology that is

only understood by a distinct set of individuals. Those

who are unfamiliar with the language are excluded

from the conversation when it is used. In the

workplace, numerous differences between individuals

perpetrate exclusive language. For instance, those who

graduate from a certain college can exclude others

through continual conversations about campus events

that took place years before or by referring to

individuals known only to the group. Exclusive

language accentuates the differences between

employees and creates an eventual barrier, based

largely on excluded employees feeling like they are not

part of the "in‐crowd" on the job. Exclusive language

re lects racial differences, differences in status, and

even differences in company departments. Sports

metaphors used by men in the workplace can become

a form of exclusive language. In each case, its

deliberate use is designed to alienate or separate one group from another (Media Task Force, 2011).

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For example, a sales manager approaches a group of information technology (IT) employees with a

request to update the company's web‐based purchasing system. The IT employees respond with

their tech terminology, which excludes the salesperson. Another example involves an informal

setting where a set of employees who graduated from the same high school might exclude someone

who did not, simply by constantly talking about "old times" whenever a group gathers for lunch or

in other social situations.

Educational Attainment

If nothing else, each year of education adds to your vocabulary. For most, studying in high school

and college also improves a person's ability to think critically and to analyze situations using a

greater set of decision‐making concepts and models. Problems occur when someone who possesses

these skills converses with someone who does not, and the educated person is unwilling or unable

to shift gears. A supervisor seeking to intimidate employees might use fancy words and literary

references that demonstrate his or her level of education. This type of approach can be

counterproductive and is a common barrier to interpersonal communication.

Organizational Rank

Have you ever run into someone you idolize? For most, an encounter with a celebrity or idol results

in a tongue‐tied, stammering interaction. Any person with greater status, no matter the context,

becomes accustomed to dealing with people who are somewhat awestruck or anxious. The same

process takes place in organizational settings. For some employees, a chance meeting with the CEO

or some high‐ranking executive in the company leads to an awkward exchange of pleasantries or an

uncomfortable silence. Many employees struggle to speak publicly, and the presence of a

high‐ranking member of the irm in the audience potentially worsens the problem. Further, some

research indicates that people at different levels of status may interpret words differently (Hale &

Delia, 1976).

Status also affects the ability to listen effectively. When a worker feels unsettled in front of people of

higher rank, the employee may focus on trying to look good in front of them at the cost of not

carefully monitoring the message they are transmitting. Others seek to ingratiate themselves or "kiss

up" rather than to have a genuine conversation. They wait for an opening to pass along a

compliment instead of hearing what the executive has to say.

Personalities

Some people just rub each other the wrong way. Various personality types do not combine for

quality communication. A shy person may feel pressured, bullied, or intimidated by an outgoing or

bombastic person. Those with strong egos may clash with one another, each thinking he or she is

right about everything. An individual with an analytical and reserved personality may have dif iculty

communicating with someone who is more inclined to react instinctively to problems and

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circumstances.

Individual differences create a variety of circumstances under which communication does not take

place as intended. As companies become more diverse, some of these problems become more

complicated. Quality communication begins with awareness of these and other potential individual

barriers.

What types of individual differences create barriers to interpersonal

communication? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Age, gender, exclusive language, educational level, organizational rank, and personalities.

At times, characteristics associated with senders and receivers are not the primary barrier to

communication. Instead, situational circumstances are the cause of the problem. Table 2.2 lists three

common situational factors that prevent a message from being received.

Table 2.2: Situational factors that disrupt

communication

Emotions

Anger

Sadness

Envy and jealousy

Romantic feelings

Personal attitudes and values

Settings

Distractions

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Emotions

It is impossible to work in any organization and remain unaffected by emotions. Some are positive

and conducive to pleasant working relationships. Feelings of affection, loyalty, and trust help build

and maintain quality interpersonal interactions.

Other emotions disrupt communication and interfere with a workplace process. Anger and sadness

are two of the more commonly mentioned emotions that affect communication.

Simply stated, it is dif icult to express yourself clearly when you are mad. Anger tends to disturb a

person's concentration. Nearly everyone would have to admit to saying something, while annoyed in

the heat of the moment, that they wish they could take back. The consequences of such outbursts

play out both in the short term and in the long term. In the short term, the conversation quickly

deteriorates and a meaningful resolution to a dispute becomes unlikely. In the long term, some

people have powerful memories. These people may recall an insult or words of frustration in future

interactions with the same individual.

In terms of sadness, a person's thinking becomes muddled when he or she is down in the dumps. It

does not have to be clinical depression to be a barrier to communication. Someone sad or just in a

bad mood may choose words less carefully or may be less willing to speak up.

Beyond these more obvious emotions, other factors in luence managerial communication, including

envy and jealousy, romantic intentions, and the emotions associated with personal attitudes and

values.

Envy and jealousy evolve from a series of causes. An employee can become jealous when he or she

is passed over for promotion. Another may be envious of the job assignment given to a peer. Envy

and jealousy may result from seeing your supervisor giving extra attention to a co‐worker while

basically ignoring you. These feelings may impact future conversations. More caustic comments may

be made, more guarded language may be used, or someone may be treated with a cold silence and

not know why.

Romantic feelings and intentions result in one of the more complex communication problems. Many

of ices are aware of the possible complications that surface from of ice relationships. Some go so far

as to prohibit employees from dating one another; others enforce clear policies that permit romantic

relationships but create clear guidelines for their expression in the professional realm. When a

supervisor expresses romantic intentions toward an employee, any overture can become grounds for

sexual harassment complaints. Table 2.3 de ines sexual harassment and identi ies the two most

common forms and their consequences. Still, at times, an employee is attracted to a co‐worker, and,

at times, the attraction becomes mutual. Before pursuing any romantic involvements at work, the

employee(s) should make sure such actions do not violate company policies and practices, and

consider all the possible consequences of pursuing a relationship.

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Table 2.3: Sexual harassment and management communication

De inition: Sexual harassment consists of unwelcome verbal, visual, or physical conduct of a

sexual nature that is severe or pervasive, and affects working conditions or creates a hostile

work environment.

Forms

1. "Quid pro quo": Sexual advances or sexual favors are exchanged for favorable treatment,

including better job assignments, undeserved performance evaluation ratings, promotions,

and pay raises.

What it communicates

The way to move up in this organization is by giving in to sexual demands. All of the

human resource activities are tainted. If you are unwilling to play the game, you cannot

get ahead.

2. Hostile environment: Sexual innuendos in language, including jokes, sexual references, and

inappropriate comments about appearance and dress; unwanted touching; signage (sexually

referent calendars, cartoons); and conduct toward another person that suggests a

discrepancy in how people are treated.

What it communicates

The person is the object of disrespect and even contempt. This person will not receive

equal treatment. If you don't "play along," you will be ostracized.

Source: Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and

psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(4), 425–445. Retrieved from

http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/julqtr/29cfr1604.11.htm (http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/julqtr

/29cfr1604.11.htm)

An array of personal attitudes and values interrupt communication. Racism, sexism, and other forms

of discrimination result in derisive language designed to intimidate or insult others. Meaningful,

constructive, and high‐quality interpersonal communication cannot take place in these circumstances

(Weitzer, 2002).

Settings

At times, the organizational setting itself creates communication problems. Many times these

barriers result from unfortunate events. For example, when a manager announces that a popular

employee has become terribly sick or has died, trying to effectively transmit messages after that

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point will be problematic. The same is true after a company declares layoffs or relocation to a

foreign country. In some instances, joyous occasions hinder communication, such as the

announcement of the retirement of a manager or of ice parties celebrating holidays.

Distractions

Even the most chaotic workplace can be in luenced by distractions. Outside weather events,

including snowstorms or strong rains, tend to draw attention away from an interpersonal

conversation or a presentation to a group. Any workplace that is near a construction site probably

suffers from some inattention due to the noise outside.

More subtle cues also disrupt interpersonal interactions, such as when one person tries to hold a

conversation with someone who is dressed inappropriately. On an even smaller scale, have you ever

tried to talk to someone with something stuck in his teeth?

In summary, the situational factors of emotions, settings, and distractions tend to overlap as barriers

to communication.

What situational factors disrupt interpersonal communication?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The emotions of anger, sadness, envy, jealousy, romantic feelings, personal attitudes and

values, as well as settings and distractions.

Describe the two main forms of sexual harassment and the message each sends to

employees. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Quid pro quo, or something for something, suggests that the way to get ahead is by giving in

to sexual demands and that the system is not fair. Hostile environment communicates that

people are the objects of disrespect and even contempt and that employees do not receive

equal treatment.

In any conversation or message‐sending situation, the number of transmission venues varies and

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involves a variety of words and symbols. One key to being an effective communicator is the ability to

choose the right words and send them in the right manner. Table 2.4 lists a different set of barriers

that prevent messages from arriving.

Table 2.4: Transmission problems as barriers

to communication

Language (semantics)

Slang

Technical terminology

Disabilities

Sender

Receiver

Nonverbal contradictions of verbal messages

Language and Semantics

Even in circumstances in which everyone speaks the same language, barriers to communication still

arise. Semantics problems emerge when a word or phrase has more than one meaning, and the

sender and receiver are using different versions. For instance, the word "justi ied" can be interpreted

as "acceptable" or "necessary," which have different connotations. Many managers claim they have

an "open‐door policy." What this actually means varies widely. Some are suggesting that they

willingly listen to complaints and suggestions. Others are saying that you can come in and ask for

help, but nothing more.

Language becomes more complicated when various dialects are present. In the United States,

linguists have argued that regional dialects are beginning to disappear; however, many still exist.

These dialects affect the pronunciation of words as well as how terms are used. In the Northeast, the

words "park" and "yard" sound signi icantly different than when spoken in the South. In the South,

many restaurants serve sweet tea, which means cold tea that is already sweetened with sugar, while

in the North iced tea typically comes unsweetened.

Slang

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Jupiterimages/Thinkstock

Social media have created an entire new

generation of slang terminology.

Nearly any language used widely around the world

contains a great deal of slang. What becomes

problematic, for purposes of managerial

communication, is that slang evolves and changes fairly

quickly. In the 1980s, the terms "rad" and "gnarly"

were popular with teens. In the 1950s, the word

"bitchin" was in vogue. Each generation develops its

set of slang expressions, and even those change over

time. The Baby Boom generation was fond of terms

such as "bummer," "mellow," and "cool," in the 1960s.

Two decades later, someone still using that

terminology was thought to be something of a buffoon.

The 1980s and 1990s ilms Valley Girl and Clueless

spoofed girls who included the word "like" in every sentence. Such usage is now common, even

among older adults.

Slang creates barriers to managerial communication in several ways. First, someone unfamiliar with

a term may take offense. The concept of a woman being "phat" in the 1990s insulted some, who

thought they were being called "fat" when they were really being told they were attractive. Second,

slang at work often presents the image of being less polished, or less educated. Applicants who

cannot get through an interview without using heavy doses of "ya know" and "like" may ind

themselves more quickly screened out. The same holds true for those seeking to be promoted. Third,

the use of slang when dealing with clients and customers may lead the contact to think the

salesperson is either taking him or her for granted or is not acting in a professional manner.

A new form of slang has emerged in social media. Due to the 140‐character limitation imposed by

Twitter, many shortcuts have evolved. Table 2.5 contains some of the more frequently used

abbreviations. Someone unfamiliar with tweet abbreviations encounters a major barrier to

interpersonal communication, in an age where social media use has grown at a tremendous pace.

Table 2.5: Popular Twitter abbreviations and

acronyms

abt = about njoy = enjoy

b/c = because OMW = on my way

chk = check PPL = people

deets = details RU? = are you?

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Eml = email shld = should

FB = Facebook TIA = thanks in advance

GR8 = great Twaiting = Twittering while

waiting

IC = I see U = you

j/k = just kidding V2V = voice to voice on the phone

LMK = let me know w00t!= excitement

mil = million YW = you're welcome

In the workplace, some common abbreviations used in email and instant messages include:

BRB—Be right back

CTRN—Can't talk right now

IMO—In my opinion

HTH—Hope this (or that) helps

IAM—In a meeting

WFM—Works for me

BFO—Blinding lash of the obvious

DHTB—Don't have the bandwidth

SLAP—Sounds like a plan

Technical Terminology

The explosion of new technologies brings with it a vast amount of new terms. In the year 2000, the

term "app" had no special meaning with regard to mobile phone devices. A "tweet" was something

sung by a bird.

In business settings, each discipline (accounting, information technology, marketing) has its own

language. When someone from one area speaks to another in a different department, the use of

technical terms and acronyms may create confusion. While an accountant knows what DDB means, a

marketer may not. A marketer may suggest that microtargeting will work for one product but not

for another; someone from information technology might not know precisely what that means.

Department‐specialized terminology can create a form of exclusive language in the workplace.

Disabilities

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Nonverbal gestures can interfere with the

Effective communication is dif icult enough under ideal conditions. Disabilities can present

additional challenges for both senders and receivers. Senders with speech impairments have greater

dif iculty framing messages. Someone who stutters or has a lisp may have trouble speaking,

especially to groups of people. Part of the challenge may be the actual forming of words; the other

part can emerge as the embarrassment or shyness that results. Table 2.6 identi ies additional speech

problems (Buzzle.com, 2011).

Table 2.6: Types of speech disabilities

Articulation Disorder Dif iculty in producing a speci ic sound

Dysarthria Slurred speech

Cluttering Speaking too quickly or with too much repetition

Expressive Language Disorder Dif iculty in verbally expressing ideas

Source: http://www.buzzle.com (http://www.buzzle.com) (2011). Types of speech disorders

Receivers can experience problems in conversations as well. Two common challenges include visual

and hearing impairments. A visually impaired person misses some or all of the nonverbal cues

transmitted by the sender. In essence, the person only encounters part of the message. Hearing

impairments range from a partial loss to total deafness. Hearing can be affected by tinnitus, or

ringing of the ears, or muddled reception. In each instance, message reception becomes more

dif icult.

Nonverbal Contradictions of Verbal Messages

Far too often, what a person says verbally does not

correspond with his or her body language and

gestures. Some experts have suggested that nonverbal

cues constitute the major part of a person‐to‐person

message (Archer & Akert, 1977). Even if that is not the

case, it is safe to conclude that nonverbal cues send

powerful signals. Saying something is interesting while

looking distracted or inattentive conveys two different

messages. When someone crowds you, it is hard to

avoid feeling uncomfortable or believing that the

person is being aggressive, no matter what words are

spoken. A person who tells you to "trust me" but

cannot make eye contact sends two very different

signals.

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correct interpretation of a verbal message

when the gestures and words spoken do not

match.

In job interviews, someone who arrives late, is dressed

casually or inappropriately, gives a limp handshake,

fails to make eye contact, and slumps down in a chair

will likely be quickly removed from consideration.

Tardiness can be interpreted as irresponsibility. Casual dress and slouching portray a lack of

interest. Failing to make eye contact indicates you have something to hide. A weak handshake

suggests you will not be assertive or that you lack con idence.

Some of the transmission problems relate to the actions of the sender. Poor choice of language,

excessive use of slang, overuse of technical terminology, and sending contradictory nonverbal cues

may be due to the poor communication skills of the sender. Under the proper circumstances, and

with the proper training, these dif iculties can be improved. Remedies for disabilities are also

available. Hearing aids and signers assist those who are deaf. The visually impaired have access to

resources to help them communicate with those who do not have visual impairments, including low

vision aids, magni iers, talking watches, and telephone signaling devices.

What transmission problems can become barriers to interpersonal communication?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Language (semantics), slang, technical terminology, disabilities in the sender or receiver, and

nonverbal contradiction of the verbal message.

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Excellent communication results from careful preparation and situation sensitivity by the sender and

receiver in any context. Following a few simple steps helps a sender avoid misunderstandings and

con lict, and improve a message's chances of being correctly understood. Both senders and receivers

have a responsibility to overcome any barriers that are present. Table 2.7 summarizes these duties.

Table 2.7: Creating quality interpersonal communication

Sender Duties Receiver Duties

Be aware of barriers

Be empathetic

Pay careful attention to nonverbal cues

Con irm understanding of the message

Listen actively

Seek clari ication of the message

Senders are charged with making sure they understand the barriers that might be present. To make

sure a conversation begins on the right note, acknowledge the existence of the barrier. Many public

speakers use humor to point out its presence, to help place the audience at ease. Table 2.8 provides

advice about communicating when you are angry.

Table 2.8: What to do when you're angry

1 Take a deep breath.

2 Consider postponing the conversation in a nonthreatening manner.

("I'm sorry, but I really need to use the restroom right now." Or, "I want to talk about

this, but I'm expecting a phone call.")

3 Consider the other person's perspective.

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Creating quality communication requires the

efforts of the sender and the receiver.

(Did the person deliberately try to make you mad, or was it inadvertent?)

4 Be forthright, but try to diffuse at the same time.

("I'm a little frustrated right now. Can we talk about this later?")

5 Bite your tongue.

(Make sure you don't say something you will regret later.)

6 Avoid direct challenges, making generalities, and placing blame.

("What's your problem?" "You always do this!" "This is all your fault.")

7 Use humor to release tension and diffuse the situation.

8 Try to identify solutions rather than focusing on the problem.

Source: Adapted from Mayo Clinic (2011). Anger management tips: 10 ways to tame your temper. Retrieved from

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/anger‐management/MH00102 (http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/anger‐

management/MH00102)

Empathy begins with understanding yourself and how

you interact with others. Employers, companies, or

individual employees can use the Myers‐Briggs

personality inventory to assess how someone deals

with others, along dimensions including

extraversion/introversion, sensing or intuition,

thinking or feeling, and judging or perceiving (Myers

and Briggs Foundation, 2011). Next, being empathetic

means attempting to understand the background and

point of view of others. The adage of "walking a mile

in the other person's shoes" applies to communication.

In sales, the classic approach to dealing with an

unhappy customer is to irst acknowledge that you

understand the person is upset, and to add something along the lines of, "I can relate to how you

feel." The same approach has value in managerial communication when conversing with a

disgruntled employee or member of the public. Many companies offer sensitivity training programs

and ethnic awareness forums to help employees from different backgrounds understand and better

communicate with one another.

Paying attention to nonverbal cues often takes practice. Doing so may make you feel awkward as you

become aware of your gestures. It may help to have a close friend point out some of your

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tendencies, such as looking down while you talk or slouching. Some discover that their body

language constantly signals aggression, making them less able to conduct a friendly discussion.

Others portray a lack of con idence simply by their posture. The elements of nonverbal

communication that can become communication skills include the items displayed in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9: Nonverbal communication skills

Nonverbal Cues Communication Tactic

Body movements Hold still, don't shift weight, stillness exudes con idence

Gestures Stay calm, no nervous movements, gestures for emphasis

Eye contact Know when to look and when to look away so as to avoid appearing

overly aggressive

Touch Firm handshake; know when a pat on the back is acceptable

Facial expression Smile

Physical distance Avoid crowding a person, though do not move too far away, which

appears as if you lack trust in the person

Tone of voice Not too loud, not too soft, not too much in lection which makes you

appear overly emotional

Source: Adapted from Helpguide.org (2011) Nonverbal communication: The power of nonverbal communication and

body language. Retrieved from http://www.helpguide.org/mental/eq6_nonverbal_communication.htm

(http://www.helpguide.org/mental/eq6_nonverbal_communication.htm)

The question, "Do you understand?" summarizes con irmation of the message. Pay extra attention to

make sure the message was received as intended. It's not unusual for a manager to ask an employee

to restate a directive, only for the purposes of making sure the message was clearly understood.

Receiver duties include listening carefully, known as active listening, and not allowing distractions to

interfere with a conversation or presentation. The mind works far faster than the pace of a

conversation. You can give partial attention, seeking to get the gist of what is being said, without

focusing on the interaction. Doing so signals disinterest and can create a new communication

barrier. Multitasking during phone calls is a bad idea. Listening carefully means clearing away

distractions and not adding to them. Table 2.10 provides hints for effective active listening.

To be an effective communicator, you must employ both sender and receiver tactics and behaviors at

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Active listening involves ignoring distractions

that interfere with conversations.

every point of the conversation. Remember that the

transaction model of interpersonal communication

suggests that a conversation simulates a dance

between two persons. When a message is at all

misunderstood the sender or the receiver must

attempt to further clarify the message in the

conversation. Getting clari ication of a message means

saying, for example, "I don't understand" at the

appropriate times. Do not underestimate the

importance of active listening. A substantial amount of

attention is devoted to the ability to listen effectively

later in this text.

Table 2.10: Effective active listening

Express support through attention, eye contact, and a reassuring posture.

Interpret both the words and the expressions.

Note gestures, tone of voice, and the speaker's posture.

Ask exploratory questions that con irm accurate reception of the message.

Don't put words into the speaker's mouth.

Avoid passing immediate judgment.

Do not give false reassurance.

Source: Adapted from Cohen, A. R., & Fink, S. L. (1988). Effective behavior in organizations. New York, NY:

McGraw‐Hill Book Company.

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Explain the duties of the sender and receiver in overcoming the barriers to inter‐

personal communication. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Senders should be aware of potential barriers, exhibit empathy, pay careful attention to

nonverbal cues, and seek con irmation of the message. Receivers should engage in active

listening and seek clari ication of unclear messages.

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Conducting business in today's modern business environment presents exciting opportunities for

businesses and individuals. Markets and sales expand as new social contacts are made and

undiscovered cultures are explored, both within a nation's boundaries and with potential customers

in other countries.

Many U.S. companies recognize the existence of two distinct potential advantages present due to

cultural differences within the nation's borders. First, a rich pool of new employees with diverse

perspectives and interests infuses energy into a company's operations. Second, many cultural groups,

including Hispanics and Asian Americans, offer valuable target market segments that may be

reached.

International business programs often begin with expansion into countries with many of the same

cultural conditions, such as a Canadian irm selling products in the United States. Soon, however, an

international program can move into countries with different languages and cultures. In both

circumstances, effective business communication involves understanding of—and adaptation

to—cultural nuances and differences.

To understand individual communication while accounting for cultural differences, take note of the

primary types of cultural differences. For years, the most widely‐cited dimensions of culture have

been those proposed by Geert Hofstede, as displayed in Table 2.11. (More detail can be found at:

http://www.geert‐hofstede.com (http://www.geert‐hofstede.com) .)

Table 2.11: Hofstede's value dimensions of culture

Power Distance Distance between leaders and followers; authoritarian versus

collaborative relationships

Individualism or

Collectivism Value of personal status versus loyalty to the group

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Masculinity‐Femininity Male‐dominated society versus more equal status between

genders

Uncertainty Avoidance Risk‐taking versus risk‐avoidance societies

Short‐ or Long‐Term

Orientation Immediate versus long‐term, strategic outcomes

Power distance affects communication patterns between individuals and in group settings. A culture

exhibiting high power distance is one in which managers are far less approachable by low‐ranking

employees. In such a culture, rank affects patterns of collaboration. Use of formal language becomes

more likely in higher power distance cultural settings. Conversely, in low power distance cultures,

leaders are seen more as peers and patterns of collaboration are more affable and informal.

Individualism/collectivism affects communication in terms of how language is used as well as how it

is transmitted. In individualistic cultures, personal pronouns (I, my) are more likely; collective

cultures exhibit greater reference to "we," "us," and "our group/organization." Individualistic cultures

favor one‐on‐one interactions; collective cultures more likely feature groups, teams, and meetings.

Masculine cultures hold much in common with higher power distance circumstances. Males

dominate family matters, business discussions, and other aspects of society. Women in those settings

play submissive roles. Femininity associates with more caring, interpersonal connections among all

members of society, which in turn is re lected in the ways people and employees communicate with

one another.

Uncertainty avoidance affects word choice. Cultures with high levels of uncertainty avoidance exhibit

words that indicate con idence in judgments regarding various outcomes. More disparaging language

focuses on risky situations.

Short‐/long‐term orientation affects the types of communication messages sent as well as the

content of those messages. A company in a longer‐term orientation culture is most inclined to

develop strategic plans with a farther‐reaching time horizon. Inspirational language re lects the

desire to build the long‐term future of the organization. Short‐term orientation results in more

immediate planning processes, greater levels of contingency thinking and planning, and language

focused on the here and now.

Hofstede's dimensions remain widely used in a number of contexts, including business

communication, although increasing criticisms have emerged. Hofstede collected the data in the late

1960s and, while culture is normally slow to change, the numbers predate the introduction of the

personal computer, the Internet, the fall of communism, and many other signi icant global events

(Rapp, Bernardi, & Bosco, 2011). At the same time, the dimensions do provide important

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considerations when examining the challenges associated with communicating with people from

other cultures.

Name and de ine Hofstede's ive main dimensions of culture.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Power distance is the distance between leaders and followers and authoritarian versus

collaborative relationships. Individualism or collectivism is the value of personal status

versus loyalty to the group. Masculinity/femininity re lects whether a male‐dominated

society exists or if there is more equal status between genders. Uncertainty avoidance

explains risk‐taking versus risk‐avoidance societies. Short‐ or long‐term orientation identi ies

differences in immediate versus long‐term, strategic outcomes.

Several key areas require consideration and adaptation when communicating in international

settings as well as for interactions between people from different cultures in the same country (de

Mooji, 2010). Hofstede's dimensions do not clearly spell out all of these. For example, older persons

may be highly respected in one culture and disrespected in another. Even asking questions about a

person's age can make the receiver uncomfortable in Western cultures.

Further, cultural gender equality and inequality strongly affects patterns of communication between

males and females internationally. Percentages of a population that are well‐educated vary widely

across countries, thereby affecting status levels. Personalities are in luenced by cultural surroundings

as well. The most common areas in which communication in international and intercultural settings

requires examination include:

language and slang

greetings

directness of address

speaking versus silence

eye contact

ethnocentrism

stereotyping

differences in the meanings of nonverbal cues

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personal space issues

use of symbols and cultural icons

cultural context

What communication issues are present in international and intercultural settings?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Issues include language and slang, greetings, directness of address, speaking versus silence,

eye contact, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, differences in the meanings of nonverbal cues,

personal space issues, use of symbols and cultural icons, and cultural context.

Language and Slang

Language and slang differ among cultures. In the United States, the most prominent language is, of

course, English; however, residents speak a variety of additional languages. In terms of business

communication, many employers now list job openings in both English and Spanish, and training

programs have been adapted to accommodate those whose primary language is Spanish. Company

advertisements and other communication messages have been similarly modi ied.

The same holds true for international communication. An individual who only speaks Spanish is

likely to experience dif iculties when a business partner speaks only Russian, even when a translator

is present. Some languages, such as Mandarin, are written using characters rather than letters,

which add additional complications. Also, some printed languages are read from right to left;

whereas English and others are read from left to right.

Slang within both languages can further complicate communication. The phrase "our business is red

hot" serves as an example. Although it may seem strange, international buyers could misunderstand

the meaning of this phrase and think that it literally means that the business is on ire. Always

choose words carefully. In the Philippines, referring to a woman as a "hostess" translates into calling

her a prostitute. A Filipino immigrant would likely feel insulted in a similar manner when engaged

in a conversation in his or her new country.

In many business conversations, the person speaking has only partial knowledge of a language. This

can lead to misspoken ideas or words or poor grammar, especially in areas such as singular/plural

or noun‐verb agreement. The person may appreciate a friendly correction, although normally at least

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Greetings, gestures, and other methods of

communication vary by culture.

some familiarity with the person is advisable before doing so.

The attempt to speak in a foreign language, even if only for the purposes of greeting a potential

business partner, often builds rapport with that person.

Greetings

Knowing how to greet someone can be a valuable

business asset. Cultures such as the United States often

exhibit informal methods of greeting, including phrases

such as "Hey," "Hi," or "Howdy." Many immigrants

within U.S. borders quickly adapt to such differences;

however, others may not. In business communication,

a wise course of action is to be aware of potential

differences in greetings when dealing with someone

from a different culture but the same country. For

example, many Muslim groups forbid handshakes

between a man and a woman.

More dramatic differences appear in international business communication. For example, while it is

common knowledge that, in Asia people bow and in Western cultures individuals shake hands as a

form of greeting, other key differences remain. In Korea, a person touches his elbow while shaking

hands as a sign of respect. In Japan, a 90‐degree bow often accompanies a handshake for the same

reason. Women do not shake hands with each other in Pakistan. Greeting a business contact with a

kiss on the cheek is a common gesture in certain European countries.

Care must be given to an initial contact. For example, in Germany if someone greets you as, "Good

morning, Mr. Jones," it will probably be a bad idea to say, "Oh please, call me Jack." Germans prefer

more formal relationships with business partners.

Further, following an initial introduction, in some countries, the partners immediately move on to

the purpose of the meeting. In Finland, for example, a popular saying is suoraan liiketoimintaa,

which means "straight to business." In other countries, doing so is considered rude. First, take time

to establish a relationship with the new business partner. Businesspeople in China greatly value the

concept of trust, and any Western businessperson seeking to conduct business in China must irst

work to establish relationships, not only between companies, but also between people. Company

representatives must understand that the relationships begin before business deals are made and

continue well after any speci ic transaction takes place (Baack, Harris, & Baack, 2012).

Even so, asking a personal question may be considered impolite. Asking about someone's family or

children may be inappropriate in certain, more reserved cultures with higher levels of power

distance.

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Directness of Address

Directness of address is culturally based. Language and conversation can vary drastically from

culture to culture. Such differences appear in the United States. Language and conversations are

often more direct in the East and more conversational in the Deep South.

In Asia, someone's persona likely includes the concept of "face," which essentially refers to one's

sense of honor, self‐respect, respect from others, and standing in a social setting. In that context,

language that avoids directly challenging a person or making that individual look bad, or seem

disrespected (e.g., lose face) is common. Disagreement is expressed in the most modest terms

possible. Instead of saying, "We can't meet your price," the vendor uses terminology such as "I am

afraid that trying to meet your price will be very dif icult for our company."

In nations such as Holland, the opposite is true. Unless the person uses strong, direct language, he

or she may be viewed as weak or not reliable.

Speaking Versus Silence

In the United States, most view silence as uncomfortable. At the same time, some U.S. subcultures

embrace greater degrees of silence. When asked a question, an employee might encourage a degree

of silence when told, "Take your time," before answering.

Similar differences take place internationally. In Japan, executives take time to consider a proposal,

believing it signals sincerity. Buyers in Sweden tend to be comfortable with pauses and silence

during negotiations. Impatience at this time potentially displays a lack of respect or impoliteness.

Many cultures have varying perspectives on the meaning of silence during a conversation or

negotiation. At the opposite extreme, a noisy house in Taiwan indicates a happy, healthy

environment.

Eye Contact

Eye contact may be closely related to directness of address. In some cultures, such as in the United

States and Canada, the failure to make eye contact makes a person seem suspicious and

untrustworthy. These patterns tend to run nationwide. In other countries, such as Japan, looking

away displays deference and respect.

Gender plays a signi icant role in eye contact as well. In many Middle Eastern cultures, a male does

not make eye contact with or comment on the color of a woman's eyes, unless she is a family

member. This holds true whether the individual lives in Saudi Arabia or immigrates to San Francisco.

While men make direct eye‐to‐eye contact, a man does not do so when conversing with a woman.

Ethnocentrism

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Ethnocentrism, the belief that one's culture is inherently superior, may cause either the sender or

receiver to convey a sense of feeling superior. It would not be surprising that misunderstandings,

con licts, and confrontations may emerge when someone expresses such a view.

Ethnocentrism often affects management communication. When a multinational company has a

home‐base country, it is not unusual for managers to believe their country's style of leadership is

"best." Transmitting such an attitude to persons in other nations frequently meets with some

resistance or resentment.

A variation of ethnocentrism takes place when a person from a culture within a country implies that

his or her culture is superior to other cultural backgrounds from the same country. Some of the

racial tension between African Americans and Caucasians in the United States indicates this type of

belief in a culture's superiority (e.g., "acting white" as an insult or racially charged references by

Caucasians), even though these ideas are not tied to international business.

De ine ethnocentrism and explain how it creates a barrier to interpersonal

communication. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Ethnocentrism, the belief that one's culture is inherently superior, may cause either the

sender or receiver to convey a sense of feeling superior. The misunderstanding that results

and the con lict or confrontation that might emerge would not be surprising.

Stereotyping

Stereotyping exists when a person assumes things about another based on that person's race,

gender, or national heritage. Stereotyping occurs within national boundaries based on many cultural

values and elements. In the United States, stereotyping of religions, political af iliations, and regional

heritage affects communication as well. For example, assuming someone who looks Hispanic actually

speaks Spanish is stereotyping, as is assuming all members of a religion, such as Islam, have

common (and negative) characteristics.

In international settings, cultural stereotyping takes place between countries. Believing all Germans

are rigid, structured, rational thinkers lumps them into a group that undoubtedly does not truly

exist. Corresponding methods of speaking are affected by such an assumption. Many times women

are the victims of stereotyping, even though the nature of the stereotyping differs in various

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©Celia Peterson/arabianEye/Corbis

Cultural views of personal space and physical

contact vary widely.

cultures. Typically femininity has been associated with nurturing and support, where masculinity

re lects aggression and dominance by males, even though these characteristics are not true of many

men and women.

De ine stereotyping and explain how it creates a barrier to interpersonal

communication. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Stereotyping exists when a person assumes things about another based on that person's race,

gender, or national heritage. It can disrupt conversations between people of different

cultures within a country or with those from another country.

Nonverbal Cues

Nonverbal cues vary widely by culture. Nodding "yes"

in one country means "no" in others. In many Middle

Eastern nations, the act of crossing one's legs is a sign

of disrespect and males holding hands as part of a

business relationship indicates trust. Gestures also

vary widely. What may have a benign meaning in one

country may be an obscene gesture in another.

Examples include the "V for victory" with two ingers

sign and use of the middle inger to point. In

Indonesia, pounding your ist into the palm of your

hand may be considered an obscene gesture.

Personal Space

Personal space is the distance between two persons in a conversation. Standing two to three feet

away from another person may be the norm in one culture such as France, Spain, or the United

States where greater personal space exists. That same distance may indicate shiftiness or distrust in

Central Africa and the Middle East. As an extension of personal distance, in the culture of Japan a

business partner might ind a pat on the back to be disconcerting, as the Japanese tend to not make

physical contact in business relationships, other than a handshake with a Western partner.

Symbols and Cultural Icons

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Not long ago, Pepsi began to lose market share to Coke in Southeast Asia. The management team

discovered that changing the outside color of vending machines from a dark regal blue to light blue

was the problem. In that region, light blue is associated with death and mourning (Henderson,

2011).

Cultural symbols include religious items, superstitions, colors, objects, animals, and an endless

variety of items. A white horse symbolizes death in some cultures; a black horse in others. Various

lowers have different meanings, depending on the culture involved. Knowledge of the beliefs and

associations of a culture help you avoid doing something that would make a person uncomfortable

or that has a different meaning to the other person than it does to you.

The left hand has meaning in many cultures. Malaysians consider the left hand unclean. In India, the

left hand is considered less important, and dignitaries perform actions with the right hand for

ceremonies such as a ribbon‐cutting, even if the person is left‐handed.

Different cultures place varying levels of emphasis on the actual words involved in communication.

The terms higher‐ and lower‐context are applied to these cultural differences in language usage.

Lower‐context cultures are characterized by explicit verbal messages where members value and

have positive attitudes about words. The meaning of a message is mainly contained in the words

themselves. Much of the Western world is historically rich with rhetoric. This, in turn, continues to

emphasize the importance of verbal messages. Germany, Switzerland, and the United States are

examples of lower‐context cultures.

Higher‐context cultures rely more on symbols and language with less explicit or spelled‐out codes.

The meanings of these messages are mainly contained in the nonverbal components of the message.

This includes facial expressions, body language, the person presenting the message, and the context

in which the message is transmitted. Higher‐context communication moves quickly and ef iciently.

Unfortunately, often the verbal messages are less complete, and for those not familiar with the

symbols in a given area, the information becomes dif icult to accurately decipher. Higher‐context

societies are less accessible to outsiders. Many Asian cultures are higher‐context.

Cultural context may be viewed as a continuum. The highest‐context cultures exhibit the greatest

reliance on symbols and visual elements. Others lean toward a high context, yet words are more

frequently used and valued. The same holds true for lower‐context cultures; degrees of word

valuation may be found. Misunderstanding these differing elements may lead to problematic

conversations (Hall, 1994).

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Comstock/Thinkstock

Time, timeliness, and tardiness have different

meanings in various cultures.

Beyond the role nonverbal communication plays in

higher‐context regions, business partners in these

countries tend to be more lenient with issues such as

the timeliness of meetings. In India or China, for

example, it may not appear to be rude to be a few

minutes late to a sales meeting.

In the United States or England, tardiness is frowned

upon. A salesperson might lose a sale due to being late

for a meeting in a lower‐context region, although

within some sub‐cultures in the United States

tardiness is more accepted.

Being unaware of time presents an obvious problem

for someone who is not well accustomed to these differences. When a sales lead is late for a

meeting, the salesperson might wonder if it means that the lead does not care about the meeting, or

whether it is a matter of the home culture. The salesperson needs to know this prior to the meeting

(Baack, Harris, & Baack, 2012).

Explain the difference between lower‐ and higher‐context cultures.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Lower‐context cultures are characterized by explicit verbal messages and members value and

have positive attitudes about words. The meaning of a message is mainly contained in the

words themselves. Higher‐context cultures rely more on symbols and language with less

explicit or spelled‐out codes. The meanings of these messages are mainly contained in the

nonverbal components of the message.

Effective communicators operate effectively in domestic and international settings, adapting to

cultural differences. Within the United States, many irms offer cultural sensitivity training to assist

in developing employees and managers with heightened communication skills. Cultural sensitivity

programs normally focus on:

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awareness of one's own cultural world view

knowledge about cultural practices

analysis of one's reaction to cultural differences

re ining and building cross‐cultural skills

Many of the same skill sets are useful in international business as well.

When conducting international business, translators and cultural assimilators are key individuals

who help you overcome intercultural communication barriers. Translators must speak the native

language of the host country. Many times the best choice for a translator is someone who lives in the

host country, and uses its language as a irst language.

Cultural assimilators are employees who examine messages and prepare individuals for

interactions with members of other countries. They can help a person avoid any uncomfortable

lapses in manners as well as explain how to show friendliness and respect in a host country.

Selection processes should be designed to identify those who are most adaptable to new situations.

Those who exhibit ethnocentrism or stereotyping should quickly be screened out. Employees will

often identify themselves as being excited about taking on international assignments. Any

international assignment requires cultural training. Company leaders should prepare workers for the

possibility of culture shock when entering a new nation. Expatriate employees, or those sent to

work in other countries, need time to assimilate to new circumstances.

Interpersonal communication skills are valuable when dealing with diversity issues within a country

as well as with business people in other countries. Operating effectively with those from other

cultures requires several communication skills. Employees can effectively adapt to cultural nuances

through an understanding of the various differences explored in this section.

In domestic settings, cultural awareness and sensitivity help you become a more effective

communicator on behalf of a company. Many U.S. companies have discovered the value of a diverse

work force and the lucrative nature of reaching market segments based on cultural differences.

In international settings, cultural differences should be carefully understood. Even the simple act of

giving a business card can generate an uncomfortable moment when they are not. Someone who

takes the card and stuffs it in his pocket insults his Korean host, because the action treats that

individual as being insigni icant. Eye contact, directness of address, gestures, and other nonverbal

cues require attention prior to any business meeting.

Would you know what to do if someone gave you a gift at the beginning of a business meeting in

Taiwan? The answer would be to thank the giver and then set the gift aside without opening it. You

will embarrass and insult the giver if you take a look and are disappointed by what you ind. A

cultural assimilator helps employees and managers discover these and other customs. If one is not

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available, effective business communicators take the time to learn these nuances and differences

independently prior to traveling to another country.

What are the duties of a cultural assimilator? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Cultural assimilators are employees who examine messages and prepare individuals for

interactions with members of other countries.

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Interpersonal communication interactions take place between two or more people—co‐workers,

with customers, suppliers, and others in the marketing channel, with members of governmental

agencies, between supervisors and employees, and with a wide variety of publics on a daily basis. A

simpli ied interpersonal communications model includes a sender, encoding, a transmission device,

decoding, a receiver, and feedback.

An interaction model of communication depicts the mutual transmission, the reception of messages,

and feedback. In essence, a mirror was added to show the more interactive nature of

communication.

In the transaction model of communication, a person speaking observes the intended audience as

the message is being sent. The speaker may observe reactions before all of the words have been

transmitted. Conversations resemble a dance in which both parties socially construct the interaction.

Such a model accounts for interruptions, persons inishing each other's sentences as well as

incomplete transmissions. Further, the transaction model tracks the movement from

misunderstanding to understanding, from disagreement to agreement, as well as the escalation of a

conversation into a con lict.

Three categories of barriers to communication include individual differences, situational factors, and

transmission problems. Individual differences such as age, gender, exclusive language, educational

level, organizational rank, and personalities can inhibit conversations. Situational factors consist of

the emotions of anger, sadness, envy, jealousy, romantic feelings, and personal attitudes and values.

Also settings and distractions create disruptive situational factors. Transmission problems that

inhibit communication include language (semantics), slang, technical terminology, disabilities in the

sender or receiver, and nonverbal contradictions of verbal messages.

Two sets of responsibilities are associated with successful interpersonal communications. First,

senders should be aware of potential barriers, be empathetic, pay careful attention to nonverbal

cues, and con irm understanding of the message. Second, receiver responsibilities are to engage in

active listening and seek clari ication of unclear messages.

International and intercultural barriers to communication magnify problems. They include

differences in language and slang, greetings, directness of address, speaking versus silence, use of

eye contact, and other factors such as ethnocentrism, stereotyping, differences in the meanings of

nonverbal cues, personal space issues, the use of symbols and cultural icons, and other elements of

cultural context.

In domestic settings, many organizations offer cultural sensitivity training sessions. In international

settings, translators and cultural assimilators are key individuals who help you overcome

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intercultural communication barriers. Translators should speak the native language of the host

country. Cultural assimilators are employees who examine messages and prepare individuals for

interactions with members of other countries.

In any interpersonal interaction, two roles are played: sender and receiver. A successful career in

business requires skills in playing both roles.

cultural assimilators (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Employees who examine messages and prepare individuals for interactions with members of other

countries.

decoding (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

What occurs as the receiver encounters a message.

encoding (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The presentation of verbal and nonverbal cues.

ethnocentrism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The belief that one's culture is inherently superior.

exclusive language (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Terminology that is only understood by a distinct set of individuals.

expatriate employees (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Employees sent to work in other countries.

feedback (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

What returns to the sender in the form of evaluation of the message.

higher‐context cultures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Cultures that rely more on symbols and language with less explicit or spelled‐out codes.

lower‐context cultures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Cultures that strongly value and have positive attitudes regarding words.

noise (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The barriers to communication that distort or disrupt messages.

receiver (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

A sender's intended audience.

sender (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The person transmitting a message or idea.

stereotyping (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

What happens when a person assumes things about another based on that person's race, gender,

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national heritage, or more.

transmission device (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Anything that carries a message.

Describe the gesture that would best accompany the following verbal messages:

"I trust you."a.

"I disagree with you."b.

"You have just insulted me."c.

"I'm sorry."d.

Ask ive people about their feelings regarding of ice romances. What issues do they raise? Do their

answers vary by gender? What potential communication problems result from of ice romances?

Watch an episode of "Glee" or some other television program aimed at teenagers. Compare that

slang to the terms that were used in your teenage years. Could you overcome the use of slang if

managing people younger than yourself? If so, what speci ic tactics would you use?

Impression management is one key tactic some employees use to gain power. It means creating the

impression that the person is in charge and holds authority, even when he or she does not. Identify

the communication tactics a person could use to accomplish this, both in terms of verbal and

nonverbal cues.

Using the Internet, examine some of the cultural characteristics of the following countries and

explain how you would adapt to them if assigned a visit.

United Kingdoma.

Indiab.

South Africac.

Brazild.

Swedene.

Find out what is wrong with the following actions by examining the cultural nuances of each

situation.

In France, you put your hands in your lap during a meal, having seen it done in England the

night before.

In Russia, you see two colleagues greet by hugging and assume you should do the same.b.

In Thailand, you begin discussions of a business proposal before lunch is served.c.

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In India, you curl your inger to signal "come here" to a local associate.d.

Explain how you would set up a sales pitch for a inancial service to company leaders in a higher‐

context country. How would you change the same pitch to work well in a lower‐context country?

Explain how you would set up a sales pitch for a line of refrigerators to be sold by a retail chain in a

higher‐context country. How would you change the same pitch to work well in a lower‐context

country?

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Bill Marriott's attention to detail, including the concerns and the

performance of his employees, is legendary. These video clips

pro ile Marriott and demonstrates his philosophy that workers

who are valued and challenged will ensure customer satisfaction

and boost pro its.

The Man Behind the Marriott Empire: Bill Marriott

How did J.W. Marriott and Bill Marriott use interpersonal

communication to connect to Marriott empolyees? What

does the "hands‐on" approach involve?

Where does Bill Marriott say he gets his "people skills"?2.

How has empathy helped him be an effective manager?3.

Suzette Holmes attended college with the intention of completing a degree in chemistry.

She graduated with honors and began seeking work. Her journey quickly took some

0:00 / 11:07 1x

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complicated turns. A major pharmaceutical company hired her to oversee the distribution

and sale of a series of drugs, the most prominent of which was a sexual dysfunction pill

for men. The company's leaders wanted someone who could explain the chemical

properties of the medications and also make a case that the irm's version of the product

was the best treatment.

While she was able to easily handle other medications, including those for acne and

stomach problems, Holmes noticed that the sexual dysfunction product seemed to create

odd behaviors in both male and female members of the sales force. She was uncertain

how to handle all of the joking and ironic names for male erectile dysfunction and all of

the proposed nicknames for the product. On the one hand, she didn't want to appear as if

she couldn't take a joke. On the other, it was clear that some of her salespeople wanted

the product to be handled in the same professional manner as all of the other drugs. Still,

she also heard jokes and comments about acne and a few of the other ailments her list of

medicines addressed.

Her most interesting challenge came on a trip to Japan. Holmes had been assigned to the

task of selling the sexual dysfunction product to a major distributor. She spent several

hours going over the cultural nuances of Japan, including the appropriate bow, gift,

presentation of a business card, manner of negotiation, eye contact, and even dining

manners.

Holmes summoned her best assistant, Jeff, to accompany her on the trip to take care of

any details and correspondence. Upon arriving, she was quickly taken by surprise. Her

Japanese hosts immediately assumed that Jeff was the senior salesperson and that Suzette

was his assistant. They spoke directly to him and did not seem particularly interested in

having her engaged in the conversation.

Seeing an advantage, she waited for several minutes before correcting their misperception.

It became clear that her hosts were morti ied by their mistake. They apologized profusely

and often during the remainder of the initial meeting. Holmes was convinced she would be

able to turn their faux pas into a major sale with very favorable terms.

Review Questions

Which individual interpersonal communication issues described in this chapter apply to

Suzette Holmes' situation?

Should Holmes play along with all the joking about the sexual dysfunction product or

discourage it? Should she react differently if the person telling the jokes was female?

Male?

Could Holmes have done anything to prevent the misperception of the Japanese hosts? If

so, what?

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Was Holmes acting fairly to take advantage of her hosts' loss of face in negotiations?4.

Doug Dickenson knew it was time to pick up the pieces, and it was a mess he had made

due to his quick temper. After opening a law practice six months ago, he had inally begun

to develop a decent client list, with a few strong cases. His one employee Angela Romano

was a legal secretary who was vice president of the local professional legal secretary's

association.

Angela was 24 years old, a single mother, and a recent graduate of the nearby junior

college. She believed her training would make it possible to stay steadily employed. Her

grades had been nearly perfect through the entire two‐year process.

Angela was somewhat intimidated by Doug, who was a top graduate in his law school

class. Doug had worked in a corporate law of ice for 10 years before launching his own

practice. He had won several major cases that provided the funding for the new venture.

Doug was tall and had a powerful voice that served him well in the courtroom, but could

inadvertently frighten someone who was a little shy, such as Angela.

The incident started on a Friday afternoon. Angela had been suffering with a toothache

that had gone from being only somewhat annoying to terribly painful. She was afraid to

ask for the afternoon off, because she had only been on the job for six months. So she

suffered through the day, doing her best to complete her assignments. Unfortunately, the

pain distracted her to the point where she simply forgot to ile some key legal documents

with the court, and Friday was the inal deadline. Angela managed to ind a sympathetic

dentist to resolve her problem right after she got off work.

The following Monday she returned to the of ice. It was at that point she discovered her

oversight. She timidly approached Doug and told him about the situation.

Doug quickly became worried about word getting around that his of ice was unreliable, as

this was a major client and a big case. He was prone to being somewhat bombastic, and

this time he clearly crossed over a line.

"What are you, retarded?" he bellowed. "You just cost these guys a whole bunch of money!

I just can't afford mistakes like this. Go on, get out of here," he inished.

Angela left the room crying. She wasn't sure if she had been ired or was simply supposed

to leave him alone. To make matters worse, her sister was mentally challenged, and Angela

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was particularly sensitive to insulting language about her condition. She was angry and

hurt at the same time.

Doug stewed in his of ice for about 10 minutes. When he calmed down, he igured out a

way to call in a favor with the local court clerk. She would make it appear as if the

document had arrived but was left in the incoming mailbox. Although this was unethical,

he igured it would never happen again.

Doug approached Angela and apologized for his remarks. She meekly told him about the

toothache, but not about her sister. Both knew that it would take time to get past his

tirade.

Review Questions

Describe the barriers to communication present in this story.1.

Should Angela tell Doug about her sister's condition? If so, how should she approach the

subject?

What would you recommend to Doug to help mend the relationship that he had

damaged, especially since he valued Angela's skills and thought she was an excellent

employee?

What communication training should Doug receive?4.

What communication training should Angela receive?5.

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iStockphoto

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Apply the essential elements of a management communication system to an organization.1.

Identify the role formal communication plays in managerial processes and describe the range

of formal communication channels available to managers.

Employ the keys to successful face‐to‐face meetings with other employees.3.

Effectively manage informal communication.4.

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Understand the role nonverbal communication plays in presenting and receiving messages.5.

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Every organization, regardless of its age or size, depends on its communication system to conduct

operations. Messages must reach the appropriate audiences in order for a company to survive. A key

part of the well‐being of a business continues to be the ability to make sure the right people receive

the right information at the right time.

Chapter 1 de ined management communication as all efforts to systematically plan, implement,

monitor, and upgrade the channels of communication within the organization and with outside

organizations that affect a company's internal operations. Management communication includes

elements of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling at the strategic, tactical, and operational

levels.

This chapter explores the process of creating managerial messages through verbal and nonverbal

channels. We will examine various types of messages and the goals of these messages. Also, the

patterns that emerge when managers communicate with their employees receive attention. Formal

and informal verbal communication channels serve to deliver many of these messages. Formal and

informal verbal communication channels are presented next and the means by which informal

communication can be used to complement and supplement formal communication are noted. The

inal part of this chapter reviews the role and forms of nonverbal communication.

The Starbucks chain of retail stores has experienced dramatic periods of success,

turbulence, and turnaround. In the 1980s, founder and CEO Howard Schultz took the

concept of modeling coffee venues from Italian coffee bars and turned his organization

into an espresso empire. The original concept included hiring employees as baristas, or

bar persons, with strong interests in coffee products and in providing high‐quality,

pleasant services to patrons. Extensive training and a diverse work force became

hallmarks of the organization. Over a span of 15 years, Starbucks grew dramatically

(Lewis, 1997).

Schultz eventually stepped down as CEO in 2000, with the company operating 5,000 retail

stores and strong sales. Under the new CEO, Jim Donald, expansion led to the addition of

nearly 10,000 more stores. The rapid growth created a saturation of the market,

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The Starbucks chain's resurgence began

with effective strategic management

programs combined with quality

management communication.

accompanied by a decline in the quality of the

Starbucks experience. In 2007, the stock value of

Starbucks dropped by 42 percent, just as the U.S.

economy entered a profound recession.

On January 6, 2008, Schultz returned as CEO.

Within two days the stock's value had rebounded

by 8 percent. Over the next three years,

Starbucks eventually returned to a solid,

pro itable enterprise. Schultz has been widely

praised for his efforts to turn the company

around. His work indicates the important

relationships between strategic management and

managerial communication processes.

Many of the decisions made to restore the company involved strategic marketing and

management efforts. Each was communicated throughout the company. Among these,

Starbucks reduced the number of retail units, including 600 closures in 2009, reducing

operating costs by $850 million. Many stores were remodeled, and Starbucks replaced all

of its espresso machines with the Mastrena, a sophisticated Swiss‐made machine. The

company replaced all of its outdated cash registers and computers, and Schultz made the

executive decision to remove heated breakfast sandwiches from the menu. Schultz also

completely reorganized supply chain operations with the goal of getting products to stores

more ef iciently and improving inventory. In 2008, only three out of every 10 orders were

delivered perfectly to stores. The statistic improved to nine out of 10 orders. Starbucks

created a customer rewards card to try to retain patrons in the declining economy.

Beyond these strategic activities were much more direct managerial communications

efforts. To shake things up, Starbucks closed all of its U.S. stores for three‐and‐a‐half hours

in February 2008 to retrain its baristas on how to make the perfect espresso. The message

was clear to all employees—things were about to change. Schultz invited employees and

others to email him directly and received over 5,000 responses in the irst year.

The top management team was altered with the addition of a chief technology of icer,

Chris Bruzzo, from Amazon.com. Schultz also shook up the senior management team by

adding members of tech companies, including Google COO Sheryl Sandberg, to the

company's board of directors. Outside consultants were retained to instruct Schultz and

the top management team about corporate turnarounds.

Clear messages were sent to employees in many forms, beginning with retraining. Schultz

explained, "We wanted to go back to our roots, to show people what we stand for, which is

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the perfect cup of coffee" (CNBC, 2011). Schultz decided to continue offering health

insurance to his employees in order to stay aligned with the company's guiding principles.

Starbucks was the irst U.S. company to offer comprehensive health care coverage and

equity in the form of stock to part‐time employees. In June 2009, Schultz announced that

he would increase partners' salaries according to merit.

Schultz summarized the three‐year turnaround this way: "We enjoyed a 15‐year magical

carpet ride. Everything we touch turned to gold. We had convinced ourselves that success

was an entitlement. Success was not an entitlement; it is something that has to be earned

every day. We were going to pursue the excellence that was the very foundation of the

company" (CNBC, 2011).

What formal communications message did Schultz send during the initial parts of the

turnaround?

Which formal communications channels best matched Schultz's approach to strategic

management and employee relations?

What types of informal messages and gossip were likely to be circulating among

employees during the turnaround period? What could Schultz have done to cope with

them?

Effective management communication requires deliberation and planning. Even though a great deal

of communication occurs in the spur of the moment, many pronouncements can be constructed and

delivered with greater attention to detail. The management communication process consists of four

activities:

Assess the communication environment

Establish a message format

Develop the message

Authenticate the approach

Each of these activities presents the opportunity to carefully analyze the nature of the message, the

medium that will be used to transmit the message product, the audience, and the intended outcome.

Assess the Communication Environment

Managerial communications fall into two general categories. Proactive messages announce a

change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course or direction. They proclaim that the

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company will move into a new territory or use a new method. Reactive messages respond to

circumstances, such as a crisis, problem, or event.

As a manager begins to formulate a message, the irst step (analysis of the situation) depends

largely on the type of message to be prepared. Proactive messages are often more unsettling to

recipients, because change itself can make people uncomfortable or defensive (Patti, 1974). Some

proactive messages broadcast positive intentions, such as company expansion, the addition of a new

job title, or the company's intention to hire more employees. Others, however, create fear and

concern among employees, such as when a irm declares the development of an outsourcing or

offshoring program that might eliminate local jobs.

Reactive messages range from small pronouncements such as, "Fred Jones plans to retire and we are

beginning a search for his replacement," to reactions to major crises. Managers should take the time

to carefully prepare organizational responses to situations. Assessing the communication

environment consists of the evaluation of all Ws and Hs associated with the message, as follows.

Who is the audience? A manager's internal message can target an individual, a group, a department,

or the entire company. The nature of the audience determines the other steps in the communication

process.

What is the intention of the message? Proactive messages may take different forms than reactive

messages. Some messages inform; others persuade. The manager should know the desired outcome

in advance.

When will the message be sent? Delivering messages early in the business day allows time for

responses and reactions. Messages presented at the end of the day give the audience time to

deliberate overnight. A message transmitted on Monday has a different context than one sent on

Friday afternoon.

Where will the communication take place? A formal companywide meeting exudes a different

meaning from a bulk email sent to all members. Context, such as an outside presentation in front of

the home of ice building, provides a powerful element of the message to be sent.

How will the message be sent? Managerial communications are offered in numerous ways. Each best

its individual circumstances and the message itself.

As an example, in the early 2000s, the Arthur Andersen accounting irm contained several major

divisions, one of which was Andersen Consulting. A legal decree, based on a series of usual

circumstances, dictated that the larger corporation must spin off the consulting division into a

separate company.

The top management team at the former Andersen Consulting knew that the irst step would be to

create a new name or brand for the independent company. After careful consideration, the CEO

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announced an organization‐wide contest for members to suggest the new name. In that case, the

protocol was:

Who: CEO and top management to all members of the newly formed company.

What: proactively inform employees that a contest to develop a new brand name

would begin.

When: the contest commenced immediately and ended after 60 days.

Where: worldwide.

How: a companywide memo indicating all of the details of the contest.

The number of innovative names that were suggested amazed the operators of the contest. Entries

were pared down to a small set of possibilities, and then to three inalists. After careful deliberation,

a winner was chosen. The proclamation of the new company name took place in this way:

Who: CEO to all members of the company.

What: reactively announce (inform) the winner and new company name.

When: immediately, with implementation beginning the same day.

Where: worldwide.

How: a teleconference connected every outlet of the company.

The name Accenture was selected. Within hours, signage changed, new letterhead was designed,

advertisements were created announcing the new name, and every other facet of the company

affected by the name change was addressed. The successful beginning to this drastic alteration was

the analysis of the situation (Accenture, 2000).

Establish a Message Format

A communication message format consists of the text of the message along with any visuals. Four

elements of design include attracting attention, preparing the information to be transmitted, inding

ways to reach the audience, and developing methods to ensure understanding and compliance.

Many aspects of a communication attract attention. The headline or message announcement can

draw notice. A headline may take the form of the message line in an email, the banner at the top of

a memo, or through attractive and exciting visuals. In the case of Accenture, the announcement of

the contest in written form could have contained a cover with art and an exciting title, such as "Win

this contest!" When the contest winner was announced, attention was gained by holding a

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worldwide teleconference to make the announcement. The event was set up by irst informing all

employees via email that the winner had been chosen, which gave employees time to gather

together to watch the announcement on television screens.

Information may be formulated in several ways. The primary consideration normally will be the type

of message to be presented. Informative messages often use a standard presentation format, or:

Introduction and forecast of the message parts

Body that presents the message in distinct units

Conclusion that reviews the units and message

In essence, the standard presentation format consists of "tell them what you're going to tell them,

tell them, then tell them what you told them." It focuses on recall and retention. Visuals take the

forms of bullet points in PowerPoint slides, charts, graphs, and summary statements. A photo or

illustration can reinforce the message. Messages usually are factual, to the point, and not dramatic

(Wiig & Wilson, 2000).

In contrast, an unfolding presentation format often accompanies a persuasive message. The

approach involves building a logical sequence of arguments leading to a dramatic, persuasive

conclusion. In essence, A leads to B, B leads to C, and C leads to D. A may be, "We need to cut costs

in order to remain competitive," and B is, "to cut costs, we need to lower our employee expenses."

Then C is, "our largest employee expense is bene it packages," leading to D, "if we want to stay in

business, employees are going to have to agree to fewer bene its."

The leaders of General Motors made such an argument with regard to health care expenses in the

late 1990s. Company executives pointed out that health care costs contributed to the overall cost of

producing each car, leading to a competitive disadvantage when compared to foreign car

manufacturers that did not provide health care coverage for employees (Connolly, 2005). Naturally,

the argument met with a great deal of resistance from employees and unions.

Unfolding presentations may be accompanied by emotional visuals and often by dramatic or

inspiring music that build to a crescendo as the major conclusion is drawn. The language used in

unfolding presentations will often be more emotive, relying as much on emotions and logic to make

key points, such as, "We don't want to see the company fail, do we?"

Written unfolding presentations include extensive use of oversized print, boldface, italics, underlines,

and exclamation points. As an example:

You don't want foreign companies to take away our customers, do you?

Many of you have probably received unfolding presentations using persuasion techniques from

political parties in email or standard mail lyers.

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Digital Vision/Thinkstock

Many management

communication messages are

developed and re ined through

collaborative efforts.

When designing formal communication messages, what two presentation formats

may be used? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The standard presentation format and the unfolding presentation format.

Develop the Message

A single individual or a team can carry out the next step in the

process, developing the message. Effective writers and speakers

may not require the assistance of others. Those with fewer talents

in these areas, or those who prefer collaboration, pull together

sets of people with unique abilities. A high‐quality verbal or

written message product combines the words, images, and sounds

that present the message product as intended.

Verbal message products include interpersonal communications,

meetings, presentations, and speeches. Written message products

include letters, memos, emails, proposals, and special reports.

Much of this text is devoted to helping you create high‐quality

messages.

Authenticate the Approach

Authenticating the approach involves making sure the message

will be communicated as intended. A thorough veri ication process includes a review of the goals,

audience, media, message development, and timing of the message product release. An effective

communicator knows that, more often than not, the secret to presenting an effective message

involves not just writing the words, but several rounds of rewriting and revising the message, and

then knowing exactly when to release it.

During the process of authenticating the approach, all information provided in the text and in visuals

should be rechecked for accuracy, in both oral and written presentations. The same is true of the

message itself. Remember that an emotional or persuasive presentation may run a greater risk of

leading the audience to misinterpret words. This suggests that a major part of the process involves

understanding how the message will be received.

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What are the four steps involved in the management communication process?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The steps are assess the communication environment, establish a message format, develop

the message, and authenticate the approach.

Explain the natures of proactive and reactive managerial communications.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Proactive messages announce a change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course or

direction. They proclaim the company will move into a new territory or use a new method.

Reactive messages respond to circumstances, such as a crisis, problem, or event.

Company leaders guide organizations through dull periods and dramatic challenges. Messages vary

from straightforward concepts to complex presentations designed to change attitudes, opinions, or

values. Table 3.1 indicates a series of messages and their goals and the corresponding degree of

complexity associated with each goal.

Table 3.1: Messages and goals

Type of Message or Goal Degree of Message Complexity

Remind

Schedule/coordinate Lowest

Inform

Solicit input

Report indings

Moderate

Persuade Highest

A message designed to remind can target individuals, groups, or the entire organization. Reminders

of meetings, deadlines, and other time‐related issues are commonplace. Messages that schedule or

coordinate activities are sent to sets of individuals working on a common project or task. Planning

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processes dictate schedules. Informational messages vary more widely. At times, the information can

be relatively mundane; at others, key organizational events, outcomes, or decisions are transmitted.

Soliciting input ranges from collecting opinions to gathering full sets of data in order to make the

most informed decision possible. Reporting the indings requires complete descriptions of an

analysis and may invite further discussion and evaluation. The greatest message complexity occurs

in attempts to persuade, because either a logical or emotional presentation designed to change an

attitude must be constructed. Faulty reasoning or lack of a compelling argument may cause the

persuasion attempt to fail (Burnes, 2004).

Each organization is unique. Company leaders design organization structures suited to the

organization's unique needs. The same is true of communication systems. At the same time, in the

case of both organizational structure and communication systems, certain identi iable patterns

emerge. Four of the more common in business settings are the chain, wheel, circle, and all‐channel

communication patterns, as displayed in Figure 3.1 (Guetzkow & Simon, 1955).

Figure 3.1: Patterns of managerial communication

The four most common patterns of managerial communication

include the chain, wheel, circle, and all‐channel forms.

Source: From Grif ing/Moorhead, Organizational Behaviour, 7th ed.

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Chain

The chain approach to management communication parallels the term "chain of command" or

"hierarchy of authority." Messages low primarily in two directions, upward and downward. Top

managers issue orders and relay decisions to middle managers. Middle managers transfer the

information to irst‐line supervisors. First‐line supervisors inform entry‐level workers. Questions,

inquiries, and requests for clari ication follow the reverse order.

Directives sent through the chain approach to management communication indicate centralization:

a form of organizational structure in which a low degree of delegation of decision‐making, authority,

and power takes place. Lower‐level employees become "order takers" and "order followers" in such

a system. Managers and employees who violate the chain of command by communicating directly

with other departments "walk the gangplank," by disrupting the communication system, in the

words of noted management scholar Henri Fayol (1949). The chain design can be characterized as a

mechanistic approach to organizational communication, largely driven by rules, procedures, titles

that indicate organizational status, and formal relationships between employees (Woodward, 1958).

Figure 3.2: An organizational chart

The chain model often accompanies a centralized form of organizational

structure.

The chain design offers bene its to certain types of organizations. Figure 3.2 provides an example of

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a basic organizational chart. The chart its a chain design in which precision in carrying out tasks or

assignments holds high priority. Military and police organizations serve as prime examples; however,

the chain only works well within the organization rather than when one unit (police) must

coordinate with other units ( ire, storm cleanup departments, etc.). The chain model can also be

found in companies that produce standardized products, with few needs for innovation or change.

Wheel

In a wheel arrangement, a manager or supervisor becomes the center of the wheel, with individual

spokes, or communication channels, connecting the manager to subordinates. In such a system, the

manager retains information and dispenses it to employees as needed, serving as a control center.

Individual employees communicate only with the manager and not with one another.

The wheel approach may be used in task forces or project teams, especially when members are

disbursed geographically. For example, should a team be formed to identify and purchase a new

manufacturing site, members of the group may be sent to a variety of locations where they collect

information about the costs of land, the availability of contractors and laborers, access to

transportation systems, the nature of the local government, prevailing wages, and other factors. Each

reports to the head of the task force, who then can relay the information to decision‐makers. A

similar situation arises when teams are disbursed to various countries to identify those that would

be targets for international expansion.

Normally, a wheel approach would not it an ongoing managerial circumstance. Over time,

employees are not usually isolated from each other on a continuing basis. Exceptions are possible,

such as when a series of park rangers reports to a central of ice regarding ire threats and other

activities in the park system.

Circle

A circle resembles the wheel approach, only without the central hub. In a circle system, members

communicate freely with other members, even when one member of the circle is the formally

designated leader. The low of communication, however, goes around the wheel, clockwise or

counterclockwise. This method matches work that takes place sequentially. One member's end

product becomes the beginning point for the next member.

The circle approach may be found in task force operations as well as in laboratory settings in which

experiments take place in a carefully constructed format. It might also it certain creative endeavors,

such as preparing advertisements or market research projects.

All‐Channel

In an all‐channel communication arrangement, messages move freely across organizational ranks

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and members of a team, group, or department. Members determine the persons that should receive

messages, regardless of title or status.

The all‐channel approach creates decentralization, or an organizational operation characterized by

substantial delegation of authority (Goodman & Pennings, 1979). The system represents an organic

approach to communication structure, with few rules, little attention paid to titles and ranks, and a

strong emphasis on organizational lexibility and adaptability (Woodward, 1965).

The all‐channel approach to communication design matches an increasing number of departments

and companies. Many Internet irms, such as Google, maintain open work spaces in which doors and

walls are not used. Employees move about freely and are encouraged to develop and propose new,

innovative ideas. Managers work side‐by‐side with other organizational members.

The all‐channel method empowers employees and encourages innovation. Consequently, it has often

become the method of choice for research and development departments as well as other units that

emphasize creativity.

Table 3.2: Managerial messages and communication systems

Pattern Common Messages

Chain Memo/directive, bulk email, formal presentation by manager, little or no

feedback expected

Wheel Interpersonal conversations, email exchanges, calls, meetings directed by a

supervisor, feedback needed

Circle

Checklist with notation when task is completed, interpersonal conversations

between members, emails, calls, less‐structured meetings with feedback

expected

All‐Channel Interpersonal conversations, unstructured meetings, emails, calls, constant

feedback in all directions

In summary, you probably would not be able to go into a company and quickly identify the

communication pattern. Some clues may be obtained from the information provided in Table 3.2.

Most organizations, however, contain elements of least two of the systems. Some projects are

directed using a wheel, others with a circle (Lim & Benbasat, 1991). Other companies may maintain

an all‐channel approach organization‐wide, but use a wheel or circle in certain circumstances. The

least‐ lexible chain approach, while less common, may be the most visible to an outsider.

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The messages and channels described in the previous section apply to formal communication

systems. Formal communication consists of information that travels through organizationally

designated channels. Formal communication takes the form of verbal transmissions and written

media. The channel selected by a manager depends on the type of message to be sent.

What four primary patterns do formal managerial communications exhibit?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The chain, wheel, circle, and all‐channel patterns.

Formal communication systems move information throughout the organization. The information can

travel upward, downward, laterally, or in all directions at once. The most common types of messages

transmitted via formal channels include:

Job instructions

Job rationale

Standardized information

Team and group coordination

Questions and answers

Decisions and plans

Ideological indoctrination

Job instructions appear in many forms. A direct address by a supervisor instructs an employee how

to carry out a task or set of tasks. Employee training programs provide information to new hires.

Performance appraisal systems correct ineffective performance. Mentoring programs render

additional insights and information about how to successfully perform a task or job.

A job rationale answers the "why" questions. In other words, managers explain why a job should be

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completed in a certain way and the reasons the job is important. A manager provides the rationale

for the job when he or she tells the employee, "We do the job this way, because it saves time" or,

"We ask you to compile sales statistics by store so that we know which products do well in each

unit, and which do not."

Standardized information consists of items that apply equally to everyone in the irm, or to every

person in a given department. Examples are the company's list of rules, protocols for evacuation in

case of an emergency, plus any procedures that apply to speci ic units in the company. Standardized

information in a retail store consists of how inventory will be managed (move the oldest

merchandise to the front of the shelf), how cash will be handled (leave $100 in bills and coins in the

Standardized information in the production department includes safety procedures and rules, and

methods for completing each task. Standardized information in accounting contains messages about

which procedures are used, such as methods of depreciation and methods of valuing inventory.

Team and group coordination messages set meeting times, dates, and deadlines, plus help to

establish relationships between members. Members of the workplace safety committee know that

the group meets the third Monday of each month, that a deadline for completing a report about a

recent series of accidents looms, and that the committee always consists of six members, two from

production, one from human resources, one from quality control, and two other individuals. Systems

for electing a committee chair may also be part of the coordination effort.

Questions and answers move upward, downward, and laterally in business organizations. Questions

may be posed by employees to managers, by managers to employees, or by members at the same

rank, such as supervisors to one another.

Decisions and plans shape the direction of the company. Managers convey them verbally and in

writing. Effective organizations chart planned courses that every employee can understand and

follow.

Ideological indoctrination statements tell employees, "This is a great place to work." At times, the

message begins with a company's statement of mission. Support for ethical behaviors, social

responsibility, and the conservation of resources accompanies ideas about the company's internal

environment as welcoming and helpful.

What types of messages are delivered through formal communication systems?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

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Among the most common types of messages transmitted via formal channels are job

instructions, job rationale, standardized information, team and group coordination, questions

and answers, decisions and plans, and ideological indoctrination.

One of the methods used to describe business and management communication employs the concept

of information richness, or the potential information carrying capacity of a communication

channel. At one extreme, rich communication means the channel provides opportunities for

feedback, a full range of visual and audio communication, and it presents the opportunity to

personalize a message. At the other extreme, a lean channel offers no venue for feedback, is

impersonal, and only a limited amount of information can be transmitted (Lengel & Daft, 1988).

Figure 3.3 summarizes the continuum from the leanest channel to the richest channel.

Figure 3.3: Channel richness

Source: Adapted from Lengel, R. H., & Daft, R. L. (1988). The selection of communication media as an executive skill. Academy of Management Executive, (2) August, 225–232.

The richest channels suit the most complex messages and circumstances that require discussion and

interaction. Interactions take place face‐to‐face. As a result, the channel provides for both verbal and

nonverbal transmissions. Intonation and other cues accompany the person's words. As noted in the

previous chapter, these interactions resemble a dance featuring an exchange of information, ideas,

and opinions. In presentations and other more formal settings (discussed in greater detail in

Chapter 10), additional cues can be added through the use of visual aids, such as those created with

PowerPoint, Keynote, InDesign, or printed handout materials.

Interactive channels house many of the bene its of face‐to‐face meetings. Videoconferencing and

conference calls retain the ability to move beyond words to in lection and other cues. In the case of

videoconferencing, visual cues are available. While not at the same level as the immediate feedback

of an actual face‐to‐face meeting, interactive channels allow participants to visit concurrently.

Personal static channels, such as telephone calls, text messages, and instant messages, become

leaner because visual elements and nonverbal cues are absent. Quick response systems such as

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Digital Vision/Thinkstock

Ideological indoctrination seeks to convince

employees that they are working for a great

company.

instant messaging create what are nearly

"conversations" in which questions and answers can

be posed along with proposals and counterproposals.

Personal static channels facilitate a great deal of

today's business operations, as employees and

customers communicate via these channels.

The leanest channels are those in which verbal

intonation and nonverbal cues cannot be transmitted.

Lean formats include most printed documents, such as

letters, reports, and proposals. Standardized

information with less complexity can be sent through

leaner channels. In‐depth explanations of complicated

issues are possible; however, they are transmitted

without the bene its of other channels.

Channel richness provides an effective tool that assists

in selecting the best way to send a message. Using the analysis, a manager can select the best

channel for any communication effort.

Explain the concept of information richness in terms of rich and lean channels.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Information richness is the potential information carrying capacity of a communication

channel. Rich communication means the channel provides opportunities for feedback, a full

range of visual and audio communication, and it presents the opportunity to personalize a

message. A lean channel offers no venue for feedback, is impersonal, and only a limited

amount of information can be transmitted.

Business and management communication, like every other aspect of commerce, has been drastically

in luenced by technology over the past half century. The rate of change in communication technology

appears to be increasing. The result is a growing list of methods to transmit business

communications and management information verbally. Beyond face‐to‐face interactions, the other

formal verbal communication channels currently utilized on a daily basis by managers and

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employees are:

Telephone/mobile phone

Videoconferencing

Social media such as LinkedIn and Google Plus

Conference calls

Meetings

Presentations

Additional information about presentations appears in Chapter 10. Presentations include speeches

made to in‐house audiences and the general public, and in public relations settings. Presentations

differ from other formats because the speaker takes time in advance to shape a message and any

accompanying materials, such as a PowerPoint, Keynote, InDesign, or other visual aid. Team and

group dynamics are discussed further in Chapter 9.

Telephone/Mobile Phones

The telephone continues to be widely used, even though it is a less information‐rich verbal

communication channel. Three types of telephone calls can be made. Land lines normally offer the

highest‐quality signal, with less static and fading of reception. Internet‐based phones such as Vonage

and Skype, or similar technologies, vary in terms of the quality of transmission and reception.

Mobile phones can be unreliable and often vulnerable to distortions of sound.

Currently, employers rely on all three modes of telephone for communications with employees,

customers, and others. In a business context, the keys to quality phone communication can be

summarized as expediency, attitude, courtesy, listening, and focus.

Expediency means that the caller and the recipient both realize that business transactions and

interactions cannot routinely involve lengthy phone conversations. Successful telephone attitudes are

businesslike, professional, and cordial. Courtesy includes highly restrained use of the "on hold"

feature of a phone. Listening employs all of the techniques described in Chapter 2. Focus means not

multitasking during calls and instead working deliberately to achieve the call's intentions.

It may be helpful to jot down a few notes, or talking points, prior to making or receiving a call. If

necessary, some messages may be almost "rehearsed" before dialing. Rambling, incoherent calls

often alienate the recipient. Table 3.3 summarizes other keys to effective telephone conversations.

Table 3.3: Keys to effective telephone conversations

Call Initiation

Caller:

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Identify yourself, your company, and the reason for the call.

Receiver:

Ask how you can help.

Both:

Use a friendly helpful tone.

During the Message

Caller:

Directly state the issue to be resolved.

Receiver:

Clarify any request or transmission of a message.

Both:

Take notes of what transpires.

Repeat key points.

Call Resolution

Caller:

Summarize the call's purpose and desired response or action.

Receiver:

Indicate what action will be taken, such as referral to others, will call back with an answer,

etc.

Both:

Collect follow‐up names and numbers if other parties will be involved in the resolution.

Ending the Call

Both:

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Jupiterimages/Thinkstock

When leaving a message on voice mail, clearly

identify yourself your company, and a return

number, and make a short statement about

the purpose of the call.

Make sure caller and receiver are both satis ied.

Thank the other person for his or her time.

Source: Cornett, J. E. (2011). Techniques for effective telephone communication. eHow, Money. Retrieved from

http://www.ehow.com/way_5749408_techniques‐effective‐telephone‐communication.html (http://www.ehow.com

/way_5749408_techniques‐effective‐telephone‐communication.html)

Additional advice includes returning calls promptly.

Never implicate a secretary or some other employee as

an excuse for failing to return a call. Try to answer the

phone before it rings four times.

When leaving a message on voice mail, clearly identify

yourself, your company and a return number, and

make a short statement about the purpose of the call.

Also, note times you can be reached with return calls.

Remember to take into account time zone differences

when the call is to another part of the country or

world.

Videoconferencing

A videoconference involves many of the same issues as an in‐person meeting. People must ind time

in their schedules to be in the right place, an agenda should be prepared in advance, time frames are

established, and managers must be certain to guide the conference so that all items are covered in a

timely fashion. Guidelines for attending and managing videoconferences are provided in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4: Videoconferencing protocols

Manager or Leader Participants

Schedule the meeting in advance Con irm your availability

Con irm the time with all participants Con irm your commitment

Arrive early to make sure the system works Prepare for participation with notes, papers

Ask each participant to identify him/herself Identify yourself when you speak

Don't read prepared statements Keep your language and ideas precise

Stop people from rambling Don't ramble

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Summarize, reinforce key ideas Compliment good ideas

Finish on time

Distribute minutes of the videoconference

Both

Wear clothing that plays well on a screen

Write down the names and locations of all participants

Try to make eye contact with the camera

Don't become frustrated by delays

Speak a little more slowly than your normal rate

Don't engage in side conversations with others at your site

As a communication medium, videoconferencing generates visual contact in the sense that you can

see people in other locations. At the same time, eye‐to‐eye contact cannot be made. Discerning other

nonverbal cues also becomes more dif icult. Distracting technological problems can occur. Time

differences should be accounted for. A meeting scheduled for 1 p.m. on the East Coast will be noon

(lunch time) in the Midwest. A 4 p.m. meeting on the West Coast means someone in New York

would have to stay until 7 p.m. to take the call. Calls from the United States to other countries must

also be carefully scheduled to take into account differing time zones.

Videoconferencing as a management communication medium is likely to increase in the coming

years. Improved picture quality, declining costs of operation, convenience, and increasing costs for

physical travel make videoconferences an attractive option. Many managers have concluded that this

slightly less information‐rich venue provides a high‐quality alternative to lying and staying in hotel

rooms across the country and around the world.

Conference Calls

Conference calls continue to experience wide usage. Conference calls provide a low‐cost option to

gather a limited number of people to verbally communicate in real time. The protocols that apply to

meetings and videoconferencing events are the same for conference calls. Participants receive

advance notice, a small agenda, and should also be given follow‐up descriptions of the conversations.

Conference calls are leaner information channels than videoconferencing, because of the lack of

visual contact of any kind. Vocal messages and in lections are transmitted; however, nonverbal cues

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and other methods of transmitting information are absent.

In addition to the advice given for videoconferencing, extra care should be given to the phone device.

Make sure you are close enough to be heard on a speaker phone. Remember that your voice stops

the signal coming from the other end of the line. Allow time for responses and pauses. Also be

aware of distractions you can cause by shuf ling papers, tapping on a table, chewing gum or candy,

or in other ways.

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Even in today's fast‐paced, highly technologically dominated world, a considerable amount of

business and management communication still take place in person. Many times, only a face‐to‐face

meeting ful ills the purpose. Members at every level of the organization experience in‐person verbal

communication on a daily basis.

Verbal communication in person offers the richest communication channel, because information

transfers in the forms of verbal cues, facial expressions, bodily movements, appearance, the use of

space, the use of time, physical contact, and the potential to supplement messages with other media,

such as written notes, symbolic items, and electronic media. Face‐to‐face communication processes

take place in formal conversations and casual meetings.

Formal, in‐person interactions often take place as important subjects or issues arise. Examples of

times when formal interpersonal meetings are in order include job interviews, direct orders by a

supervisor for key job assignments, disciplinary notices, performance appraisals, and to resolve

con licts. A formal meeting or "being called into the bosses' of ice" often creates a degree of anxiety

in the employee's mind. Consequently, from a manager's perspective, a well‐planned formal meeting

includes the following elements:

advance noti ication, including at least some idea about the purpose of the meeting

choice of the proper setting

attention to the meeting opening

consideration about how the message will be presented

the manner in which to close the meeting

No one likes being blindsided. Advance notice allows

both parties time to prepare for what will transpire.

The nature and seriousness of the meeting determine

the setting. Options range from the manager's of ice, to

a conference room, to a break room, or even a walk

outside. Someone about to receive a disciplinary action

will probably not want to hear the news in a break

room. The opening may include a handshake, an

informal greeting coupled with an invitation to sit

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A formal meeting or "being called into the

bosses' of ice" often creates a degree of

anxiety in the employee's mind.

down, and often an expression of thanks for coming to

the meeting.

The message presentation constitutes the most

important element of a formal face‐to‐face meeting. The manager decides whether the meeting will

take the form of a presentation or a conversation. Four methods of conducting a one‐on‐one meeting

are: tell, sell, consult, and the joining style. A telling style largely entails presenting information and

seeking comprehension. The selling style incorporates persuasion into the presentation of ideas. A

consulting style encourages interaction and an exchange of ideas. The joining style represents a

complete collaboration with the employee.

From the employee's perspective, preparation for a formal meeting includes thoughts about how to

respond to the message. Accepting compliments with the appropriate degree of deference

communicates your intentions to be a team player. Also, remember that the employee's body

language communicates as the manager is speaking. The employee should anticipate the meeting's

closing. A manager who rises and makes concluding remarks is inalizing the interaction.

Casual meetings occur at of ice parties, company‐sponsored events, break rooms, and in other

venues where employees gather with no formal agenda. Face‐to‐face meetings with managers are

often spontaneous. Preparation for such events includes trying to remember something about each

person you will encounter. It can be a family event, such as a new baby or the marriage of a son or

daughter, a personal event such as a recent promotion or having won a contest, or a person's

favorite hobby. The ability to interact in casual settings such as these helps make the workplace

experience more pleasant and often can lead to friendships or other social encounters.

Chance meetings in the hallway or parking lot can open the door to important conversations. They

serve as times to remind someone about an important task, or to pass along a key piece of

information, or to engage in relationship‐building that enhances professional structures. Following

informal greetings, it is possible to mention business‐related subjects in a low‐pressure context.

What steps should managers follow when setting up formal face‐to‐face

conversations? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

From a manager's perspective a well‐planned formal meeting includes the elements of

advance noti ication, including a least some idea about the purpose of the meeting; inding

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the proper setting; attention to the meeting opening; consideration about how the message

will be presented, and the manner to close the meeting.

In addition to face‐to‐face conversations, managers and employees use what other

formal verbal communication channels? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The other formal verbal communication channels currently utilized on a daily basis by

managers and employees are telephone/mobile phone, videoconferencing, social media such

as LinkedIn and Google Plus, conference calls, meetings, and presentations.

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A substantial portion of messages transmitted in a company either does not low through an

authorized channel or is dedicated to a topic that does not serve the organization's interests.

Informal communication emerges in everyday life in organizations. Other names for informal

communication include gossip, rumors, and the grapevine. The military uses the term "scuttlebutt"

to describe informal communication.

As a manager, you should not ignore the rumors that swirl about an organization. More important,

the channel transmits a great deal of information that may have value. It will be your job to try to

manage the informal communication channel. Doing so involves four activities:

understand how it works1.

tap in2.

transmit messages3.

deal with false rumors4.

Managers who tend to the informal channel appear to be in the know. Those who do not may be

considered outsiders to those in the company.

Four key elements should be considered when thinking about gossip. First, it travels quickly. In this

electronic age, an indiscretion or rumor quickly will be posted on social media, and from there it

becomes impossible to stop. Even prior to the emergence of Twitter, Facebook, and other sites,

rumors have always "spread like wild ire" (Davis, 1969).

Second, managers should understand that both information and misinformation travel through

informal channels. Estimates are that nearly one‐third of all rumors have faulty information or

mistruths contained in them (Davis, 1975). Any rumor deserves a considerable amount of

skepticism.

Third, rumors are tuned to employee needs. In essence, people gossip about the things they think

are interesting. Table 3.5 provides common gossip topics.

Table 3.5: Rumor subjects

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Employee pay (especially in closed pay systems in which salaries are not disclosed to

employees)

Personnel decisions

Who will be promoted?

Who is about to be terminated?

Who will be transferred?

Who will be laid off?

Company strategic direction

Outsourcing

Layoffs

Acquisitions and Mergers

Of ice romances

Sexual identities/orientations of co‐workers

Con licts between organizational members

Source: Adapted from Baack, D. (1995). Organizational behavior. Houston: Dame Publications, p. 326.

Fourth, gossip creates social power. Informal communication includes elements of socialization in

which those who have access to rumors feel socially included (Kurland & Pella, 2000). Four aspects

of social power created by gossip are reward power, coercive power, expert power, and referent

power.

Positive gossip, or saying favorable things about other people, generates reward power. When a

co‐worker shares positive news about a colleague, people often attribute positive characteristics to

the person sending the message. The transference results from rewarding others (French & Raven,

1959).

Negative gossip creates coercive power, based on the ability to punish. Someone passing along a

negative message about a co‐worker may create the perception that he or she has additional

negative information about other organizational members. Holding this type of information

generates the potential to damage careers and can be used to threaten others (Emler, 1994).

Gossip in luences referent power, or power based on social status and likability. Someone who

gossips draws recipients into a social circle (Dunbar, 1996). Recipients may believe the gossiper has

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Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Oftentimes, gossiping becomes the equivalent

of playing with ire.

social in luence and is an insider in a social network,

especially when the gossip is positive. On the other

hand, a negative gossiper may lose referent power,

because recipients believe that providing the

information is improper or even immoral, leading

them to look unfavorably on the gossiper (Levin &

Arluke, 1987).

Gossip may increase a person's expert power, or

in luence gained by having knowledge and expertise.

The gossiper gains power based on perceptions that

the person has access to relevant information about

the work environment. Over time, the gossiper

becomes viewed as a person who helps others adapt

to the workplace (Kurland & Pelled, 2000, p. 430).

In general, spreading gossip can increase or diminish a

person's power. Oftentimes, gossiping becomes the

equivalent of playing with ire. Some negative consequences of workplace gossip may include:

Lost productivity and wasted time

Erosion of trust and morale

Increased anxiety among employees as rumors circulate without any clear information as to

what is fact and what is not

Growing divisiveness among employees as people "take sides"

Hurt feelings and reputations

Jeopardized chances for the gossipers' advancement, as they are perceived as unprofessional

Attrition as good employees leave the company because of the unhealthy work atmosphere

In the past, managers would seek to ind ways to hear what was being passed along informally. The

phrase "having a pipeline" describes this activity. With the emergence of instant messaging and

social media, discovering what employees are talking about has become increasingly simple. The

manager can then determine which rumors demand a response and which do not.

As the previous section suggests, most of the time, rumors should be avoided. The best messages to

be sent informally are positive news. Managers can pass along compliments informally, with positive

results for the person being complimented as well as for the manager, who will be seen as being

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generous with praise.

Some managers also will engage in "trial balloons," whereby ideas are tested informally. A manager

in a break room asks how salespeople would feel if the company moved from a commission‐only pay

system to a salary‐plus‐commission program, in order to reduce pay volatility and levels of stress.

Clearly, the sales team will talk about the idea, and the manager will receive feedback. Kicking

around ideas can be a useful managerial tool, especially when employees trust the manager.

The presence of continuing false rumors means managers should be continually aware of what

happens in the channel. Many times an untrue piece of gossip lingers simply because telling it is

more fun than revealing the truth. At times, persistent rumors have been called urban legends in the

workplace. Action should be taken when a negative rumor continues to damage the standing of an

employee or of the company.

Two primary strategies exist for dealing with false rumors. The irst option involves formally

refuting the rumor. Managers can send messages in either verbal or written form contradicting the

derogatory information. Such messages must be carefully crafted or they run the risk of making a

rumor more credible. The best approach includes presenting tangible evidence that a rumor is

inaccurate.

The second strategy relies on dealing with the rumor in the channel. A manager can simply pull

aside key employees and talk about why the story is not true and point out the damage the rumor

has caused. The manager can also suggest that if the gossiper is discovered, consequences will

follow (Davis, 1975).

What should a manager do with regard to informal communication?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

It will be your job to try to manage the informal communication channel. Doing so involves

four activities: understand how it works, tap in, use it to transmit messages, and deal with

false rumors.

What should a manager understand about informal communication or rumors?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

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Ryan McVay

Coping with falsehoods sent

through informal communication

channels represents both an art

and a science.

Rumors travel quickly, contain both information and misinformation, they are tuned to

employee needs, and they create social power.

What four kinds of social power can be generated by gossip?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Positive gossip, or saying favorable things about other people, generates reward power.

Negative gossip creates coercive power, based on the ability to punish. Gossip in luences

referent power, or power based on social status and likability. Gossip may increase a person's

expert power, or in luence gained by having knowledge and expertise.

Formal communication channels provide key information to key

personnel so that tasks can be successfully completed on

schedule. Managers spend time crafting verbal messages to be

presented in the proper setting and in the proper tone. Employees

who pay attention to formal messages succeed. Those skilled at

formal communication enjoy a major career advantage.

Verbal informal communication continues to be a natural part of

the workplace. Knowing that rumors will persist and the kinds of

subjects that are fertile grounds for gossip, and that they can be a

source of social power, all imply that managers should become

involved in the channel. A continuing debate revolves around the

question of whether managing constitutes an art or a science. In

truth, both elements contribute to a successful managerial style.

Coping with falsehoods represents both an art and a science.

Beyond formal verbal channels, informal channels make work life more interesting. People gossip

because it's fun. As an ethical employee, avoid passing along harmful messages, whether they

contain truth or not. You should be especially unreceptive to statements that demean others based

on gender, race, religion, sexual orientation, or other personal characteristics, such as being

overweight. A substantial amount of popular press suggests completely avoiding gossip, simply

because it makes you look "small."

From a larger vantage point, however, recognizing that informal channels do present truthful,

favorable messages represents an opportunity. You can become known as the employee who always

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puts in a good word about others. In that way, informal communication can complement and

supplement formal messages in a pleasant and positive fashion.

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Medioimages/Photodisc

The "V" signal made with two ingers meant

"victory" during World War II in England,

"peace" during the Vietnam war in the United

States, and is an obscene gesture in some

cultures.

In interpersonal communication, the tone, the actual

words, and the nonverbal cues complement and

complete every message, which means nonverbal cues

deserve careful attention. Nonverbal communication

plays a major role in one‐on‐one interactions.

Nonverbal communication takes place in a context in

which the same words may have different meanings. It

consists of several cues being transmitted

simultaneously (raised eyebrows when passing along a

rumor). Social norms dictate whether various

nonverbal cues are acceptable or should be

discouraged, for example, using obscene gestures will

likely be frowned upon on the job. Nonverbal cues

provide information about the verbal message and are

considered in that context (deVito, 2009).

The concept that nonverbal communication takes place

in a context suggests that folding your arms and

leaning back, in one context, may mean you're relaxed

and are taking everything in; in another, the same body language suggests frustration or boredom.

Packages or clusters of nonverbal cues are normally transmitted, which means that not only do

words matter, but also eye contact, hand gestures, posture, pacing, facial expression, leg movements,

and breathing will be considered simultaneously with the words. Social norms strongly in luence the

interpretation of nonverbal cues. The "V" signal made with two ingers meant "victory" to

Englanders during World War II, "peace" to Americans in the United States during the Vietnam War,

and is an obscene gesture in some cultures. A wink signals lirtation in one context and that "you're

an insider" in another.

Nonverbal communication may transmit a message or meaning that contradicts what is being said

verbally. Someone who disagrees with you may verbally signal concurrence but will send other

signals, such as looking away or looking down, that contradict the message. The combination of

verbal and nonverbal cues can send a strong message. A person expressing adamant support for an

idea may pound a ist or shake one in the air.

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Nonverbal cues communicate even when you are trying to avoid sending a message. When you are

sad or frustrated, body language may send that message even when the words are "I'm okay" or "I'm

ine."

Many forms of nonverbal communication take place. People make judgments about the words you

speak, but many other factors come into play as they interpret the message. Among the more

notable forms of nonverbal communication are:

kinesic cues

appearance

dress

artifacts

touch

space

paralanguage

time

manners

Kinesic Cues

Kinesic cues are messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements. These

include messages conveyed by various parts of the body (Birdwhistell, 1970). Examples of kinesic

cues are provided in Table 3.6.

Table 3.6: Selected kinesic cues and interpretations

Body Element Movement Interpretation

Head Nodding Agreement, listening

Tilting Interest

Downward movement Defensiveness

Eyes Gazing Attentive, honesty

Shifting, darting Uncertain, lying

Staring Intimidation

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Mouth Smile Enjoyment, pleasure

Shoulders Learning forward Interest, rapport

Leaning away Lack of interest, skepticism

Slouching Low self‐esteem

Hands Touching others Powerful

Touching self Nervous, anxious

Hand over mouth Wishing to escape

Hands on hips Challenging

Arms Crossed Closed to ideas, bored

Sources: Adapted from Pentland, A. (2008). Honest signals: How they shape our world. Boston: M.I.T. Press, 10–40,

105, and Malandro, L. A., & Barker, L. (1983). Nonverbal communication. Reading, MA: Addison‐Wesley Publishing,

226–230.

Appearance

Appearance contains elements that you can control and some that are less controllable. The less

controllable element is physical appearance in terms of what others consider to be attractive.

Several studies indicate that people who are physically attractive enjoy a kind of halo effect, in which

others assume they are more intelligent, witty, charming, and even more honest (Harper, 1993;

Schoenberger, 1997).

The other component of appearance can be controlled. Hairstyles, dress, and the use of make‐up

also convey nonverbal images and messages. Think, for example, of how you react to someone

wearing sunglasses indoors in a dark room or at night. Gaudy makeup or ostentatious hairstyles

attract a certain type of attention, which may convey the image of being unprofessional or of

someone who need not be taken seriously. Tattoos also send messages, especially visible, extreme

versions. Women wearing low‐cut, provocative, and revealing clothing send different nonverbal

messages than those with conservative out its. Men who insist on unbuttoning one more button to

reveal more chest also send messages.

Artifacts

Artifacts include additional items, such as jewelry, eyeglasses, and even the car you drive. Piercings,

while more common, still connote an element of rebellion to many people. Both men and women

notice expensive rings, necklaces, and other forms of jewelry. And, some may judge a person who

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Appearance contains elements that you can

control and some that are less controllable.

drives an old, beat‐up car as less successful and

talented than an individual in the same profession who

drives an upscale vehicle.

Touch

Physical touch has undergone a metamorphosis, in

terms of what may be considered acceptable or

unacceptable. An incident involving President George

W. Bush placing his hands on the shoulders and neck

of German chancellor Angela Merkel created a great

deal of consternation. Hugging, back‐slapping, and

other forms of touch have largely been removed from

the workplace, unless express permission has been

granted.

One element of touch, the handshake, continues to convey important messages. A irm handshake

accompanied by eye contact expresses con idence. A weak handshake with eyes averted signals

shyness and other less desirable traits (Brown, 2000). For both men and women, a irm handshake

can create a favorable irst impression. At the same time, always be aware of the potential that the

other person has arthritis or another condition which would make a irm grip painful.

Space

Space, or physical distance, sends powerful signals. Substantial evidence suggests that the concepts

of personal space vary widely by culture. In the United States, maintaining physical distance creates

a certain level of comfort. Someone who feels that his or her personal space has been invaded

quickly becomes defensive. Table 3.7 indicates the ive levels of personal space.

Table 3.7: Levels of personal space

Level Distance Communication

Public 12–15 feet To feel protected

Eye contact may or may not take place

Able to move freely past the person

Social 3–12 feet Making eye contact, shaking hands

Casual conversations

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Formal Business 7–12 feet Greater distance implies social power

Distance from visitor chair to CEO chair in an of ice

Personal 18 inches–4 feet People are able to touch each other

Expresses closeness "at an arm's length"

For friends and family members

Not appropriate for business

Intimate 18 inches or less Expresses closeness and affection

Uncomfortable when forced upon a person

(Elevators, subway cars, airline seats)

Source: Hall, E. T. (1982). The Hidden Dimension. New York: Doubleday.

Violating personal space, or "getting in someone's face," indicates aggression and often accompanies

an argument or more violent interaction. Effective communicators are always aware of the proper

distance.

Paralanguage

Paralanguage refers to how something is said rather than what is said in a message. Key elements

include tone, phrasing, pacing, pitch, and intensity (Knapp & Hall, 1992). Paralanguage changes

messages from surprised to sarcastic, such as, "Oh really?" Pacing indicates when a person wishes to

speak or to stop speaking. Paralanguage conveys urgency, especially through pitch. As a speaker in a

conversation, awareness of how you are delivering a message plays an important role. The wrong

paralanguage disputes the words that you say.

Time

Time contains two elements: punctuality and promptness, and the pace of life, including business

transactions. In terms of punctuality, in North America, a strong emphasis on being early or on time

exists. Failure to arrive on time signals either irresponsibility or disrespect of the person you have

inconvenienced by being late. In many other cultures, being late may be fashionable or is at least to

be expected. Knowing the arrival habits of business partners constitutes an adjustment for many

persons engaged in international commerce.

The pace of life determines the use of time. In cultures where time takes on the characteristics of a

commodity, such as in the phrase, "time is money," it is not to be wasted. Saving time constitutes a

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Factors including time, distance,

kinesic cues, and paralanguage

affect individual conversations.

virtue. Other cultures view time in different ways, seeing it as

polychromic, with many types of time and many uses of time

(Hall, 1989).

To be on the safe side, your best bet in the United States is to

develop a reputation for being punctual. In the event of an

accident or unavoidable delay, contact the person you were to

meet and explain in advance why you will be late. Failure to do so

may harm the business relationship. Chronic tardiness will likely

inhibit your career. Being known as someone who is punctual

creates a major career asset.

Manners

Finally, manners represent an under‐appreciated aspect of both

verbal and nonverbal communication. Cultural norms have shifted

over time, and what was considered common courtesy in the past

has changed today. At the same time, you can gain a career

advantage by demonstrating good manners. Some examples

include:

Opening the door for others, regardless of gender, with a pleasant greeting.

Avoiding the use of profanity in formal business relationships, even when those around you

curse.

Keeping your mouth closed while chewing food; not talking with food in your mouth.

Letting others inish their sentences without interrupting.

Generous use of "please" and "thank you."

Generous use of compliments for work, effort, and cooperation rather than remarks about

appearance.

In summary, nonverbal cues dictate a great deal of what we communicate and how we communicate.

Taking the time to understand the effective use of nonverbal communication, including appearance,

dress, artifacts, touch, space, paralanguage, time, and manners, helps you become a more effective

businessperson.

What are kinesic cues? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

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Kinesic cues are messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements.

In addition to kinesic cues, what other forms of nonverbal communication occur?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Among the more notable forms of nonverbal communication that are beyond kinesic cues are

appearance, dress, artifacts, touch, space, paralanguage, time, and manners.

What is paralanguage? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Paralanguage refers to how something is said rather than what is said in a message. Key

elements include tone, phrasing, pacing, pitch, and intensity.

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This chapter explores the process of creating managerial messages through verbal and nonverbal

channels. The management communication process consists of four activities, which are to assess

the communication environment, establish a message format, develop the message, and authenticate

the approach.

Proactive messages announce a change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course or direction.

They proclaim the company will move into a new territory or use a new method. Reactive messages

are responses to circumstances, such as a crisis, problem, or event. Analyzing the situation consists

of the evaluation of all Ws and Hs associated with the message.

In the case of both organizational structure and communication systems, certain identi iable

patterns emerge. Four of the more common in business settings include the chain, wheel, circle, and

all‐channel patterns. The chain approach to management communication parallels the term "chain of

command" or "hierarchy of authority." In a wheel arrangement, a manager or supervisor becomes

the center of the wheel, with individual spokes, or communication channels, connecting the manager

to subordinates. A circle resembles the wheel approach, only without the central hub. In an

all‐channel communication arrangement, messages move freely across organizational ranks and

members of a team, group, or department.

Formal communication consists of information that travels through organizationally designated

channels. The most common types of messages transmitted via formal channels include: job

instructions, job rationale, standardized information, team and group coordination, questions and

answers, decisions and plans, and ideological indoctrination.

Information richness is the potential information carrying capacity of a communication channel. Rich

communication means the channel provides opportunities for feedback, a full range of visual and

audio communication, and it presents the opportunity to personalize a message. A lean channel

offers no venue for feedback, is impersonal, and only a limited amount of information can be

transmitted.

Beyond face‐to‐face interactions, the other formal verbal communication channels currently utilized

on a daily basis by managers and employees are telephone/mobile phone, videoconferencing, social

media, conference calls, meetings, and presentations. Verbal, nonvirtual face‐to‐face interactions

include formal, in‐person conversations and informal, casual conversations.

Informal communication emerges in everyday life in organizations. Other names for informal

communication include gossip, rumors, the grapevine, and scuttlebutt. Four key elements should be

considered when thinking about gossip: it travels quickly, it contains information and

misinformation, it is tuned to employee needs, and it creates social power. Managers should

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understand the channel, tap in, use it to transmit messages, and deal with false rumors. Many times

there are negative consequences to informal rumors. Successful managers effectively merge formal

and informal communication. Effective employees understand and avoid the negative potential

effects of informal communication.

In interpersonal communication, nonverbal cues complement and complete every message. Among

the more notable forms of nonverbal communication are kinesic cues, appearance, dress, artifacts,

touch, space, paralanguage, time, and manners. Kinesic cues are messages communicated by

nonlinguistic body language or movements. Paralanguage refers to how something is said rather

than what is said in a message, including tone, phrasing, pacing, pitch, and intensity. Effective

interpersonal and formal communicators are aware of the messages they transmit through

nonverbal cues.

centralization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A form of organizational structure in which a low degree of delegation of decisionmaking, authority,

and power takes place.

decentralization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An organizational operation characterized by substantial delegation of authority.

formal communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Consists of information that travels through organizationally designated channels.

informal communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Information that does not low through authorized organizational communication channels and is

dedicated to topics that do not serve the organization's interests.

information richness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The potential information carrying capacity of a communication channel.

kinesic cues (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements.

mechanistic (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An approach to organizational structure largely driven by rules, procedures, titles that indicate

organizational status, and formal relationships between employees.

organic (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An approach to communication structure, with few rules, little attention paid to titles and ranks, and

a strong emphasis on organizational lexibility and adaptability.

paralanguage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

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/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Refers to how something is said rather than what is said in a message, using the elements of tone,

phrasing, pacing, pitch, and intensity.

proactive messages (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Messages that announce a change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course or direction.

reactive messages (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Responses to circumstances, such as a crisis, problem, or event.

standard presentation format (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

A message presentation method consisting of introduction and forecast, a body, and a conclusion.

unfolding presentation format (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

A message presentation method in which one argument leads to the next and inally to a conclusion,

often used in persuasion.

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Conduct a Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How analysis for the following announcements and

indicate whether the message will use a proactive or reactive format.

a new CEO for the companya.

termination of a key employeeb.

the acquisition of another companyc.

entry into a foreign marketd.

Explain why each of these organizations or departments would best be served by a chain, wheel,

circle, or all‐channel communication pattern.

manufacturers of tin cans for food companiesa.

television news room anchor/editor and reportersb.

insurance company claims of ice and ield claims adjustersc.

accounting department preparing sales reports for three product divisionsd.

Four methods of conveying messages to individual employees include tell, sell, consult, and

joining. Explain which would be most useful in a performance appraisal meeting with an

individual worker? Would your answer be different for a poor performer as opposed to a high

performer? Defend your answer.

Explain appropriate and dysfunctional uses of the nonverbal forms of communication in the

following settings.

Teamsters unloading trucksa.

Bank tellers serving customersb.

College seniors or recent MBA graduates attending job fairs and on‐site interviewsc.

An executive meeting with a new Japanese business partner for the irst timed.

Explain the level of information richness in the following formal verbal communication channels.

Provide speci ic examples of what makes the channel richer or leaner.

face‐to‐facea.

telephoneb.

videoconferencec.

meetingd.

presentatione.

As a manager, explain how you would cope with the following false rumors.

Everyone assumes your pay is $10,000 per year higher than it really is, but the company

insists on a closed pay system.

The company plans to lay off 10 percent of the work force.b.

Susan and Lisa have become lovers.c.

The new CEO will be Juan Salas.d.

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Footage of British Prime Minister Tony Blair playing host to

President Bush shows that even when friends and allies meet,

subtle cues reveal who is dominant. A pat on the back is one way

to demonstrate power. Getting the upper hand in a handshake is

another.

Handshake Dominance

From Title: Secrets of Body Language (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=43109)

How does the concept of handshake dominance or the

upper hand apply to business situations?

How should a supervisor shake hands with a lower‐

ranking employee? Would it be the same with the

supervisor and a higher‐ranking manager?

Experts examine video footage from a questions and answer

0:00 / 4:09 1x

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session with President Nixon where his nonverbal communication

reveals that he is being defensive, anxious, and dishonest.

Nixon's Nonverbal Communication

From Title: Secrets of Body Language (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=43109)

What type of body language may indicate deception?

Anxiety?

As a manager, how can you use body language to display

honesty and sincerity?

As a manager, should you try to read the body language of

lower‐ranking employees?

Richard Oglethorpe faced one of the most dif icult days in his working life. While he had

saved his grandfather's company from bankruptcy, the rescue came at a high price.

Richard's next task would be to inform the members of the irm about the action he had

taken.

Melton Oglethorpe founded Dixieland Metal Castings during the buildup to World War II.

The nation was emerging from the Great Depression, and orders for fabricated metals had

begun to rise. The onset of the war brought several major contracts to the company.

In the postwar era, Dixieland continued to thrive due to the many connections Melton

Oglethorpe had made with industrialists. He also forged powerful connections with

0:00 / 2:47 1x

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employees. Although the plant was in a heavily unionized part of Alabama, his workers

resisted efforts to organize. They were being paid comparable wages to union factories,

enjoyed generous bene it packages, and were treated with respect by members of the

management team.

When Melton stepped down in the late 1960s, his son Hugh took the reigns as CEO. The

company continued its many positive human resource practices and developed new

relationships with newly formed manufacturing companies. Hugh suffered a major heart

attack in 1985, and Richard stepped in.

The next two decades became increasingly dif icult because of the pressures from foreign

competitors. Losing business and faced with higher labor costs, Dixieland began to

struggle. By mid‐2010, the handwriting was on the wall: The company could not compete

without outsourcing at least some of its operations, and an infusion of cash was needed.

Richard inalized a deal with a well‐respected irm from India to keep the company a loat.

The terms of the agreement were that about one‐third of the work force was to be let go,

replaced by international suppliers with much lower costs. The remaining workers would

all retain their jobs, pay, and most of their bene its. The one concession on bene its was

that each would now contribute a great portion of the cost of health insurance. In

exchange, Richard developed a guarantee that each employee would be able to stay with

the company until quitting or retiring. At that point, however, there was no assurance that

a replacement from the Alabama plant or the United States would be hired.

Richard knew it was the best he could negotiate. He worried that the layoffs would lead to

intense new efforts to unionize the plant. Worst of all, he recognized that many workers,

whose parents had been with the company, would not see their sons or daughters have

the chance to work for his grandfather's dream: Dixieland Metal Castings.

Review Questions

What channel of formal communication should Richard Oglethorpe use to inform the

employees of this deal?

When Richard makes the announcement, should it be an informative or a persuasive

presentation? Why?

Should Richard have face‐to‐face meetings with individual employees who are to be let

go? With employees who will remain? How should he prepare for those meetings?

What types of informal communication do you expect will circulate through Dixieland

Metal Castings? What should managers do about these rumors?

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Alicia Reed was stunned. At the end of what she thought was going to be a career‐

enhancing presentation to the CEO and top management team, a question from one of the

members stopped her in her tracks. Alicia was one of three buyers for Simply Gorgeous, a

high‐end fashion store that catered to clients with extreme wealth. The retailer operated

locations in Dallas, Texas; Miami, Florida; and Minneapolis, Minnesota.

A shopping experience at Simply Gorgeous involves being pampered by a team of sales

personnel focused on taking care of every detail. Small treats are served with special teas

and other drinks, as customers examine formal and cocktail dresses, and other fashions

for major social events. Salespeople are expected to model out its when asked.

Alicia's role included attending fashion shows in the world's design capitals, among them

Paris, New York, and occasionally Los Angeles. She loved the travel and the excitement

associated with the work. As a younger, African American woman, she was exploring

territory that once seemed impossible to reach.

Alicia's second passion was reading. She could often be found after work at a local

bookstore, examining new books and fashion magazines. In the bookstore, she had a

brainstorm about her increasing frustration with the mainstream fashion design industry.

She and others in the company believed the dresses were too outlandish and had become

too expensive, even for wealthy patrons. The number of complaints about choices available

at Simply Gorgeous had risen to an alarming rate.

After considerable investigation, Alicia concluded that there were a suf icient number of

"secondary" fashion shows, with talented designers representing a broad range of ethnic

backgrounds, where new and exciting formalwear was available that would appeal to both

the "old rich" and irst‐generation wealthy customers. She spent hours developing a

presentation for a meeting with the top management team, complete with high‐de inition

visuals, models wearing fashions, numbers, prices, statistics, and a pleasant musical

background. Her goal was to expand the company's customer base while creating new

purchasing options for ongoing clientele.

The critical moment occurred just 10 days prior to the presentation. While visiting her

favorite bookstore, Alicia was greeted by a college friend, who also worked in the fashion

design and purchase industry. The friend was accompanied by a third person, Marjorie

Watson, who introduced herself as the chief merchandising of icer for a major retail

clothing chain. The three enjoyed an amicable conversation lasting about 45 minutes. At

the end of the visit, Watson handed Alicia her business card, with the comment, "I know

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you have a great future ahead of you. If you're ever interested in moving to a larger

company, please contact me." Alicia couldn't remember her exact response, but knew she

responded by saying she was very happy with her current position. What she did not

know was that two salespeople from Simply Gorgeous had witnessed the entire event

from a distance of about 40 feet, close enough to see but not enough to hear clearly.

After carefully practicing her presentation for hours, the time arrived. It went lawlessly,

with all musical and visual cues arriving at the precise moments they were scheduled. At

the end, Alicia asked the management team if they had any questions.

"I understand that you have been talking to another company about maybe moving on,"

said a stern manager. "Who would champion this idea if you are working for a

competitor?"

"I don't understand. What are you talking about?" Alicia responded.

"It's all over the company," the manager replied.

Clearly, this was not the type of question she expected.

Review Questions

Were the actions of the two salespeople that saw the encounter between Alicia and

Marjorie Watson ethical? What could they have done differently?

If Alicia's manager had heard this rumor, what should that manager have done in

response?

How should Alicia respond to the management team?3.

Do you think her career has been harmed? If so, how, and what could she do to repair

the damage?

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iStockphoto/ThinkkStock

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Successfully communicate brief formal messages.1.

Recall the essential elements of effective proposals.2.

Prepare effective formal reports.3.

Overcome the barriers to formal communication.4.

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The written word remains a powerful component of everyday business. In the past few decades, the

media used to transmit formal written messages have evolved rapidly. The basic principles of

effective writing, however, continue to be the same.

Written messages offer several advantages. First, a manager can carefully choose the words prior to

transmitting the message, which allows for editing and rewriting, ensuring the highest level of

precision in the language. Second, media such as email and instant messaging allow receivers to

view the messages when it is convenient, which can save time, especially when compared to

telephone "tag." Third, a written message provides an of icial record. A manager can save a copy of

what he or she wrote for future purposes, including remembering exactly what was written and in

what context.

In the previous chapter, four steps to effective formal communication were proposed. These

principles apply to both verbal and written messages.

Assess the Communication Environment1.

Establish a Message Format2.

Develop the Message3.

Authenticate the Approach4.

In this chapter, three levels of messages are examined: brief, moderate, and full‐length formal

reports. Table 4.1 provides the formats for each of these messages.

Table 4.1: Types of messages and media

Brief Moderate‐Length Full‐Length

Memo

Instant message

Letters

Proposals Reports

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What media are available for transmitting brief, formal, written messages to

employees? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Memos, email, letters, and instant messages.

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Poor communication processes may have

contributed to the oil spill in the Gulf of

Mexico.

The 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico produced

one of the greatest environmental disasters in

history. Eleven people were killed in the initial

explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig,

and oil then lowed for the next 87 days. Birds,

sea turtles, dolphins, and countless other forms

of wildlife suffered. Although British Petroleum

(BP) had run television advertisements claiming

the end of the impact of the spill, new dead

dolphins and sea turtles were found in 2011.

The economic effects included lost revenues from

the ishing industry, reduced tourism rates along

the Gulf Coast, and the loss of nearly 4,000 jobs in early 2010. Real estate values declined

by more than 10 percent, leading to losses estimated between $648 million and $3 billion

for the following ive years after the disaster (oceana.org, 2011).

Among the causes of the disaster were failures in formal communication systems (Rascoe,

2011). The primary targets of lawsuits related to the spill, BP, Transocean, Cameron

International Corporation, and Halliburton Energy Services, failed to communicate

internally and with other organizations. The resulting problems with cementing

procedures on the rig, the blowout preventer that failed to engage, and the failsafe "dead

man's switch" that had a dead battery and could not operate properly, were all identi ied

by various paper trails. One employee told the BBC television network that a leak was

spotted on a crucial piece of equipment in the rig's blowout preventer weeks before the

explosion, and that Transocean and BP had both been noti ied about the problem by email

(Andersson, 2010).

BP reported that rig managers misread pressure data and gave their approval for rig

workers to replace drilling luid in the well with seawater. The water was not heavy

enough to prevent gas that had been leaking into the well from iring up the pipe to the

rig, causing the explosion. Another investigation questioned why an engineer and

supervisor with BP ignored warnings about weaknesses in cement outside the well which

could have prevented the gas from escaping. The conclusion was that BP was partly to

blame, as was Transocean, which owned the Deepwater Horizon rig (Bates, 2010).

These and other failures to transmit and process important safety information have

vili ied BP and left long‐standing problems for those in the region. Health concerns of

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recovery workers have begun to surface. Many decades will pass before the full impact of

this disaster will be known.

When an employee spots a major safety problem, what form of written communication

should be used?

When a manager identi ies potentially life‐threatening safety laws, what should the

manager do in response?

Do you believe the companies involved were merely incompetent, or actually unethical

in how each contributed to the disaster? Why?

In today's increasingly paperless society, fewer printed memos are composed and distributed. In

their place, as will be noted in the next section, emails transmit the same information. At times,

however, a paper memo serves the purpose of creating a more permanent record of an internal

correspondence. A memo opens with four elements: To, From, Subject, and Date. A subject line that

attracts attention and presents a distinct idea or topic adds value to the memo and will most likely

capture the receiver's interest.

Memos begin with an overview paragraph that spells out the nature of the memo. An overview

should be clear, easy to understand, and brief, but it should also encapsulate the entire nature of the

memo. Examples of overview paragraphs are displayed in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Memo overview paragraphs

Following an in‐house survey of employee needs, human resources strongly recommends

the establishment of an on‐site day care facility. More than 30% of our employees have

children between the ages of 2 and 5. An on‐site day care playroom should reduce

employee absenteeism and tardiness rates due to problems with inding babysitters or

other caretakers. The unused stock room on the second loor can be renovated to

provide such a facility in 90 days at a cost of $40,000. We would like your opinions

about this recommendation.

The marketing department recommends extending the current rebate program for the

Sony Bravia line of televisions. Sales increased by 12% over the previous year's irst

quarter totals with the program in place. We would like management's permission to

authorize the rebates and supporting advertising materials.

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You have now received the company's revised policy regarding Con licts of Interest.

Instructions for completing the form and answers to the most often asked questions are

contained in this memo.

Memos serve two major purposes: to provide information and to call for action. Informational

memos should be limited to one subject, provide suf icient detail, explain any ambiguities, and offer

facts rather than opinions (Bell, 2004). Informative memos serve three purposes:

con irm an agreement

provide facts and information about an event or process

summarize the results of a meeting or conversation

Calls for action include the reason for the action, the plan of attack, and deadlines or goals. Suf icient

detail should be provided so that the recipient knows what to do, and when. Calls for action can be

categorized as:

requesting assistance

providing direction

requesting approval to pursue an activity

A well‐written memo is concise, complete, accurate, easy to read, and carefully edited (Northern

Kentucky University, 2007). The number of memos transmitted in organizations will likely decline.

Managers increasingly ask themselves whether the issue involved contains suf icient magnitude to

merit a paper presentation. If not, an email might suf ice.

Email presents several major advantages for brief formal communication messages. Employees can

communicate from different locations without making calls (Weeks, 1995). Although this may seem

strange, some evidence suggests that voice mail messages and regular phone calls can make workers

apprehensive, partly because phone calls do not allow for a sense of closeness due to the inability to

observe nonverbal signals (Reinsch et al., 1990; Reinsch & Beswick, 1990).

Email allows virtual teams to coordinate projects and schedule activities. Collaborations are possible

on projects, even when the individuals involved reside or work in distant locations. In some

organizations, email creates a channel of upward communication, as many top managers invite

employees to contact them through the channel. Email provides a venue to send out information

downward or laterally to sets of employees through bulk messaging, taking the place of what used to

be paper memos.

Email systems can also contain disadvantages. The most notable, being bombarded with messages,

results from the relative ease with which messages can be composed and sent. Even with the most

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sophisticated sorting programs, email systems often allow unwanted messages or spam to reach

employee inboxes, creating distractions and wasting time deleting unwanted communications.

Employees should also understand that the company owns the email and the Internet on the job,

giving management the right to inspect their use. This means they are not private—a paper memo

can be thrown away, but an email message will be backed up on a company's servers and can often

never be permanently deleted.

What are two main purposes of memos and emails? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Provide information and call for action.

Effective Email Usage

As with any other formal communication channel, email can be misused or can serve as an effective

means of connecting employees. Managing email as a communication system requires two key

elements: managing the system and composing effective messages (see Table 4.3).

Table 4.3: Managing email

System Issues Message Issues

Create logical iles Delete or archive unnecessary messages

Protect sensitive documents Don't forward funny or super luous emails that waste time

Keep the system clean Assume messages will be available to everyone

Carefully construct messages

Users should create a logical system of iles that match their jobs. Files can be set up by user groups,

by projects, or in any way that allows you to quickly recall where to look for an old message and to

place new messages. The idea is to have a system that facilitates work.

Protection of sensitive documents entails the assistance of information technology experts to

develop encryption systems. It may be impossible to completely eliminate the possibility of a system

being hacked; this means it may be wise to take the most‐sensitive items of line and print hard

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copies to be stored elsewhere.

Keeping the system clean includes consistent emptying of the trash ile and systematically placing all

unwanted and unnecessary messages into trash iles. An updated system allows for less scrolling

through unneeded old emails.

While managing messages, delete items that have no relevance to the job without reading them. Far

too much time can be wasted examining spam. Resist the temptation to forward that funny little

play on words or images that made you laugh. These items fritter away company time in

unproductive ways. Ask email partners to refrain from forwarding such emails to you. Management

can inspect all messages; you should assume that anything you send or receive could be more

widely available (Conlin, 2002). With regard to constructing messages, follow the various rules

shown in Table 4.4. Remember that email messages contain the same elements as memos: To, From,

Subject, and Date.

Table 4.4: Rules for writing effective emails

Organize your thoughts prior to writing

Use good rules of grammar

Use bullet points, underline, and bold to clarify messages

Re‐read the message before sending it

Carefully word the subject line to attract attention

Send the message to only those who require the information

Avoid mass broadcasts

Make sure email is the right channel

Avoid sending messages in all capitals, which is the equivalent of screaming

Sources: Baude, Dawn‐Michelle (2007). The executive guide to e‐mail correspondence. Franklin Lakes, NJ: The Career

Press. Clow, K. E., & Baack, D. (2010). Marketing management: A customer‐oriented approach. Los Angeles, CA: Sage

Publications, p. 277. Gomez‐Mejia, L. R., Balkin, D. B., & Cardy, R. L. (2005). Management: People, performance,

change (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw‐Hill Irwin, p. 632.

When used improperly, email wastes time, distracts people from work, and reduces productivity.

When managed properly, email represents an ef icient method of maintaining contact when

face‐to‐face interactions are not possible, offering the ability to create precise messages and

responses as well as facilitating the efforts of employees (Baude, 2007).

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Jupiterimages/Thinkstock

A new set of opportunities and problems has

emerged from instant messaging and social

media technologies.

Email, instant messaging, and social media are not the

same. Instant messaging systems, such as MSN

Messenger, combined with mobile phone technologies,

make it possible to send messages to employees nearly

instantly. A new set of opportunities and problems

emerges from these venues.

In terms of opportunities, text messages offer the

advantage of real‐time, on‐the‐ground reporting during

sales presentations or observations of other activities

while not illing up employee and manager email

inboxes. In terms of internal formal communications,

setting up group texts speci ically for the purpose of

communicating with staff members can help any

business owner in a number of situations. One example is when an employee cannot attend work.

The company can send out a text message to all employees, asking someone to come in and cover

the shift. Sending a text message can be more effective than sending an email that people might not

read in time. It also saves the effort of calling people to come in (Zorawski, 2010).

Harmon (2003) notes that email became part of the working environment after companies began to

train employees in its use. In contrast, instant messaging in iltrated the workplace from the bottom

up, through entry‐ and lower‐level employees. In response, for example, IBM offers a service IMing

for businesses to use for internal communications.

In terms of problems, many of today's younger employees respond more quickly to texts than to any

other medium, stopping what they are doing (including having a face‐to‐face conversation with

someone) to read and answer a text. This is generally seen as rude, and treats the in‐person contact

as less important than whomever sent the text.

The relatively recent emergence of instant messaging means that company leaders have established

fewer irm guidelines for its use. In part, the uniqueness of the technology has opened lines of

communication between top management of icials and rank‐and‐ ile employees (Internal

Communication Evolution, 2009). Lines of what would be considered formal communication and

informal gossip are increasingly blurred, as employees use the same technology for both activities,

sometimes within the same message. The use of acronyms and other abbreviations further

complicates what will be considered effective and ineffective messages sent by text or tweet.

For now, the basic guidelines for instant messaging follow some of the suggestions for email.

Speci ically, recognize that management can monitor the messages, that the recipients can store

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anything you send, that careful wording is important, and that overuse of the technology for "play"

constitutes unethical time theft in the same way as sur ing the web for pleasure on company time.

The use of social media on the job has also increased. Programs such as Twitter can be used

effectively to communicate with customers by sending out daily offers and deals or by allowing

customer service representatives to interact with people who are shopping in a store. Many

advertisers are just beginning to discover the potential of social media as a marketing tool.

At the same time, employees should be careful not to become overly dependent on social media

outlets, because this can lead to wasted time and lower productivity. Too often, banal and

unnecessary messages travel across such channels, and employees spend valuable work time reading

and responding to them.

What is the main difference between emails and text or instant messages?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The speed at which messages are received.

The use of formal letters has become less common; however, it remains an important formal

management communication tool. A letter will be perceived as more of icial, having more weight,

and inferring a sense of authority. Letters accompany crucial company information and activities,

such as inancial reports, legal issues, or project strategies where greater message complexity is

common. Letters offer the advantage of remaining private, as opposed to email or text messages.

Letters can also create the context of greater sensitivity, expressing concern or appreciation. Letters

establish a permanent record of the correspondence (Bell, 2004, pp. 79–92).

The disadvantages of letters include greater time involved in preparation. Letters sent in mass

mailings are costly. A letter takes a greater amount of time to arrive, often days. Managers should

make sure time‐sensitive information in a letter arrives when needed. Also, a letter should not be

sent when a personal contact, or one with greater information richness, is required.

Letters are sent to internal publics for formal messages of greater importance, such as a letter of

appointment, a formal request of a department or manager, or a letter of resignation. Letters are

composed for external audiences for a greater number of purposes. The standard elements of a

letter are displayed in Table 4.5.

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Table 4.5: Elements of a letter

Letterhead Created by the company or by an individual, often incorporating a logo and

the company's address and contact information.

Heading Their address and the date underneath the organization's letterhead.

Inside

Address Name and address of recipient.

Subject Line Topic of the letter. May include a project name or account number.

Salutation Greeting, typically "Dear" or "To the Employee Bene its Committee" or an

attention line, such as "Attention: Customer Service."

Body The main message, generally single‐spaced with double‐spacing between

paragraphs. Use one space between each sentence (not two).

Closing For more formal letters, usually, "Sincerely," "Sincerely yours," or,

"Respectfully." For more personal letters, "Best wishes," or "Warm regards."

Signature First a signed version then a typed version.

Notations Initials of the typist or keyboard operator, names of the people sent copies.

Some of the more common reasons for sending letters include: (1) making a request, (2) agreeing to

a request, (3) delivering news, (4) as a cover for additional documents, (5) as a formal apology, and

(6) to make a persuasive argument. Of these, persuasive letterwriting appears to be on the decline,

with other media being used instead. The logic is simple: A letter takes time to read and to frame a

response. Many of the more immediate technologies allow for more of a dialog or conversation.

Companies do now incorporate letterhead templates in emails, making a more formal presentation,

to match the nature of a letter written on a printed page.

Effective letter‐writing requires a balance of writing skills and visual presentation effects.

Readability guidelines for letters are provided in Table 4.6. Many of these principles apply to other

writing venues as well.

Table 4.6: Readability tools

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Consistency

A well‐written letter is consistent in the use of margins, typeface, and

other visual elements. Stay consistent with these within one letter, and

from letter to letter.

Balance Make sure the letter balances on the page, from top to bottom and left to

right.

Restraint Keep the design simple. Do not overuse color or special print.

White Space

Allow white space in the margins and between elements of the letter.

Double‐space between paragraphs. Make sure the letter does not appear

"busy" or cluttered.

Margins and

Justi ication

Typically letters are left‐justi ied with either a ragged‐right margin or

right‐ and left‐justi ied. Rarely will a letter use centered justi ication,

although a key statement may be set aside separately and set in center

justi ication within the body of the letter.

Typeface

Match the typeface to the nature of the industry. The entertainment

industry tends to prefer New Courier, and publishing houses use Times

Roman. Other popular fonts include Calibri, Verdana, Arial, Book Old Style

and Rockwell.

Type Style For emphasis, italics and boldface are popular devices. At times a writer

may prefer underlining, or the use of color.

Source: PlainLanguage.gov (2011). Writing effective letters. http://www.plainlanguage.gov/howto/guidelines

/letters.cfm (http://www.plainlanguage.gov/howto/guidelines/letters.cfm) , retrieved July 15, 2011.

The most important component of a business letter will be its actual content. Managers take the

time to carefully choose the exactly appropriate words and phrases. Letters that "run on" or that

contain numerous grammatical or spelling errors are often quickly dismissed. Careful rewriting and

copy‐editing should be employed before inalizing the version that will be placed into the mail

system. Examples of standard business letters appear in Figure 4.1.

What elements should appear in both internally and externally directed letters?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

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Letterhead, heading, inside address, subject line, salutation, body, closing, signature, and

notations.

Figure 4.1: An internal and an external letter

Examples of internal and external letters are shown.

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Letterhead

July 7, 2012

Robert Johnson, COO, Adhesives Division

3 Q Adhesives and Magnetic Tape Company

3311 Main Street

Albuquerque, New Mexico 55555

Re: Internal prices of packing tape sent to Magnetic Division

Dear Robert,

Greetings from Minneapolis. We in the magnetic division hope your division is doing

well. Several members of our team wish for the great weather you have been enjoying

this spring, as we endure continuing snowstorms. Who says location isn't everything?

The purpose of my correspondence is to ask for a meeting to discuss transfer prices

for packing tape and other materials that your division ships to us. In the past, the

method used for setting these prices was based solely on production costs, with the

standard internal companywide mark‐up to allow for the necessary pro it margin.

As you know, the industry trends, coupled with the recent economic downturn, have

affected our unit. At the same time, we have come to understand that the internal

prices charged by your division to ours now re lect production costs plus a

contribution to overhead fee per shipped pallet, along with the mark‐up, which now

re lects the standard percentage but is based on the total costs of both items. This

change has made it increasingly dif icult for our division to remain pro itable without

raising our wholesale prices, at a time when demand has declined.

Two concerns arise from this situation. First, we were not noti ied about the internal

pricing change or about the process for making the change. We are disturbed by not

being included in the decision. Second, we have not changed the internal price our

division charges to yours for items sent in your direction. It is our position that this is

inequitable.

I would be willing to meet with you individually, or with members of the top

management group. It is not my intention to start a "turf war" or any other dispute,

but rather to ind a solution that we both agree is in the company's best interest, in

addition to the interests of our own divisions.

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Please respond at your convenience. I look forward to visiting with you and inding an

agreeable resolution to this issue. Give my best to the others in your of ice.

With warm regards,

Steve Johnson, COO Magnetics Division

sas

cc: Barry Roberts, CEO

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Letterhead

January 10, 2012

Suzanne Lockwood, President

Lockwood Designs

2430 North Central Expressway

Dallas, Texas 55555

Re: Unauthorized use of Rebecca's Diet Center parking spaces

Dear Ms. Lockwood:

It has come to our attention that, for several months, our parking spaces have been

illed with vehicles of customers who are shopping in your store. As you know, our

tenant agreement allows for eight designated spaces in the front of our business, and

they are to be used only by our clients.

We believe that your customers park in our spaces because of the afernoon shade

provided by the building. They choose to park in our spots, even though the spaces

are clearly designated for our purposes. This forces our clients to park away from our

shop and closer to yours. Many times, these clients need to carry boxes of

prepackaged food to their cars.

Our company likes to think that we are good neighbors with all of the other

businesses in this location. When we discover that clients have done something that

might disturb other irms, we quickly ask them to stop. We are hoping that you will

extend this same courtesy to our company.

When convenient, please respond to our request. Our goal is to resolve this problem

without the need for further action.

Please contact me personally if you have questions. Thank you for taking the time to

consider our request.

Sincerely,

Rebecca Jones,

Owner, Rebecca's Diet Center

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Typically, a letter will be perceived as more

of icial, having more weight, and inferring a

sense of authority.

In the previous chapter, the concept of information

richness was introduced. By their natures, written

channels are leaner. They offer fewer opportunities for

visuals, save for charts, igures, and photographs. At

the same time, selection of the written channel

provides some measure of the gravity of a message. A

formal letter normally will produce a greater impact

than a quick text.

Instant messaging offers the advantage of quick

transmission and often a rapid response. Emotions are

conveyed using the various acronyms available (OMG!).

Email contains some of the same elements, along with

its own special codes ; ‐ ) .

The fast pace of today's business world dictates the use of electronic media in many circumstances.

Memos and letters will typically be reserved for serious matters. Four criteria used in selecting the

appropriate technology include sensitivity, negativity, complexity, and persuasiveness. A sensitive

message evokes an emotional response. The more sensitive the message, the richer should be the

information channel. More negative messages, such as turning someone down for a promotion or

telling an employee someone else will lead a project, also merit richer channels. Complex messages

that take time to digest may be better served by leaner channels, in which information can be read

and re‐read, such as the proposals and reports described in the upcoming sections. Persuasive

messages require greater information richness.

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Numerous messages contain more information than can be sent in a brief format but less than

would be required for a full‐length report. These types of formal communications describe

something that has happened; coordinate something that is happening; or suggest something that

should happen. Medium‐length messages include proposals and short reports.

Proposals indicate what might happen or could happen, should the initiative be accepted. Internal

proposals are documents that recommend changes to a company's operations to solve a problem or

in regard to purchases to be made. External proposals are offers made to other companies to

provide products or services in exchange for a price or fee. External proposals may be solicited by

other companies, which means a request for proposal (RFP) has been sent. These can also be

called an RFI (request for information). Unsolicited proposals are sent at the vendor's initiative to

potential customers.

Proposals can be submitted on paper, in a word ile, or in electronic formats that include a pdf

(portable document ile, invented by Adobe), an Adobe InDesign ile, an Apple Keynote ile, or a

Microsoft PowerPoint ile. Elaborate proposals can be supported with multimedia presentations

including video clips, animation, software slices, and screencasts. In some industries, these proposals

are referred to as "decks." Table 4.7 indicates the common elements in proposals.

Table 4.7: Components of a proposal

Proposed Idea and Purpose The project description

Scope What will and will not be done

Visuals Pie charts, graphs, tables, etc., throughout or at end

Methods and Procedures Includes steps to be taken

Materials and Equipment Needed Based on the type of project

Quali ications of Personnel Those who will be working on the project

Follow‐up or Evaluation How project completion and success will be judged

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Budget or Costs Financial implications

Summary of Proposal Brief restatement of purpose

Appendices, If Appropriate Sources, visuals, glossaries, etc.

Brie ly describe internal proposals, external proposals, and request for proposal

(RFP) documents. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Internal proposals are documents that recommend changes to a company's operations to

solve a problem or in regard to purchases to be made. External proposals are offers made to

other companies to provide products or services in exchange for a price or fee. Other

companies may solicit external proposals, which means a request for proposal (RFP) has

been sent.

When a company receives an RFP, the message indicates that the buyer or company that has made

contact has suf icient con idence in a irm's ability to invite a bid. In this circumstance, the proposal

becomes mostly a mechanism designed to explain why the company offers the best solutions and is

most quali ied to solve a problem, with merchandise or expertise (Murray, 2008). A company

sending out unsolicited proposals must irst explain why the recipient has a problem and needs

outside assistance. Then the company can provide details regarding the reasons why it offers the

best alternative for solving the problem.

Both solicited and unsolicited proposals are more than mere sales tools; they should be designed to

build relationships. Even when a company fails to win a contract, the possibility remains that the

two organizations will become involved in the future. Carefully prepared external proposals create a

sense of competence and professionalism that carries over from one transaction to the next. An

external proposal format is provided in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8: Format for an external proposal

I. Introduction

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Background or statement of the problem

Solution

Scope

Proposal organization

II. Body

Facts and evidence

Approach (scope and methods)

Work plan (methods, procedures, steps, resources needed)

Quali ications

Costs

III. Close

Review of argument—brief summary

Review of reader bene its—how this helps the recipient

Review of merits of the approach—why sender is more effective than others

Restatement of quali ications

Request—ask for a decision

IV. Additional Materials (these can be woven throughout as well)

Graphs

Tables

Pie charts

Monetary information

When preparing an external proposal, several key concepts guide the writing. First, the proposal

should submit one core idea, which may be repeated throughout the document. A proposal from a

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George Doyle

A concise and succinct proposal has the best

chance of being accepted.

company offering a pension management plan should

reinforce the key message, such as that the system will

reduce costs or will offer inancial stability.

Second, the proposal focuses on the recipient's needs

rather than the sender's needs. The essence of the

proposal is to solve a problem or assist the recipient in

some way. Also, the terminology should match the

recipient's business and industry (Pugh & Bacon,

2005).

Third, a proposal explains the recipient's problems or

issues in the present tense, such as, "Your current

health insurance plan fails to provide for many

employees. We can do better without raising premiums

or reducing services." Then the future will be addressed after the proposal has been accepted, using

sentences such as "The work to be done would take place. . ."

Fourth, language in the proposal should be positive. Explaining a company's superior materials and

personnel concentrates on the organization sending the proposal. Denigrating the competition turns

the tenor of the proposal toward the negative. In essence, focus on why your company is great

rather than why other irms are bad.

Finally, a concise and succinct proposal has a better chance of being accepted. Wordy, rambling

proposals waste the recipient's time and are harder to follow. Careful evaluation of the message

includes making sure the proposal gets to the point, stays on point, and is easily recalled (Sant,

2004). Figure 4.2 provides an example of an external proposal.

What are the four major sections of an external proposal format?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

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Introduction, body, close, additional materials.

Figure 4.2: Example of an external proposal

External proposals are more‐elaborate attempts to communicate with outside organizations or

individuals.

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Letterhead

March 1, 2012

To: Midland Of ice Supply

From: All‐American Energy Solutions

Subject: Addition of solar panels and other energy ef iciencies

In response to your request for information regarding the installation of new, energy‐

ef icient building properties, All‐American Energy Solutions stands ready to design

and install a complete program for your company.

Energy costs continue to rise. These costs affect your company's ability to keep prices

low and to compete with other providers in the area. Our system reduces building

energy consumption by an average of 40 percent per year. When combined with our

payment plan, Midland will realize monthly costs savings immediately, and the system

will pay for itself in about 15 years.

All‐American Energy Solutions offers solar panels, energy‐ef icient heating and cooling

systems, and window replacements to achieve these cost savings. For your building,

total installation time for an energy‐saving system would be one month. Midland

Of ice Supply would be able to remain open while these improvements were being

made.

This proposal explains how solar ef iciencies save money and how we would install

your system. The credentials of our service technicians are provided. Cost estimates

and payment plans are also included.

Energy Facts

The energy system currently used by Midland Of ice Supply is more than 20

years old.

The energy system operates at 80 percent of ef iciency.

Our estimate, based on information provided, is that your system costs $2,000

per month to operate electrical, heating, and cooling systems.

All‐American's solar panel system reduces the need for outside electrical sources

by 40 percent.

All‐American's ground‐source heat pumps reduce the cost of heating and cooling

by 20 percent. Heat pumps also reduce energy costs associated with hot water,

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by preheating water before it reaches your water‐heating system.

All‐American's window systems reduce heat loss in the winter and heat from

sunlight in the summer.

We project that, by installing our system, on‐average, per‐month energy costs will

be reduced to $1,000 per month.

All‐American Energy Solutions will provide the following work:

Step 1: Install 20 solar panels, focused to achieve the highest level of solar energy on

the roof. Estimated work time: 4 days.

Step 2: Remove old heating and cooling system. Estimated work time: 2 days.

Install 4 ground‐source heat pumps. Estimated work time: 2 days.

Step 3: Replace 30 windows with energy‐ef icient design models. Estimated work

time: 14 days.

These steps can commence two weeks after a completed contract. This gives us time

to order panels from our supplier in California.

Our Personnel and Materials

All‐American installs only Premier Solar Panels. The design has received Solar Energy

magazine's "Best Choice" award for the past ive years.

Each of our installers has completed the Midwest Solar Institute's training program,

which lasts six months. Each has certi ication for designing and installing solar panel

systems. Our installers have each been employed by All‐American for a minimum of

ive years.

Cost Estimates

Solar Panels and Installation $7,000 per panel, installed price= $140,000

Ground Source Heat Pumps $12,000 per unit installed = $ 48,000

Windows $200 per window, installed = $ 60,000

Total Proposed Price $248,000

Federal Energy Tax Rebate at 30 percent = $ 81,840

Your inal cost = $166,160

All‐American provides energy ef iciency at a reasonable cost. We would like to include

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you in our list of successes.

Your solar panels would be visible to the local community, indicating your support for

cleaner air and energy conservation. This intangible bene it would be in addition to

your lower utility bills and eventual free energy. Our estimates do not account for

increases in electricity rates imposed by city utilities.

All‐American provides highly skilled service without disruption to your business. The

savings begin the day the units are installed.

Please contact Fred Miller with questions and inquiries. We would like to begin saving

you money on your energy bills as soon as possible.

Attachments

Monthly estimates of energy savings1.

Brochure for Premier Solar Panels2.

Information regarding ground‐source heat pump manufacturers3.

Information regarding window providers4.

Internal proposals recommend changes to a company's operations to solve a problem or purchases

to be made. The number and types of changes constitute a sweeping set of ideas, from changes to

simple operating procedures and protocols and suggestions for purchases of new building,

equipment, and technologies. Proposals can suggest the addition of company policies, such as

changing company rules, procedures, or human resource management guidelines. Other internal

proposals offer ideas about new products and product improvements as well as marketing methods

used to sell the items.

Most of the time, a proposal sent to others within the same company consists of less structure and

detail. The degree of formality will largely be determined by the nature of the proposal and the

intended audience. A message targeted at the CEO or top management team from someone of lower

rank will take on a more formal tone and often a more formal structure, such as what would be

prepared for an external audience. The same holds true for a proposal sent from the CEO to a

company's board of directors. Peer‐to‐peer or top management to lower‐ranking employees often

use a less‐formal approach.

Proposals can also be presented in an electronic format, with linked and embedded documents, and

multimedia documents such as video clips and animation. These create greater information richness

in a somewhat lean channel. Factors to consider when preparing an internal proposal include the

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elements displayed in Table 4.9.

Table 4.9: Internal proposal elements

Audience Who will receive this proposal?

Signi icance What level of impact does the problem present?

Nature of the

Assignment

Was the writer assigned the task of solving the problem or merely

identifying it?

Precedent Does the company use a speci ic proposal format?

Format Should this be a complete proposal or rather a letter or memo?

The inal issue determines whether to go forward with the formal proposal document. Table 4.10

provides an example of a format for a less‐formal proposal. Figure 4.3 offers a version of an internal

proposal for a retail chain.

Table 4.10: Less‐formal internal proposal

format

Introduction

Problem statement

Proposed solution

Analysis

Explanation of the problem

Analysis of causes

Scope, signi icance, and implications of the problem

Detailed Solution

Work to be done

Potential obstacles

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Bene its

Call to Action

Figure 4.3: Example of an internal proposal

Internal proposals target speci ic individuals in the organization.

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Letterhead

To: Frank Robinson

From: Ashley Sorenson

Date: July 15, 2012

Re: Test Market of Tweet Response Team

The Problem

Tech‐driven customers want immediate responses while shopping

Our line of products and our retail shopping experience has served us well for several

decades. Now, a new breed of consumer visits our stores. These individuals carry

various hand‐held devices that offer Internet access. They are accustomed to

immediate responses to text messages and tweets. Many become frustrated while

waiting to ask a salesperson a simple question.

Proposed Solution

In‐store instant messaging system

With the addition of two employees per store, we can develop a system similar to the

Twelpforce Twitter account at Best Buy. These individuals would be assigned to

immediately respond to customer questions, using an instant messaging system. The

program would make our stores unique in this market, attracting customers who are

ready to buy, as well as some who might come into the store to check out the system

and end up making purchases as a result.

Analysis

How the system solves a growing problem

Our in‐store research indicates that a growing number of individuals walk out without

making a purchase or talking to a salesperson. Many of these are younger customers

carrying mobile phones or similar devices.

We developed an interview system that intercepted 50 of these "walk‐outs" as they

were leaving the store. A survey with 10 "yes" or "no" questions sought to identify

their primary reasons for leaving. More than 80 percent reported that they were

"tired of waiting."

The signi icance of this inding is obvious: These individuals represent some of our

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12 employees at $60,000 $720,000

Instant messaging system 20,000

In‐store signage 10,000

Advertising and promotions 150,000

Total Cost $900,000

future customers, if we can ind ways to engage them and meet their needs. An

in‐store instant messaging system can increase sales and develop store loyalty.

Solution Details

A test‐market program

We propose to develop the system in our four stores in Omaha, Nebraska, as a test

market. Omaha contains two large universities, Creighton and the University of

Nebraska at Omaha. The population is representative of our customer base in terms of

income and educational diversity.

The test market would include development of a name brand and logo for the system,

in‐store signage, training of the employees, and an advertising program, including a

public relations blitz. The test market would run for one year, allowing monthly,

seasonal, and annual comparisons with the previous year's sales igures across all four

stores.

We believe the test‐market program would be of suf icient duration to overcome many

potential in luences on the data, such as unusual weather patterns. It would not

overcome the effects of any major economic changes. The program would gain

irst‐mover advantage in the market and allow us to see whether any competitors

follow.

The cost of the program would be $900,000. The following are the details:

The cost would be less than $80,000 per month, or $20,000 per store.

Why Now?

Our forecasting team believes the recent recession is ending. More customers are

shopping, disposable income has risen, and demand for our products continues to

increase. The opportunity exists to capture some of this new consumer enthusiasm,

attract attention to our stores, and grow our customer base.

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In summary, a quality proposal results from following the four steps of designing formal messages:

assess the communication environment, establish a message format, develop the message, and

authenticate the approach. When assessing the communication environment, note that proposals are

proactive messages designed to inspire a change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course or

direction.

The four elements of establishing a message format include attracting attention, preparing the

information to be transmitted, inding ways to reach the audience, and developing methods to

ensure understanding and compliance. A proposal requires an effective problem statement to attract

attention. Attention to detail allows for clear transmission of information. The audience will be

reached with a concise yet complete proposal document. These activities take place when the

objective of the proposal has been clearly enunciated and the methods to be used are precisely

spelled out.

Name the primary elements of an internal proposal and a less‐formal proposal

format. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

For an internal proposal, the audience, signi icance, nature of the assignment, precedent, and

format are key elements. The proposal format will be introduction, analysis, detailed

solution, and call to action.

Many times, short internal reports using a less‐complex structure serve the company's needs. In

such a report, the language should be balanced between being too informal, which leads the reader

to think the document does not contain important content, and too formal, which can create

distance and alienate the reader. The most common components of short internal reports are

provided in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11: Components of short internal

reports

Front Matter

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Internal reports cover a variety of subjects,

including projected costs of repairing a

building.

Introduction

Methods

Results and Discussion

Conclusion and Recommendations

The front matter for an internal report contains a title page, a brief table of contents, a list of

illustrations, and an executive summary. The title page identi ies the author of the report, the topic,

and the intended audience. The table of contents outlines how the report was conducted and

prepared. Illustrations include any igures or tables, listed in the order they appear in the report.

The executive summary should be an easy‐to‐follow, one‐page summary of the nature of the report.

The introduction brie ly outlines the issues in the

report. First, it indicates who commissioned the report

and why. The introduction then outlines the nature of

the research and forecasts the outcome. Resulting

recommendations are then offered.

The methods section explains how the inquiry was

conducted. It speci ies any special limitations or

constraints. The sample or subjects will be noted as

well. If a statistical analysis has been performed, it

should be reported in suf icient detail for the audience

to understand.

Results often contain tables and other visual aids that

summarize indings. The results should be clearly

presented and discussed to provide the greatest

possible insight into what the results imply. The

audience will then be more amenable to recommendations.

Conclusions begin with a restatement of what has transpired in the report. The conclusions portion

does not introduce new material. Recommendations can be calls for action, calls to delay or not take

action, or calls for additional inquiry. The recommendations section provides protocols for

implementation, if action will be taken.

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What are the components of a short internal report? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Front matter, introduction, methods, results and discussion, conclusions and recommendation.

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A business report provides an in‐depth analysis of an issue facing a company. Two primary forms of

business reports are regularly scheduled reports and special reports. Regularly scheduled reports

generated by managers include those placed in annual reports to shareholders and boards of

directors. Special reports examine speci ic topics, such as a response to an opportunity, a threat, or

an ongoing problem. Reports investigate industry trends and changes in industry standards and

technology. Reports are sent to internal and external audiences. The purpose of the report sets the

tone for the language, depth of explanation, and other elements of the report.

External reports serve a variety of purposes. Annual reports are sent to shareholders to describe

company activities and levels of success. Reports are prepared as part of investigations of incidents

or events that affect the company. The results are sent to other organizations, such as governmental

agencies or insurance carriers. Reports are provided to professional agencies, such as those

prepared following major ethical violations in the inancial industry in the United States.

When an individual or group has been commissioned to fully investigate a topic or problem the

resulting document will be a full‐length business report. It should be designed to incorporate

suf icient detail to satisfy any question the audience might have. Full‐length reports can be prepared

for both internal and external audiences. The components are displayed in Table 4.12.

Table 4.12: Components of full‐length business reports

Opening Materials Report Content Back Materials

Title page

Transmittal Document

Table of Contents

List of Illustrations

Executive Summary

Introduction

Rationale

Body

Methods

Results

Discussions & Recommendations

References

Bibliography

Appendices

Because of the length of a fully developed external report, an example is provided in the Appendices

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Qualitative research methods include focus

portion of this book.

Opening Materials

In the opening materials, the title page would be the same as an internal report—the recipient,

author, and subject along with the date. The transmittal document, or cover letter, adds a formal

element for the audience to consider. It normally includes a more detailed description of the report's

subject, the importance of the report, and a brief section about recommendations. The table of

contents, list of illustrations, and executive summary are the same as for internal reports.

Introduction and Rationale

The report format should be divided into sections. The introduction spells out the purpose of the

report, an overview, and any background information needed. Key questions that are answered in

the introduction include:

Who asked for this report?

Was a speci ic individual asked to investigate, or a team of employees?

What triggered the need for a report, a problem or an opportunity?

What priority does this hold, in terms of company operations?

The introduction should also provide the report's rationale, which answers these questions.

The body of the report describes the methods used in the study, including the sample, research

methods, limitations or challenges, and statistical analysis protocols. The methods used include

primary data and secondary data. The methods section should explain any limitations to how the

study was conducted, including time, funding, or changing circumstances. The complete details

regarding what was studied and how it was studied should appear, leaving room for few questions

or challenges to the methods used.

Methods: Primary Research and Data

Primary research involves the collection of data that

does not already exist. Two major forms of primary

research include quantitative and qualitative methods.

Quantitative methods generate data from

questionnaires, counts of activities (sales igures,

production numbers), and experiments. Normally,

some type of statistical analysis then will be applied to

questionnaire responses and data retrieved from

experiments, ranging from descriptive statistics such

as percentages, percentiles, and mean scores in the

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groups, interviews, and observations of

behaviors. data to highly advanced quantitative techniques

(Keppel, 1982). Often quantitative methods are used to

test a postulate or hypothesis, such as, "Companies

that provide health insurance free of charge to employees experience signi icantly lower levels of

turnover and higher levels of reported employee satisfaction with the employer." Such a question can

be tested empirically.

Qualitative research methods include focus groups, interviews, and observations of behaviors.

Observations of behaviors report what individuals did under various circumstances (Van Maanen,

Dabbs, & Faulkner, 1982). Qualitative research tends to be more exploratory in nature, seeking to

identify basic patterns of human behavior in various circumstances. For example, grocery store

designs are based on qualitative observations of how people shop for food. Impulse items are

strategically placed in areas where people are most likely to see the products and quickly decide to

buy them.

Methods: Secondary Research and Data

Secondary research does not use subjects, experiments, or the collection of new data. Instead,

secondary research consists of evaluation of data and materials that already exist. Many databases

provide secondary data for purposes of organizational research. The United States government

provides data regarding economic conditions and trends. Organizations such as CompuStat and

Forbes offer data regarding industry statistics, including market share, inancial ratios, and stock

prices and values. Secondary data can be accessed to explain the characteristics of an area, such as

the number of mobile phones owned by persons in the United States as compared to Mexico.

Secondary research also includes the analysis of various opinions of experts. A secondary research

report can summarize a series of magazine or journal articles on a topic. For example, a secondary

research project might summarize the impact of a recession on the sale of a particular sundry item,

such as big‐screen television sets.

The results section carefully explains what the study revealed. It spells out what was determined by

the research. Statements regarding con idence in the indings appear, such as statistical signi icance.

The results section does not draw conclusions. It merely reports the outcomes.

Discussion and recommendations include the author's perspective on how best to solve the problem

as well as how to implement the solution. The discussion section contains any notations about the

limitations of the research methods. It highlights important indings and hypotheses or ideas that

were not supported. Recommendations or statements regarding how the company should proceed

based on the investigation are also offered.

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Figure 4.4: A pie chart

Pie charts illustrate proportional amounts of

a larger unit.

Describe primary and secondary research methods. (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Primary research involves the collection of data that does not already exist. Two major forms

of primary research include quantitative and qualitative methods. Secondary research does

not use subjects, experiments, or the collection of new data. Instead, secondary research

consists of evaluation of data and materials that already exist.

Back Materials

Back materials make a report appear more professional and add credibility. Sources should be

carefully cited, including any books, journal articles, or experts that helped create and carry out the

study. Additional helpful reading materials are presented in the bibliography. Appendices can include

any tables or igures used to augment the report.

Visual aids add richness to what are otherwise lean

information channels. Proposals and reports can be

augmented with various forms of visuals. The most

important thing to remember about visual aids is that

they should add value to the document by providing

information, making a written point clearer, or by

displaying and summarizing data. The standard visual

aids attached to or woven throughout proposals and

reports include:

pie charts

bar graphs

line graphs

tables

photographs

illustrations

Pie charts illustrate proportional amounts of a larger unit. A pie chart can indicate percentages of

expenditures for each element of a budget. Pie charts often depict market share of a product or

brand for the marketing department. An example of a pie chart is displayed in Figure 4.4.

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Bar graphs compare totals or components of totals. Bar graphs can be vertical or horizontal in

nature. Bar graphs are used to indicate changes over time. Bar graphs involve the selection of

information placed on two axes (see Figure 4.5 for an example).

Figure 4.5: A bar graph

Bar graphs compare totals or components of totals.

Line graphs indicate trends over time. Again, two axes are chosen, such as sales over a series of

years or the number of employees a company retains over time. Line graphs can compare one

organization's trends to another. A line graph may also be used to indicate the results of an activity,

such as a change in production methods or a test market for a product. Figure 4.6 shows the use of

a line graph format.

Figure 4.6: A line graph

Line graphs indicate trends over time.

Tables provide information in the form of numbers. Tables are less visually compelling, but often

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represent the best choice for providing statistics and raw numbers. Figure 4.7 illustrates a typical

table.

Figure 4.7: Example of a table

In‐Store Sales by Book Category, 2010–2012

2010 2011 2012

Fiction

Romance 10,434 14,731 18,311

Western 720 811 655

_____________________________________

Non‐Fiction

Self‐Help 1,737 2,223 975

Biography 3,121 2,411 4,556

Political 4,175 2,033 5,781

Hobbies 3,327 3,022 3,789

Tables provide information in the form of numbers.

Photographs can dramatically enrich a document visually. Any type of natural disaster or "act of

God" that changes a company's operations may be enhanced by one or more photos of the event. A

color photograph adds visual impact to words.

Illustrations take many forms, from cartoons to models and designs. They can simplify a process and

make it easier to understand. Illustrations of how a system operates demonstrate how products low

through a series of stages, such as a production process or marketing channel. Flow charts are often

used to present stages or components of a system. Illustrations can be designed to depict problems

and disruptions as well. Today's computer software programs make it possible to create visually

compelling illustrations of various company operations.

Visual aids can also be applied to verbal presentations, using methods such as PowerPoint slides,

Google documents, Keynote storytelling elements and other technologies.

Name types of visuals that can be added to proposals and reports.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

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/sections/fm#)

Pie charts, bar graphs, line graphs, tables, photographs, and illustrations.

Rules for Using Visuals

Effective visuals add value and power to a formal, written document. Poorly designed visuals

distract or confuse the audience. To make sure a visual aid works, it should be:

easily understood, easy to read, and simple

appropriate

memorable

credible

professional

referenced and carefully placed

numbered and labeled

The most important rule to follow will be the irst, that the visual aid can be easily followed. Trying

to incorporate too many elements violates this rule. Using distracting bright colors may also make a

visual less easy to understand.

Credibility results from carefully researched visual materials. If the audience suspects that

information has been altered or doctored, the entire document forfeits believability. Citing sources

on the visual aid adds credibility. Sketchy drawings distract the audience and undermine the

integrity of the report or proposal. Using today's computer software makes it easy to prepare

professional‐grade visual aids. Visual aids that augment a written document should be referenced

within the document. When possible, the visual can be placed within the text or at the end of the

report.

Numbering systems for visuals vary. One method suggests anything with numbers will be referenced

as a Table and any other type will appear as a Figure. The key is to label the visual within the text of

the document and with the item as it is placed in the document. The format should remain

consistent and easy to follow.

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Four important approaches help transmit important messages effectively (Mehdi, 1984; Samaras,

1980). First, transmit important messages through more than one channel. Second, match the

medium to the message. Third, maintain an effective management information system. Fourth,

complete regular communication audits to identify and address any problems within the system. In

addition to these, be sure you are overcoming the main communication barriers:

Interpersonal barriers: differences in rank, gender, or personality

System overload: too many communication channels addressed toward a single employee

Physical barriers: differences in time zones, or poor phone reception

Selective iltering: how messages can be intentionally and unintentionally altered as they pass

from one to another

Mismatch of message and medium: the unclear use of social media in employee relationship

communication or delivering a verbal message when a written one would have been more

appropriate

Informal contradiction of the formal message: a rumor that impacts the formal message sent by

a manager about terminations or layoffs

To ensure a message arrives on time and will be received involves using more than one medium. A

meeting can be followed with an email or an agenda memo. A personal conversation can receive

similar follow‐up reinforcement. Letters followed by phone calls make the message appear to be

important and double the odds that the recipient will hear or see the content of the message. In

today's world of management communication, repetition becomes more important than ever when

seeking to ensure a message arrives.

Second, match the message and the medium (Lengel & Daft, 1988). Again, consider the audience, the

content of the message, the degree of information richness required, and the need for a paper record

of the message. As additional new transmission devices become available, managers may need to

spend more time explaining the proper channel for a suggestion, complaint, or request for

clari ication of a directive to employees.

In what two ways can formal messages be used to help overcome the barriers to

communication? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

A well‐designed management information

system consists of the team of people and

technologies used to collect and process

organizational information.

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Use more than one medium to transmit key messages and match the message to the medium.

To make sure messages and information travel

ef iciently and effectively through an organization, the

company should establish and maintain a high‐quality

management information system (MIS). A

well‐designed management information system

consists of the team of people and technologies used

to collect and process organizational information.

An effective MIS begins with effective people who

know how to collect important organizational

information. These individuals are found in many

areas, including accounting, forecasting, production,

quality control, human resources and at executive

levels in the organization.

An effective MIS maintains the best technologies.

Company phone systems should be easy to use; the

website should be easy to negotiate, and systems should be in place to make sure that key decisions

and announcements reach every person that should hear a message.

An effective MIS carries high‐quality information. Critical company information will be timely,

accurate, important, and summarized. A manager should be able to quickly access important

statistics and information for decision‐making processes. Individual employees should be able to

ind the types of data to help them perform their jobs most effectively. For example, in order to best

serve the client's needs, a customer‐service representative should be able to access information

about previous contacts a person or business has made with the company.

De ine management information system. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

A management information system consists of the team of people and technologies used to

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Jupiterimages/Thinkstock

Communication audits can be used in a

variety of organizations.

collect and process organizational information.

To ensure that a company's formal communication

system serves the needs of the organization, a

communication audit may be undertaken. A

communication audit is a systematic assessment of

an organization's capacity for, or performance of,

essential communications practices. It determines

what works, what does not, and what might work

better if adjustments were made (Coffman, 2004).

Table 4.13 identi ies the steps in designing and

completing a communication audit. When assessing

organizational communication systems, four issues

should be assessed (Hargie & Tourish, 2009).

First, the audit must accurately diagnose current communication practices. This means that more

than one individual's perspective will be needed. One model suggests communication should be

evaluated from the perspectives of the person or group sending messages, the recipient(s), and an

independent outside observer. Removing biases in evaluation constitutes a key objective in a

communications audit.

Second, when tactics have been used to improve communication, such as issuing laptops for

employees to carry to work assignments or smart phones for increased communication from remote

locations, the efforts should be tracked to see if they accomplished their intended objectives. In the

case of new technologies, those at distant locations should be asked whether their needs have been

met, and they should be asked to provide speci ic examples of how the system improved, or did not

improve, the communication process.

Third, the company should assess whether its communication system is associated with overall

success. In other words, does the communication system improve pro its, and build loyalty and

morale within the organization, or in some way serve other important organizational needs?

Fourth, understand how communication systems and methods may vary by organizational rank.

These differences result, in part, from varying needs of members. Front‐line employees may have the

most powerful needs for immediate lean information to effectively carry out their jobs. Others may

require more in‐depth communication to succeed. The communication audit should account for

variances by rank in the organization.

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Table 4.13: Steps of a communication audit

1 Complete a plan for the entire audit program.

2 Identify methods for studying internal communication networks.

3 Choose important areas to assess.

4 Select the method (surveys, interviews, questionnaires, focus groups).

5 Pick the participants (entry‐level, middle manager, top management, external publics).

6 Indicate how the information will be evaluated.

7 Write and circulate the inal report to all relevant parties, including participants.

Source: Downs, C. W., & Adrian, A. D. (2004). Assessing organizational communication: Strategic communication

audits. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

An effective audit provides an assessment of current practice (diagnosis) and then determines what

steps are needed to make improvements (prescription). The audit is not complete until both

activities have taken place and been implemented. An audit only succeeds when the communication

needs are clearly spelled out by management.

De ine a communication audit and name the steps involved in conducting one.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A communication audit is a systematic assessment of an organization's capacity for, or

performance of, essential communications practices. The steps are completing an audit plan,

identifying methods for studying internal communication networks, choosing important

areas to assess, selecting the method to use, picking participants, indicating how the

information will be evaluated, and writing and circulating the inal report.

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Written messages offer the advantage of allowing a manager to carefully choose the words prior to

transmitting the message. Written email and instant messages are viewed when it is convenient,

which can save time. A written message provides an of icial record that a manager can save for

future purposes. Brief messages include memos, emails, instant messages, and letters.

A paper memo serves the purpose of creating a more permanent record of an internal

correspondence. Memos serve two major purposes: provide information and call for action.

Using email, employees can communicate from different locations without the use of a telephone.

Email and instant messaging allow virtual teams to coordinate and schedule activities, create a

channel of upward communication, and provide a venue to send out information downward or

laterally. Employees should also understand that the company owns email, giving management the

right to inspect messages.

Letters will be perceived as more of icial, and are used for messages with greater complexity. Letters

offer the advantage of remaining private, as opposed to email or text messages, and also create the

appearance of being sensitive while expressing greater concern or appreciation. Letters establish a

permanent record of the correspondence.

Moderate‐length written communication includes internal and external proposals. Internal proposals

are documents that recommend changes to a company's operations to solve a problem or in regard

to purchases to be made. External proposals are offers made to other companies to provide products

or services in exchange for a price or fee. External proposals may be solicited by other companies,

which mean a request for proposal (RFP) has been sent. Unsolicited proposals are sent at the

vendor's initiative to potential customers.

A proposal should submit one core idea, which may be repeated throughout the document. It should

focus on the recipient's needs rather than the sender's needs. The terminology should match the

recipient's business and industry. The proposal should explain the recipient's problems or issues in

the present tense. The language in the proposal should be positive. A concise and succinct proposal

has a better chance of being accepted.

A business report provides an in‐depth analysis of an issue facing a company. Some are regularly

scheduled and others cover special topics or events. Internal reports are less complex and the

language will be adapted to the audience and situation. Full‐length reports are prepared when an

individual or group has been commissioned to fully investigate a topic or problem. Full reports

include opening materials, the report's content, and back materials. Visual aids complement

materials presented in writing.

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Formal communication barriers include interpersonal problems, system overload, physical barriers,

selective iltering, a mismatch of message and medium, and informal contradiction of formal

messages. Methods used to overcome formal barriers include carefully matching the message to the

medium and audience and transmitting important messages through more than one channel. A

management information system can be built to ensure the best people and technologies process

organizational information. A communication audit assesses the organization's system looking for

what works well, what does not, and what can be adjusted.

communication audit (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A systematic assessment of an organization's capacity for, or performance of, essential

communication practices.

external proposals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Offers made to other companies to provide products or services in exchange for a price or fee.

internal proposals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Documents that recommend changes to a company's operations to solve a problem or recommend

purchases to be made.

management information system (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The people and technologies used to collect and process organizational information.

request for proposal (RFP) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

External proposals solicited by other companies.

unsolicited proposals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

External proposals sent at the vendor's initiative to potential customers.

Which form of formal written communication should be used for each of the following

circumstances? Defend your choice.

announcement of a visit by the governor of the state to a manufacturing planta.

announcement that the eventual successor for the CEO has been chosenb.

noti ication that the company has been sued by a special interest group and that some

employees may be expected to testify

announcement that a shift will be canceled due to excessive snowfalld.

offer to reappoint a contracted employee for another year with an increase in paye.

employee suggestion about methods to improve the company's shipping and order ful illment

system

Prepare a memo for the following circumstances. Explain whether it should be an email or paper

memo and your reasons for the choice.

notify employees that this year's holiday party will be a pot luck dinnera.

solicit employee requests for of ices in a new wing of the company's buildingb.

announce the results of last month's sales contestc.

announce a job opening in which only internal candidates will be consideredd.

Compose a letter for the following issues:

cover letter for a report by the employee bene its committee regarding the company's pension

plan

letter of sympathy to the spouse of a long‐time company employee who died suddenlyb.

request by a member of the marketing department sent to the manager of the production

department to create a wider range of colors for a company's line of appliances, to meet

customer requests and match competitor products

letter of resignation due to a personal scandal, sent from a CEO to a board of directorsd.

letter of apology for a company's release of defective products, taking full responsibilitye.

What kinds of visual aids would you suggest for the following? Explain your reasoning.

proposal to increase plant capacity due to rising sales over the past three yearsa.

report on the number of lost employee days due to stress‐related issues following an accident

in a plant

proposal by a manufacturer of hardware to supply items such as rivets, screws, and bolts to a

company that sent a request for proposals

report on the relationship between a company's sales and economic conditions in fourd.

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regions of the country

Explain the roles that text messaging, e‐mail, and social media play in the following circumstances:

An employee needing to inform the company she has been in a car accident while traveling on

behalf of the organization

A company's marketing team looking for new ways to steer customers to a company's websiteb.

A customer wanting to complain to friends about poor treatment by a retail sales clerkc.

A customer wanting to complain to a store manager about poor treatment by a sales clerkd.

A company manager seeking to quickly inform employees about the winner of a recent sales

contest

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In this clip, a union vice president at British Petroleum accuses the

company of harassing and intimidating workers who voice their

concerns about unsafe working conditions. In response, BP issues

a written statement where they claim to encourage employees to

voice thier concerns.

How did BP use written communication to try to alleviate

employee concerns about safety? Were they successful?

What could BP have done to make their written

communication match their actions?

Casey Murphy loved sports. He spent much of his free time enjoying sports as a spectator

and participant, and fancied himself as someone with extensive knowledge of several

games. When he wasn't at the gym or watching an event on television, Casey worked as a

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merchandise buyer for the Iowa Furniture Warehouse, a chain of twelve stores located

throughout the Hawkeye State.

The Iowa Furniture Warehouse chain had achieved modest success through a series of

strategic, tactical, and operational innovations. At the strategic level, the stores were all

located in carefully chosen trade districts that were modern, close to restaurants such as

Applebee's and T.G.I. Fridays, and easy to access by major roads. The stores were all the

same in exterior appearance and interiors were brightly lit and not cluttered. The goal was

a relaxed and pleasant shopping experience. At the tactical level, products were sold in the

midrange of quality, prices were maintained to match competitors in the furniture

industry, and an innovative, humor‐based advertising campaign featuring "Lance and

Laura" had been well received for years. At the operational level, customers were assured

that any purchase would be delivered to their homes on the same day, no matter how late

in the day the transaction took place. The company offered same‐day inancing for major

purchases.

Casey's concerns about Iowa Furniture Warehouse were in three areas. First, although

sales and pro its were solid, he believed the company was underperforming. Second,

recently collected customer satisfaction research statistics were discouraging. Many

customers, even ones who made purchases, reported low satisfaction with the purchasing

process. Casey had assembled a focus group where members complained that they often

felt "pressured" and that salespeople wouldn't "give them any space." Third, turnover rates

among salespeople were much higher than in other companies in the area. Casey also

noticed several incidents where salespeople engaged in con licts with one another, with

the common theme that someone "stole my sale" or "stole my customer."

Casey harkened back to his basketball and football days. In both sports, defense could be

played man‐to‐man or in a zone. He felt the analogy it Iowa Furniture Warehouse. The

company was playing man‐to‐man when it should have been using a zone. Instead of a

commission‐only method of pay in which a salesperson would hound a customer

throughout the store, Casey believed that a team‐based commission system would reduce

con licts between salespeople. He also wanted to specialize salespeople for speci ic types

of furniture, such as one individual for sofas and chairs, another for dining room furniture,

and another for of ice furniture. Then, even when the customer moved to a different part

of the store, the salesperson would remain, handing the customer off to the next area.

Using the zone approach with group commissions, a salesperson could provide expertise

about a product or simply watch a customer's child as the person sat in a chair or tried

out a bed. He concluded that his zone approach would reinforce the relaxed and pleasant

atmosphere created by the store's interior.

Casey had always enjoyed pleasant relationships with members of the top management

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team in the chain. At the same time, most of his interactions were conversations about

sports rather than business. This would be the irst time he would present an actual

business idea to them.

Review Questions

Prepare an internal memo requesting a face‐to‐face meeting with management to

present Casey's idea.

Prepare a letter written by Casey to the CEO presenting his idea.2.

Outline an internal proposal presenting Casey's idea.3.

Which method should Casey use? Defend your answer.4.

Technology impacts business in many ways. Innovations and technology improvements

alter the marketplace by introducing new products, improving products, advancing

production methods, and changing the ways in which jobs are performed. Technological

change affects the delivery of services as well.

Traditional insurance companies such as State Farm and Allstate sell a range of policies,

including life, health, auto, property, and renters' insurance. These organizations service

policies through claims of ices and other support activities. The basic business model has

remained largely the same for decades.

The introduction of the Internet has led to new competitors, especially in the automobile

insurance category. Companies such as Geico, Progressive, and Esurance provide policies

featuring two differences. First, policies are sold online and over the phone. Second, price

discounting has become the primary selling feature.

The marketing approaches for the two types of auto insurance are remarkably different as

well. Geico features the Gecko as a spokesanimal and uses other humorous approaches to

create interest in the tagline, "A 15‐minute call could save you 15 percent on car

insurance." Esurance also features humor in its advertisements with a focus on lower

prices. Progressive utilizes the talents of Stephanie Courtney, who portrays Flo in company

commercials, to emphasize price savings.

State Farm and Allstate maintain more traditional approaches. Allstate's spokesperson,

Dennis Haysbert, maintains the "Good Hands" theme, and an informative/emotional

approach to selling insurance. State Farm continues with the tag line, "Like a good

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neighbor, State Farm is there," but has incorporated humor into recent commercials. The

themes have stayed away from direct price comparisons with Internet companies for the

most part.

The future of car insurance, along with all other forms of insurance, has become clouded.

Life insurance policies are sold online and through direct‐response television commercials.

The primary question facing industry leaders will be in regard to the role played by

insurance agents. Will they continue to operate from of ices where walk‐ins and clients

can physically meet with them? Will house calls remain part of the selling program? Will a

hybrid of online‐insurance of ice model emerge? The answers to these and questions

regarding the role of technology in the insurance industry will largely dictate the future of

this form of commerce.

Assume you have been asked to prepare a full‐length report when answering the following

questions.

Review Questions

To investigate the role of the Internet in car insurance, what forms of primary data

should be collected? Would the study focus on older customers, younger customers, or a

mix?

To investigate the role of the Internet in car insurance, what forms of secondary data

should be collected?

Would a report regarding the role of the Internet in car insurance be an internal or an

external report? Who would receive copies?

What types of conclusions could be drawn from the research and report?4.

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iStockphoto

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After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Use communication in the decision‐making process.1.

Take advantage of the six steps of the decision‐making process.2.

Create the primary objectives, desired outcomes, and approaches to the persuasion

processes.

Apply the steps and methods involved in an effective persuasion process.4.

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In today's dynamic business environment, managers are expected to respond to events and trends as

ef iciently and effectively as possible. Doing so involves making quality decisions. A decision is a

choice between two or more potential courses of action (Hoch & Kunreuther, 2001; Bedeian, 1986).

Top managers respond to company circumstances with strategies and policies designed to guide the

organization through turbulent situations. Middle managers employ tactics to support company

strategies. First‐line supervisors make sure company procedures and rules are followed.

Decision‐making in business organizations involves communication in all directions. Ideas,

suggestions, and complaints low from lower‐ranking to higher‐level managers. Top managers inform

all ranks about events in the environment that affect the company, internal company issues, and

decisions that they make in response. Middle managers coordinate with all levels to make sure

information reaches the proper destination (Simon, 1976). For example, production, marketing, and

those who operate the company's warehouse work together when a bonus pack that is larger than a

product's normal size package will be sold. Production adjusts to the larger package, marketing

creates a label emphasizing the bonus, and the warehouse needs added space to store inventory.

Several key business and management communication skills affect the quality of the decision‐making

process. Listening plays a critical role. An effective decision‐maker collects information before

developing alternatives or choosing a solution. Reasoned discussion can bene it the organization in

terms of the quality of ideas generated to solve company problems and the eventual solutions

chosen. Such discussions can take the form of board meetings, focus groups, brainstorming sessions,

and task‐force status meetings. Creative companies inspire members to participate and share

innovative ideas. The outcome of the process, the actual decision, requires precise and clearly

understood communication to be effectively implemented. Consequently, the connection between

quality communication and successful decision‐making is evident.

Professional golfer Tiger Woods burst onto the scene in the 1990s, winning numerous

tournaments while establishing a reputation as a ierce competitor on the course, but a

pleasant and affable family man everywhere else. His popularity led to a variety of

lucrative endorsement deals. Woods' near iconic status in the United States and around

the world seemed impenetrable.

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Various company decision‐makers faced

dif icult choices when the Tiger Woods

scandal emerged on the national scene.

In 2009, a car accident involving Woods near his

home changed the trajectory of his life and

career. It was soon revealed that he engaged in

extramarital relationships with several women

over many years. When these scandals made

national headlines, the leaders at his sponsoring

companies were faced with a dif icult decision:

Should the company continue to retain the

popular and charismatic golfer as a

spokesperson?

Scandals tied to a company's spokesperson are

not new. In 2011, comic Gilbert Gottfried was

immediately released as the voice of the A lac Duck after telling an inappropriate joke

about the tsunami in Japan. Substantial company revenues were generated in Japan, which

meant the decision was not surprising. Many advertisers quickly dropped football player

Michael Vick following his imprisonment for running a dog‐ ighting ring.

In the case of Woods, however, company reactions varied. Accenture, an accounting and

consulting irm, quickly dropped him. A company of icial stated, "[We have] determined

that he is no longer the right representative for [our] advertising" (EPSN.com, 2009;

Adlandtv.com, 2009). The energy drink Gatorade, a division of PepsiCo, quickly followed

suit. AT&T cancelled its contract with Woods as well. Over time other companies that

discontinued relationships with him included American Express, Buick (General Motors),

Titleist, and General Mills.

Gillette took a different approach, stating the company would limit his role in advertising.

The company continued running ads featuring Woods and the Gillette Fusion razor. The

irm also noted it would not ilm any new commercials with him. The company, which is

owned by Proctor & Gamble, later severed ties as well. Tag Heuer took down posters

featuring Woods, but did not of icially cut relations for several months (Kelley, 2011).

At the other extreme, four companies, including EA Sports and Nike, stood by the golfer.

EA Sports had recently released the Tiger Woods PGA Tour and the Tiger Woods Online

games, which may have boxed in company decision‐makers. The sports‐collectible

company Upper Deck continued its association with Woods, making few public comments

about the scandal. Japanese company Kowa, a pharmaceutical developer, also continued

featuring Woods in commercials.

The most visible company connected to Woods, Nike, stood by him. Woods released the

famous "What have you learned?" commercials, featuring the voice of his deceased father

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in the background. Some found the ad to be courageous; others commented that it was

"creepy" (Gomstyn & Arnall, 2010).

Decision‐makers in these organizations face different sets of publics. Internal stakeholders,

especially employees, may have wished to in luence the decision. External publics,

including the press, customers, and other companies, may have also tried to weigh in

about what to do. The result was that each company's decision, and implementation of

that decision, was unique to its situation.

What reasons could be given for maintaining a relationship with Tiger Woods and what

reasons could be given for removing Woods as an advertising spokesperson?

What roles would publicity, pressures from the public, and internal morale play in the

decision?

What were the ethical choices involved in making this business judgment?3.

Each individual manager uses a unique combination of attributes, skills, and experiences to make

decisions in the workplace. The individual's level of intelligence, tolerance for ambiguity, acceptance

of different cultures and religious beliefs, willingness to listen to the viewpoints of others, and even

degree of con idence, affect the decisions a manager makes and the processes she or he uses. The

perspectives used to analyze the nature of decision‐making include rational/analytical thinking,

intuitive decision‐making, and the garbage can model.

Rational/Analytical Thinking

Brain researchers have observed that the human brain contains both rational and emotional

elements (Cokins, 2010). Theories of mental development suggest that rational decision‐making

involves looking for sensible or logical actions; avoids emotion and bias in judgment; and maximizes

or makes the most out of something, such as personal utility or company sales (Wasserman, 2007).

When making decisions for business, a rational approach requires four preconditions. First, the

problem must be relatively clear cut. Second, managers must be aware of the most viable options

and alternatives. Third, criteria used to evaluate potential solutions are well known and understood.

Fourth, the decision‐maker seeks to maximize or choose the best option when selecting solutions

(March, 1994). While four standards rarely can be completely met, rational approaches are often

deemed advisable. Various cultures are evaluated on the degree of rationality and uncertainty

avoidance utilized in everyday living and decision‐making (Rapp, Bernardi, & Bosco, 2011).

Intuitive Decision‐Making

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Jupiterimages/Thinkstock

The garbage can model suggests that

decision‐making contexts will be complex and

at times border on being chaotic.

For many years, management experts dismissed the use of intuition in decision‐making as irrational

or ineffective. More recently, however, this assertion has been challenged. Intuitive decision‐making

may be interpreted to be an unconscious process that relies on distilled experience (Behling & Eckel,

1991). The more recent perspective suggests that intuitive decision‐making can be of great value,

when certain conditions exist, as displayed in Table 5.1 (Agor, 1989). Even so, managers who make

such decisions often disguise or hide the fact that they used the method (Myers, 2002).

Table 5.1: Situations that favor intuitive

decision‐making

Facts are limited

Facts do not clearly point the way

Analytical data have low value

Time is limited

High level of uncertainty exists

No precedent can be used

Variables are not scienti ically predictable

Several plausible alternatives exist with good reasons to

choose each

Managers do not rely solely on rationality or intuition.

In most circumstances, one approach will be favored

over the other. At the same time, reason often affects

intuition, and intuition/emotion often in luences

reasoning processes. The Tiger Woods controversy

represents both elements—emotions related to his

conduct as a married father and reasoning regarding

what would be the best business practice. Remember

that these two methods of making decisions are

coupled with individual traits, skills, and preferences.

Garbage Can Model

Another view on the evaluation process in decision‐

making proposes that decisions are often made in a sloppy, haphazard manner. Four elements that

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interact and contribute to the process are the problem, solutions, participants, and choice

opportunities. Decision‐making does not occur in an orderly fashion, but rather randomly by the

problems that emerge, the time people have to solve them, and the options available, as part of what

will be tossed into the organization's "garbage can" of problems to be addressed. Opportunities lead

to decisions as readily as problems, and organizational politics can disturb the evaluation process.

The garbage can model suggests that decision‐making contexts will be complex and at times border

on being chaotic. Each leads to a differing evaluation system. Not surprisingly, then, the degree of

disorder plays an important role in how decisions are made (March & Weisinger‐Baylon, 1986;

Bower & Gilbert, 2007).

Name and brie ly describe three decision‐making perspectives.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The rational‐analytic perspective assumes rational decision‐making involves looking for

sensible or logical actions, avoids emotion and bias in judgment, and maximizes or makes

the most out of something. Intuitive decision‐making may be interpreted to be an

unconscious process that relies on distilled experience. The garbage can model suggests that

decision‐making contexts will be complex and at times border on being chaotic. Each leads to

a differing evaluation system. Consequently, the degree of disorder plays an important role in

how decisions are made.

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Managerial decision‐makers can use a well‐established format for examining company problems and

reaching the best solutions. One common approach seeks to take advantage of the rational/analytical

approach to decision‐making (Bazerman, 2006). In that model, the six steps of decision‐making are:

State the problem1.

Name limitations2.

Generate alternatives3.

Evaluate alternatives4.

Choose a solution5.

Prepare a plan of implementation6.

Those who carefully follow through on each step and avoid the pitfalls that can disrupt quality

decisions have the best chance of discovering and implementing high‐quality solutions. Effective

management communication plays a critical role in each step.

What are the six steps of the decision‐making process? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The six steps of decision‐making are state the problem, name limitations, generate

alternatives, evaluate alternatives, choose a solution, and prepare a plan of implementation.

When identifying the problem or opportunity, managers consider two issues. First, they make sure

the correct cause of the problem has been identi ied. Many times managers confuse the problem

with symptoms of the problem. For example, sales may decline when competitors lower prices or

because of negative publicity about the company. Lower sales represent the symptom; the manager

seeks to identify the cause. Some indicators of general employee dissatisfaction are absenteeism,

tardiness, turnover, and grievances. Several causes of rises in these rates are possible, including the

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Hemera/Thinkstock

A positive problem statement would be, "We

need to ind a way to increase injury‐free

days by 20 percent next year."

threat of layoffs, the lack of pay raises, or a bad

supervisor. The manager strives to discover the true

cause. Effective decision‐making results from careful

investigation of the nature of the issue.

Second, when specifying a problem or opportunity,

state the issue in a positive fashion. For example,

instead of saying, "We have too many accidents," the

alternative would be to state, "We need to ind a way

to increase injury‐free days by 20 percent next year."

In essence, the problem should be framed as the

desired solution (Sanders, 1999). The problem will not

truly be solved until an observable desired outcome

takes place.

In terms of managerial communication, the decision‐maker includes the necessary parties to help

discover the problem and its symptoms. The communication skills needed include clearly

articulating the reasons for examining the issue. Listening skills allow the inal decision‐maker to

incorporate information and make the best judgment as to the nature of the problem. When a group

assists in the decision, the leader seeks consensus that the true problem has been identi ied.

What two issues should managers consider when stating the problem in the

decision‐making process? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

First, they should make sure the correct cause of the problem has been identi ied. Second,

when specifying a problem or opportunity, state the issue in a positive fashion or as the

desired solution.

Every company's situation contains unique elements. Despite a sputtering economy, LinkedIn, a

social network for professionals, experienced explosive revenue growth and visits to the site in

2010. In the same year, most other companies endured low sales. In essence, some companies

experienced the limitations of a weak economy when LinkedIn did not. When seeking to solve a

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problem or to seize an opportunity, a prudent course of action involves identifying company

limitations. The most common areas in which limitations in luence decision‐making include time,

money, technology, skilled personnel, and organizational inertia.

Time limits decision‐making in three ways. First, many decisions must be made quickly. This leaves

managers with little time to develop and analyze options. Second, the length of time each alternative

will last should be a consideration. The decision to inance and construct a new building or enter a

new market may require long‐term inancing, which limits company options to pursue other projects

in the future, meaning the alternative has a long shelf life. Third, the amount of time between when

a decision is made and when it is fully implemented deserves deliberation. Implementing a decision

may take weeks, months, or even years. Managers must be sure the alternative will still be viable at

that point.

Money nearly always affects decision‐making. Firms simply cannot generate funding to solve every

problem. Technology can limit decision‐making when other irms acquire more‐advanced technology,

such as when one company that manufactures televisions develops a superior 3‐D system. Also, a

technological breakthrough that would answer a problem may be coming soon, but is not yet

available. Skilled personnel become a limitation when other irms employ workers with superior

talents or knowledge, placing other companies at a disadvantage. Organizational inertia, or

systematic resistance to change, often prevents quality solutions from being chosen (Ackland, 2005).

Managers know that subordinates or top management can prevent the implementation of a quality

idea.

The role of management communication in identifying company limitations will be largely the same

as for identifying the problem. The decision‐maker or leader listens, coordinates, and carefully spells

out the natures of the limitations discovered by the group or team. This list guides the process of

generating and evaluating alternatives.

Name the most common limitations to decision‐making.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The most common areas in which limitations in luence decision‐making include time, money,

technology, skilled personnel, and organizational inertia.

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Creativity often represents the driving force behind inding quality alternatives (Amabile, 1997). The

development of Facebook and Twitter serves as an example of creative new methods of generating

success. Innovative products, services, and marketing methods often lead to major pro its and rapid

growth. Company leaders look for ways to inspire creativity (Woodman, Sawyer, & Grif in, 1993).

Five of the more common methods are displayed in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Creativity techniques

Brainstorming

Nominal groups

Analogies

Finding the lowest common denominator

Seeking an outside perspective

Brainstorming begins by assembling a group of employees to generate new, different ideas about

how to solve a problem (Osborne, 1963). A recorder collects all of the suggestions made during a

brainstorming session. In that short time period (3 to 5 minutes is common), the group will be given

the problem and then asked to quickly come up with as many ideas as possible about how to resolve

the issue. Respondents make responses aloud. For the session to succeed, four rules must be

followed:

The more ideas, the better1.

Wilder, more of beat ideas are best2.

Combine ideas with other participants3.

Do not pass judgments on other ideas during the session4.

Departments and organizations that require creativity often take advantage of brainstorming.

Advertising agencies, entertainment companies, and research‐and‐development departments all

regularly schedule brainstorming sessions.

Nominal groups may be used when participants are more reserved. In the nominal group session,

instead of shouting out ideas, members write them down. Then, potential solutions are suggested in

a round‐robin fashion, with each person taking a turn. Potential alternatives are then discussed and

voted upon by ranking them from best to worst.

The analogy method involves comparing the problem to something else by using a simile or

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

The analogy method involves comparing the

problem to something else by using a simile

or metaphor. For example, low sales are like

"the well running dry."

metaphor. Low sales are like "the well running dry." Developing a new method of solving a

customer's problem can be compared to " inding a needle in a haystack." The idea is that by making

such comparisons, new methods of solving the problems will emerge (Gordon, 1961).

Finding the lowest common denominator involves

trying to think of the problem in the simplest of terms.

Instead of trying to ind a way to increase sales, for

example, it may be easier to come up with methods to

generate store traf ic. The premise is that if people

visit the store, they will be more inclined to buy

something.

Seeking an outside perspective means visiting with

someone from another discipline or area. A marketer

might ask a human resource manager's or consultant's

opinion. A quality‐control manager could visit with

someone from the public relations of ice about a

continuing problem with defects. The goal is to

incorporate a new point of view into the analysis and

come up with new and unusual ways to solve a problem.

Online collaborations have become the norm for generating alternatives for many companies. These

interactions allow individuals at dispersed locations, even some who are not employees, to share

ideas with one another about how to solve company problems. Managers in the future can expect

extensive use of this type of technology when seeking to identify and implement high‐quality ideas.

In terms of management communication, an effective decision‐maker takes advantage of the

technique best suited to the problem at hand. The manager facilitates the process, and documents

the best ideas. Then, the manager gives credit to the individual or group that generates exciting new

alternatives. Doing so encourages participation and creativity in future decisions.

Company statements affect the context in which creative endeavors take place. Organizational values,

such as those toward risk‐taking, in luence the alternatives that emerge from decision‐making

processes. A risk‐aversive company likely will not generate those types of options, especially when

that preference has been transmitted to employees. In the Tiger Woods case, alternative generation

may have been affected partly by gender, as women tended to react more strongly to the allegations

of misconduct (ESPN.com, 2010), making consensus more dif icult to achieve. Diversity of opinions

can in luence the creativity process. Less‐diverse organizations may be limited in terms of

discovering alternatives from perspectives in other cultures, subcultures, and ways of problem‐

solving.

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Figure 5.1: The risk/uncertainty relationship

The greater the degree of uncertainty in a

decision, the greater the degree of risk.

What methods can be used to creatively generate decision alternatives?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Methods include brainstorming, nominal groups, analogies, inding the lowest common

denominator, and seeking an outside perspective.

When managers proceed to the evaluation stage, the

pros and cons of each alternative should be listed.

Many decisions are reached by choosing the alternative

with the best advantage‐to‐disadvantage ratio. Two

factors in luence the evaluation of alternatives:

uncertainty and risk.

Uncertainty means that incomplete information will

be available to make a decision. Greater uncertainty

means managers have less information and do not

know with con idence how the implementation of an

alternative will turn out. Risk represents

circumstances under which uncertainty is high.

Managers must know if they are operating in a

risk‐taking company or one that avoids risks. Entire

national cultures are evaluated on the basis of

acceptance or avoidance of risk, or of tolerance for

ambiguity. Guatemala, Japan, Greece, Portugal, and

Uruguay are among the most risk‐aversive trading

nations. Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance often have governments that seek to minimize

uncertainty through strict laws and rules as well as safety and security measures (Workman, 2008).

In management communication, evaluating alternatives requires exemplary listening skills. An

effective decision‐maker does not dominate discussions of alternatives, recognizing that all involved

have a stake in the outcome. Ignoring or disparaging the viewpoints of others is counterproductive.

Encouraging and praising rich, active participation improves the evaluation process.

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Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Compare any solution chosen to

the "Do nothing" criterion, such

as when medical doctors follow

the maxim "First, do no harm."

Transparency in decision‐making means that internal and external stakeholders and groups should

be aware of what transpires, and that company leaders communicate this information in an honest,

clear, and complete manner without violating the organization's desire for con identiality and

minimizing disclosure risks (Miami University, 2011). Transparency in luences internal and external

perceptions of the organization and helps make the evaluation of alternatives honest and realistic by

those involved.

Explain the relationship between uncertainty and risk when evaluating decision

alternatives. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Uncertainty means that incomplete information will be available to make a decision. Greater

uncertainty means managers have less information and do not know with con idence how

the implementation of an alternative will turn out. Risk represents circumstances under

which uncertainty is high.

When choosing a solution, three items merit consideration. First,

managers recognize that solutions are combinations of

alternatives rather than selecting a single option. Finding sets of

ideas that work together should be the objective.

Second, compare any chosen solution to the "Do nothing"

criterion. In other words, the manager makes sure the alternative

offers an advantage over taking no action. Medical doctors follow

the maxim "First, do no harm." At times, it is simply best to let the

patient heal without intervention. Sports executives follow the

premise, "Sometimes the best trade is the one you don't make."

Third, managers should state their reasoning as the alternative(s)

are chosen. This way, the manager can defend his or her choice at

some later point. With regard to management communication,

many executives maintain decision logs or journals that spell out

why a course of action was chosen, should they be asked by others to explain their reasoning. The

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process provides an additional layer of transparency to the decision‐making process.

A successful plan demands more than simply deciding which alternative to pursue. Managers then

follow through, making sure it is logically and ef iciently put into action. Implementing plans

involves the use of "Ws" and "Hs," as displayed in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Ws and Hs of implementation

Who is in charge?

What is to be done?

When should each step of implementation take place

(timing issues)?

Where will the solution be implemented?

How should we proceed (sequence of events)?

Why are we doing this (explanation to all parties

involved in the implementation process)?

Management communication skills constitute critical elements in implementing decisions. Without a

clear course of action, a viable solution may lose its potential to succeed. Written and verbal

communications are needed to make sure all involved know how to proceed with the solution that

has been chosen.

What are the Ws and Hs of decision implementation? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Who is in charge? What is to be done? When should each step of implementation take place

(timing issues)? Where will the solution be implemented? How should we proceed (sequence

of events)? Why are we doing this (explanation to all parties involved in the implementation

process)?

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Although the six steps listed earlier provide a clear‐cut format for the evaluation of problems and

the development of solutions, effective managerial decision‐makers know that ive factors can

disrupt the process. Expectations, emotions, employee attitudes, company politics, and a mismatch

between the decision‐maker and the decision comprise the primary threats to high‐quality decisions.

Expectations can interfere with the reasoning process when making decisions. An employee may feel

compelled to make the decision that a supervisor would prefer, even though it is not the best

alternative. Expectations of peers, or peer pressure, often lead to poor decisions, especially in the

areas of ethical questions. At times, a supervisor may bend to the wishes of subordinates in order to

remain in good standing with them.

Two emotions constitute threats to decision‐making: Anger clouds thinking and can lead to

impulsive, poor choices. Melancholy also threatens the process as the decision‐maker fails to

carefully consider alternatives.

Employee attitudes can predispose individuals to reject viable alternatives. Attitudes affect thoughts

about gender equality, racial equality, sexual orientation, political parties, and many other issues. At

times these may in luence decisions. For instance, a person who has lost a loved one in an

automobile accident with a drunken driver may have strong attitudes about alcohol consumption at

company events.

Company politics often interfere with decisions related to power and money. Decision‐makers may

be tempted to reach conclusions that bene it themselves or their departments rather than the larger

organization.

A mismatch between the decision‐maker and the decision means that the wrong person was placed

in charge of making the choice. As an illustration, someone who enjoys taking risks may not be the

ideal person to manage a company's inancial portfolio. An individual who avoids risks will not be

the best person to decide on a bold strategy such as exporting or developing a new line of products.

The role of management communication in these issues consists of discovering potential problems

in the decision‐making process. When it becomes clear that expectations are leading to poor choices,

managers need to communicate this and address the problem. Managers should be aware of

employee emotions during the decision‐making process as well as their own emotions. Effective

communicators unveil employee attitudes that are, or have become, counterproductive. Managers

recognize the ways in which company politics can lead to poor decisions in their speci ic

organizations. Decision‐makers should be carefully selected. A person should excuse himself when

he is not the ideal candidate to make a given decision.

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What factors can disrupt quality decision‐making? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Expectations, emotions, employee attitudes, company politics, and a mismatch between the

decision‐maker and the decision comprise the primary threats to high‐quality decisions.

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Deductive reasoning moves from

general to speci ic, by process of

elimination.

Effective decision‐making results from analytical, critical thinking. One skill that can improve your

ability to make sound decisions on the job is the ability to correctly apply critical thinking methods

to situations that you encounter. The two types of critical thinking or reasoning processes that assist

in decision‐making are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning moves from speci ic to general. A phrase associated with inductive reasoning

would be, "Based on what I have observed, I am led to believe. . ." In the business community, a

manager may observe a salesperson irst ignoring a customer, then gruf ly greeting the individual,

and inally making a sale in an impersonal, distant manner. Should the pattern repeat, the manager

might be led to believe the salesperson should be either retrained or terminated. Many times,

decision‐makers use induction to identify problems that need to be solved. When three or four

symptoms can logically be connected with a root cause of the problem, induction has been used. For

example, a website that has been hacked, then later crashes, and continually frustrates those

attempting to use the system, may result in the notion that a new computer system or web master is

needed.

Deductive reasoning moves from general to speci ic, by process

of elimination. Arguments based on laws, rules, or other widely

accepted principles are best expressed deductively. For example,

Fred was observed taking of ice supplies home on two occasions.

Company policies speci ically prohibit taking of ice supplies out of

the building. Two other employees have been terminated for

violating company policies. Therefore, Fred should also be

terminated.

Deductive reasoning in decision‐making often takes place as

alternatives are being evaluated. Gradually, the least viable

alternatives are irst eliminated using some type of principle (cost,

time, dif iculty, odds of success). Eventually, the best alternative

remains and will be chosen. The term cost‐bene it analysis re lects

deductive reasoning as alternatives are examined. The choice with

the highest ratio of bene its to costs will be considered the most viable, when all other factors are

equal. Cost‐bene it analysis is often useful when making budget allocation decisions, for example.

The six steps of decision‐making, when coupled with inductive and deductive reasoning processes,

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can lead to the best problem statement, novel alternatives, and quality criteria for making choices.

Management communications skills facilitate the use of the rational approach and reasoning

processes by all involved in the decision.

What two forms of critical thinking or reasoning can be used in decision‐making?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The two types of critical thinking or reasoning processes assist in decision‐making are

inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

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Persuasion may be considered both an art and a science. Some individuals instinctively know how to

in luence others. At the same time, persuasion techniques can be learned and applied. When matters

arise within a company about which course of action to take, logically there will be instances of

disagreement. Members of teams and groups designated to make decisions, as well as single

individuals assigned the responsibility of making decisions, must at times persuade others that the

action or resolution they prefer will lead to better outcomes. In essence, some decisions include

elements of persuasion as part of the process. Further, a team or group of leaders may agree on a

solution to the problem, yet other groups, such as lower‐ranking employees or the general public,

may not. Once again, persuasion becomes an element of decision‐making and management

communications.

Persuasion often accompanies a change in a company. As noted, organizational inertia constitutes

systematic resistance to change. Also, con lict over change can result from a genuine disagreement

over a company policy or action, turf‐building or political turf wars, or often from personality

differences. Effective persuasion involves two major elements: determining desirable objectives and

outcomes, and choosing the best methods to achieve those goals.

Prior to the development of any communication intended to persuade an audience, the manager

should specify the objectives and intended outcomes of the message. To do so, the manager irst

analyzes the audience that will receive the message. A persuasive communication piece can target:

people in favor of a position or action

individuals opposed to the position or action

persons who know of the issue but have not formed an opinion

individuals who do not know about the issue

The persuasion objective for each group will be different. Also, members of each group will be

reached with a different type of message. Three common persuasion objectives are to reinforce

positive opinion, crystallize latent opinion, and neutralize hostile opinion.

Reinforce Positive Opinion

One goal of persuasion can be to maintain the status quo in the face of calls for change. A company

that has employed a new strategic or tactical approach may encounter turbulence at irst. For

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Reinforcing positive opinion in a shareholder

meeting or some other forum means speaking

to the most enthusiastic segment of the

audience.

example, Priceline.com developed an entirely new

method for selling hotel rooms and airline tickets,

based on a "reverse auction" approach, in which

customers are encouraged to "Name your own price."

Even with the public presence of actor William Shatner

making the company highly visible, pro itability was

dif icult to achieve and maintain. Reinforcing positive

opinion, in that circumstance, involves identifying

those most committed to the new business model.

Reinforcing positive opinion in a shareholder meeting

or some other forum means speaking to the most

enthusiastic segment of the audience. When exposed

to the views of this segment, other individuals who

have not yet formed an opinion may become more

willing to listen with an open mind. Reinforcing positive opinion helps create a " irewall" to help

fend off ill‐advised calls for change.

Crystallize Latent Opinion

In the same manner as many political elections, those who are "undecided" often receive

considerable attention. The undecided segment often represents the bloc that will eventually

determine whether a persuasive argument will succeed. To crystallize latent opinion, managers try

to present cogent, accurate information that serves the needs of that group. When one side of an

argument reaches the undecided set irst, that side gains an advantage both in terms of persuading

them and the entire audience.

Consider, for example, a debate over whether a company should move toward becoming employee‐

owned. Some will strongly oppose the idea; others will strongly favor it. The side that tends to win

will be the one, using whatever key information is available, that persuades those who are not sure

what to think.

Neutralize Hostile Opinion

In many circumstances, a group evolves that remains completely opposed to an idea or activity.

Nothing will change their minds. The goal for this group will be containment. Persons with

diametrically opposed ideas about how to solve a problem or deal with an issue often seek to

persuade those who are neutral or undecided. The more passionate this group becomes, the

stronger must be the response, in order to stop a shift to the opposing point of view. Strategies for

containing the opposition are careful explanation of the facts, enlisting support from segments that

agree with your perspective, dissecting the language of the other side, pointing out in lammatory

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remarks not based in fact, pointing out the biases and false assumptions made by the opposition,

and providing additional information and discussion of why your perspective is the most logical.

At times, refuting hostile opinion may degenerate into loud arguments. Tactics for coping with these

moments include these approaches:

Find and express common ground.

Never personally attack an individual in the audience.

Avoid clichés and examples that can turn against you.

Make sure your facts are accurate and your arguments are logical; in other words, know what

you are talking about.

Don't make quick judgments about what the audience believes; research and analyze the

audience carefully.

Be clear and concise.

Don't let the audience guess what you believe or what your arguments are in advance.

To achieve these ends, remove yourself from the angry part of the conversation and concentrate on

the disagreement itself while trying to stay calm. It may help to rephrase the point before answering

in order to reduce hostility (Walker, 2011). Carefully listen to the other's point of view in a

respectful manner and then try to diffuse the point carefully. It may help to enlist the audience in

dealing with an overly aggressive response.

Brie ly describe the three primary persuasion objectives.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Three common persuasion objectives are to reinforce positive opinion, crystallize latent

opinion, and neutralize hostile opinion.

Three desired outcomes associated with persuasion objectives are creating new attitudes, modifying

or altering existing attitudes, and reinforcing existing attitudes. An attitude summarizes an

individual's predisposition toward an object, person, or idea.

Attitudes contain three components: cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive component of

an attitude results from reasoning processes and exposures to facts. One can intellectually

understand that scienti ic research demonstrates the linkage between second‐hand smoke and lung

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Medioimages/Photodisc

The affective component of an attitude is the

emotional element.

disease. The affective component of an attitude is the

emotional element. Experiencing the suffering of a

loved one enduring emphysema may lead a person to

exhibit a much more visceral response to being

exposed to second‐hand smoke. The conative

component of an attitude results in action or

behavior. Petitioning a company to ban smoking

anywhere on company grounds provides tangible

evidence of the attitude through the conative

component (Brief, 1998).

Creating new attitudes constitutes the most dif icult

persuasion outcome to achieve. Normally, attempts to

create new attitudes focus on the cognitive and affective components. In some business decisions,

managers use reasoning and facts to convince others that changes are needed. For example, over

time, attitudes about the reality of global climate change have shifted for an increasing majority of

the population. With this in mind, managers can use reasoning and facts to convince employees that

more energy‐ef icient production techniques—while more expensive—are still a good idea.

Creating new attitudes through affective reasoning involves connecting a new attitude with a

powerful emotion. Managers may use appeals to personal loyalty, patriotism, duty to family, love,

friendship, and other emotions to make arguments supporting changes in attitudes.

Modifying or altering existing attitudes will normally be less challenging. For example, over time,

business attitudes toward dress and personal adornment (tattoos, piercings) have relaxed. The

United States military has shifted attitudes toward personal adornment over time and, more

recently, toward sexual orientation. Modifying existing attitudes can be achieved through the use of

all three attitudinal components. Facts and reasoning may be used; emotional appeals can be

developed; or behavior can simply be changed or altered over time.

Reinforcing existing attitudes means con irming viewpoints that already exist. Preventing

"backsliding" or shifting away from current positions becomes the goal. Reinforcement can take the

form of role modeling of behaviors as well as praise for those who continue to hold a current

attitude. Again, the three components of attitudes may all be targets of reinforcing messages.

Persuasion objectives and outcomes have a considerable amount in common. Both seek to reinforce

or strengthen existing support for a position, capture the attention and support of those who have

not formed an opinion or are undecided, and fend off persuasion attempts by those with differing

opinions. Effective verbal and written communication skills help someone achieve these results. The

choice of method constitutes the next key ingredient in persuasion.

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Figure 5.2: Layers of personality

De ine "attitude" and brie ly describe the three main components of attitudes.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An attitude summarizes an individual's predisposition toward an object, person, or idea.

Attitudes contain three components: cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive

component of an attitude results from reasoning processes and exposures to facts. The

affective component of an attitude is the emotional element. The conative component of an

attitude results in action or behavior.

When attempting to persuade a group of people to change a point of view, two basic approaches

may be used: behaviorism and cognitivism. The two approaches suggest different methods by which

individuals may be induced to respond in new ways to various ideas.

The behaviorism approach to persuasion focuses on actual behaviors, assuming the notion that

thought processes cannot be observed. The mind represents a "black box" that cannot be penetrated.

Behaviors can be seen and shaped. Therefore, working only with the observable offers the quickest

path to achieving results. The use of reinforcements or behavioral consequence is the key.

Individuals who exhibit desired behaviors receive positive reinforcements or rewards. Individuals

who continue to perform undesirable behaviors receive no rewards or merit punishment. As time

passes, desired behaviors become more common (Skinner, 1953, 1974).

The essence of persuasion, in behaviorist terminology, is "change the behavior and the attitude will

follow." For example, a longstanding argument in management literature concerns the relationship

between worker satisfaction and worker performance. Early management research argued that

satisfaction drives performance. Therefore, to increase performance, workers must irst be satis ied

with their jobs, or "change the attitude and the behavior will follow."

Unfortunately, satisfaction cannot be observed. It is a

construct, or "convenient iction" according to Skinner

and other behaviorists. Increases in performance are

observable. Therefore, the logical approach would be

to ind methods to improve worker performance,

reward those efforts in tangible ways, and eventually

workers will report greater levels of satisfaction, or,

"change the behavior and the attitude will follow."

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Opinions, attitudes, and values represent the

components of a belief system with varying

degrees of dif iculty associated with trying to

change them.

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism suggests that

behaviors serve only as indicators of what has irst

transpired mentally. One cognitive approach to

persuasion, the Monroe sequence, suggests a ive‐step

process to persuade an audience. The irst step,

attention, involves capturing the attention of the

audience in some manner, such as with an interesting

anecdote, the presentation of a dif icult situation, or an

interesting rhetorical question. Second, building a want

or need requires the speaker to instill the desire in the

audience by pointing out the need, illustrating how the

audience might experience the need, and showing the

impact or rami ication of the need. The third step,

satisfaction, involves an explanation of how the need

can be met and countering any opposing arguments.

Fourth, visualization occurs when the speaker helps

the audience see how the proposed remedy will satisfy

the need and the negative rami ications if the remedy

is not undertaken. Fifth and inally, a call to action seeks to drive the audience beyond a change in

attitude to an actual change in behavior (Berry, 2011; ChangingMinds.org, 2011). The Monroe‐

motivated sequence has been compared to the AIDA model presented in the next section. Figure 5.2

portrays a framework of mental reasoning related to concepts of persuasion.

As shown in Figure 5.2, opinions are at the fringe of a belief system. They are the least stable and

the most susceptible to persuasive efforts. Through various persuasion techniques, such as logical

reasoning or emotional appeals, an opinion can be changed. For instance, many consumers irst

worried that online purchases were risky, because personal information could easily be stolen, much

in the same way that members of the previous generation were reluctant to make telephone

purchases using credit cards. Over time, opinions that ecommerce is unsafe have been replaced,

through advertising messages, the experiences of friends that successfully made online purchases,

and inally through personal experience.

Attitudes are more centrally held concepts. They are

more dif icult to change because they represent more

stable elements of a person's reasoning process and

view of the world. As noted, someone who has lost a

loved one to lung cancer may hold the attitude that

smoking should be banned from the entire work site,

including the outdoors surrounding the building.

Workplace attitudes can become sources of con lict.

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Beliefs, or strong convictions regarding the

truths of statements or phenomena, are at the

inner core of an individual's personality.

Views about politics, religion, global climate change

and environmentalism, the roles of women in society,

support or opposition to unions, and other topics fall

under the realm of attitudes. Changing them requires

more persistent reasoning and often time.

Beliefs, or strong convictions regarding the truths of statements or phenomena, are at the inner core

of an individual's personality. Beliefs are acquired from highly trusted sources such as parents,

teachers, and religious leaders. More profound subjects frame beliefs, such as religious values, family,

patriotism, and even political positions. Persuasion attempts normally will not change a person's

beliefs.

The three layers, opinions, attitudes, and beliefs, are connected to each other as well as to a person's

self‐concept. In luencing one with persuasion attempts will also affect the other layers. Should a

person's belief set actually change, you can expect a profound in luence on all of the other layers

(Bem, 1970).

In summary, the two approaches to persuasion differ in that one focuses on behaviors and the other

focuses on thoughts. Methods employed to persuade audiences will concentrate more on one aspect

or the other. At the same time, the most effective approaches include both aspects of the individual's

make‐up. Behaviorist approaches concentrate on the conative or behavioral aspects of attitudes.

Cognitivism examines the cognitive/rational and affective/emotional attitudinal elements.

What are the two primary approaches to persuasion? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The behaviorism approach to persuasion focuses on actual behaviors, assuming the notion

that thought processes cannot be observed. Cognitivism suggests that behaviors only serve as

indicators of what has irst transpired mentally.

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Persuasion or argumentation consists of two ingredients: a claim that is made and evidence that

supports the claim. Combining the two into a coherent presentation becomes the key challenge. In

both verbal and written persuasion attempts, the key will be to follow two elements in the process,

following the steps involved and incorporating the best persuasion methods.

Management communication efforts, including persuasion, are more likely to succeed when careful

planning and execution take place. The steps of persuasion are preparation, unfreezing attitudes,

moving attitudes, and refreezing attitudes. Each element must be coordinated with the others to

achieve optimal results.

Name the steps involved in the persuasion process. (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The steps of persuasion are preparation, unfreezing attitudes, moving attitudes, and

refreezing attitudes.

Preparation: Gaining Attention and Providing Motivation

Successful managers recognize the power of preparation. When seeking to make persuasive

arguments, preparation involves correctly combining the ingredients required. Four elements are

combined during the preparation process: the audience, the message, the medium, and the

persuasion objective. Managers can use the AIDA model, which was irst developed by E. St. Elmo

Lewis, to develop a persuasive message (as cited in Bennett, Cunningham, & Dees, 2006). AIDA

stands for the sequence Attention—Interest—Desire—Action. The model has often been used to

create persuasive advertisements as well as in other settings.

Attention must be gained before a persuasive argument can begin. The audience must want to hear

what you have to say about a problem, idea, or proposal, or else the persuasion attempt will fail.

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Purestock/Thinkstock

Interest draws the audience in by attaching the subject to things they value. Creating interest

includes adding details that more fully engage the audience in your presentation.

Desire results from exposing the audience to claims and evidence supporting a speci ic position.

Strong desire results when audience members begin to believe that your proposed course of action

is in some way favorable to them.

Action takes place when the audience clearly understands what to do and the activity will be easy

enough to pursue. An effective "call to action" will be based on the motivation created in the desire

phase and will direct the audience to a speci ic task or behavior. Proposing a deadline assists in

inspiring greater motivation.

Unfreeze Attitudes

Kurt Lewin's (1943; 1997) model of attitudinal change begins with unfreezing existing attitudes. A

successful persuasive argument begins by convincing the audience that their previously held

perspective has laws or may create problems in some way. Unfreezing attitudes begins with

capturing attention. As noted in Chapter 3, attracting attention can take the form of a personal

anecdote, shocking statement, rhetorical question, suggestion of a company crisis, famous quotation,

or reference to an historical event.

The second element in unfreezing attitudes, force ield analysis, involves identifying and spelling out

the forces that call for change and those that push back against those forces. The audience must

become motivated to believe that forces for change are stronger than any resistance. At that point it

becomes possible to move attitudes.

Move Attitudes

Moving persons toward revised or new attitudes may be accomplished using one or more of the

three types of persuasive appeals. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) suggested that persuasive messages

contain logos, ethos, and pathos. Two of these three methods link with the components of attitudes.

Logos refers to the use of logical appeals to move

attitudes. The target will be the cognitive component

of the attitude. Logic introduced inductively or

deductively seeks to move the audience toward a new

point of view. Supported by facts and evidence that are

correct and carefully chosen, logos derives its power

from convincing the audience through dispassionate

reasoning.

Ethos refers to an ethical appeal based on expertise or

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With pathos, the speaker must ind a way to

demonstrate the superiority of a position

while at the same time evoking emotions,

such as showing an image of someone in pain

while making statements about a company's

workplace safety procedures.

credible information. Citing academic research and

scienti ic studies represents this approach. Lewin

notes that ethos will be stronger when the audience

knows the expert source. For example, an audience

that is familiar with marketing notable Philip Kottler

will be more persuaded by quotes from him or his

books. President Barack Obama, during the 2011

budget/debt ceiling crisis debate, framed part of his key televised speech by citing President Ronald

Reagan in an attempt to make a point and move the attitudes of those on the Republican side of the

deliberations.

Pathos involves more than simply being emotional. The speaker or presenter must ind a story,

picture, or episode that demonstrates the superiority of his or her position while at the same time

evokes emotions. Images such as someone in pain due to a physical injury may be tied to statements

about the impact of a company's decisions to strengthen workplace safety procedures. The pathos

appeal reaches the affective component of attitudes. Sometimes just connecting the numbers to an

impact on people can provide the pathos element of a persuasive strategy.

A foreman making the case to workers to follow safety guidelines at all times could employ the

three aspects together. In this instance, logos takes the form of citing statistics about workplace

injuries when procedures are not followed. Ethos explains how the guidelines were developed and

how they keep workers safe. Pathos involves telling the story about someone who was hurt and

could not return to work.

The inal element of moving attitudes involves anticipating objections. Many times these will be

raised during or after a presentation has been made. Methods used to ight off counter‐persuasion

include stating the opposing point of view and refuting it, encouraging audience commitment to

your perspective, and warning the audience that others will try to dissuade them (Vasallo, 2002;

Booher, 1994).

De ine logos, ethos, and pathos. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Logos refers to the use of logical appeals to move attitudes. Ethos refers to an ethical appeal

based on expertise or credible information. Pathos involves more than simply being

emotional. The speaker or presenter must ind a story, picture, or episode that demonstrates

the superiority of his or her position while at the same time evokes emotions.

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Refreeze Attitudes

Refreezing attitudes takes place at the conclusion of a persuasive presentation. In addition to a call

to action, give the audience reassurance that they are about to engage in a positive activity. As the

name "refreezing" suggests, this stage is about establishing stability once the changes have been

made. The changes have been accepted and become the new norm. People form new relationships

and become comfortable with new routines, which can take time. It should be noted that the

refreezing stage of Lewin's model has been criticized. Solidifying a new perspective may not be

possible, especially in today's more dynamic business environment. At the same time, without a call

to action, the other elements of attitudinal change become far less valuable.

A variety of media are available to managers seeking to persuade audiences. The key will be to

match the medium to the target audience. At times, a single individual will need to be persuaded. In

others, it will be a department or some other subgroup of the company. In others still, the entire

organization may require persuasive attempts. The media available for persuasive messages are

displayed in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Persuasion media

Written Channels Verbal Channels Supplemental Channel

Letters/memos/emails Formal face‐to‐face Informal communication

Proposals Phone call

Videoconferencing/conference call

Meetings (virtual and in‐person)

Presentations (virtual and in‐person)

Written Channels

Written channels are more viable for less‐emotional issues as well as circumstances in which facts

and reasoning are the core element of the presentation. Letters, memos, and emails often follow the

format displayed in Table 5.5. Key ingredients to effective written persuasive messages include

simplicity and clarity (Caldini, 2007).

Table 5.5: Persuasive letters

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Opening Capture interest

Align with audience's goals

Body

Proposed solution

Overcome possible objections

Match solution to the reader's needs

Close Channel proposal into a speci ic action

Encourage prompt response

Sources: Hilton, C. B., Motes, W. H., & Fielden, J. S. (1989). An experimental study of the effects of style and

organization on reader perceptions of text. Journal of Business Communication, 19(3), Summer, 35–50. Gilsdorf, J.

(1991). Write me your best case for. . . . Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication, LIV, March, 7–12.

Proposals often are attempts to convince others to take action. Internal reports seek to persuade

those in the company to respond to an issue or problem or to take advantage of an opportunity.

Normally, internal proposals utilize a less‐complex form of presentation structure, as was noted in

Chapter 4.

Proposals made to other companies normally include elements designed to make a sale or to create

some form of collaboration. The presentation format will be more sophisticated. At the same time,

simplicity and clarity remain guiding principles. To assist in creating the most persuasive type of

proposal, the use of visuals adds richness to the written channel and can help the target audience

better understand a claim and its supporting evidence.

Figure 5.3: A persuasive letter

A persuasive letter contains an opening that captures interest, a body that provides a solution, and a

close that encourages action or a quick response.

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Letterhead

August 2, 2012

Melissa Jones, Human Resources

Art Supply, Incorporated

2000 North 41st Avenue

Suite 211

Los Angeles, CA 55555

Re: In‐house day care proposal

Dear Ms. Jones,

Greetings from our Kansas City of ice. Although you and I have never met, I have

heard wonderful descriptions of the ways in which you have improved our company's

entire human resources operation. I look forward to the day when we can visit in

person.

In today's employment marketplace, as I'm certain you know, the reputation of being

a "family friendly" company can be a signi icant corporate asset. The purpose of my

correspondence is to make a case for in‐house day care in the Kansas City facility,

with the ultimate goal of improving our family friendly status.

The Kansas City facility employs approximately 200 individuals who pack and ill

art‐supply orders to our educational, institutional, and retail customers. Of those 200

employees, over 35 percent are parents of children who are in preschool or

elementary education. We recently surveyed these workers and discovered that the

primary reason for absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover in this group was related to

delivering children to day care or after‐school care, or not being able to afford the

cost of day care.

Our corporate mission statement includes this objective: "We want to be known as a

company where employees and their families are a top priority." We can help achieve

this goal in a tangible, meaningful, responsible way by assisting in child‐care efforts.

I believe that, at a modest cost, we can increase productivity levels among these

employees while improving morale. The fourth loor of our facility houses excess

inventory and other materials that could be easily moved elsewhere. The cost of

renovating that loor to turn it into an in‐house day care for preschool and an after‐

school room for those in elementary school would be approximately $150,000. This

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would include adding a kitchen and "sick" room.

Staf ing requirements for such a program would be one child‐care specialist per 12

children. In Kansas City, that would mean hiring ive people.

You might ask, "Can we afford this?" My response would be, "Can we afford not to do

this?" Our retention of quality employees would rise, if our company could solve this

one simple challenge for them. Our reputation for being a great employer in the KC

Metro area also would be strengthened.

For these reasons, I urge you to visit us here and then return the home of ice with a

detailed proposal to add this facility. I will make time to introduce you to the

wonderful people we employ and to conduct a full analysis of our situation.

Thank you for your time. I hope to hear from you soon.

With warm regards,

Margaret Johnson, Facility Manager

maj

cc: Olivia Rodriguez, CEO

Verbal Channels

Many times, persuasion takes place through the use of conversations, speeches, sales pitches, and

other prepared remarks. Remember that verbal channels enjoy the bene it of richness, because

visual elements combine with verbal cues. Paralanguage and gestures can make an argument more

compelling.

In face‐to‐face persuasive attempts, three elements make it possible to in luence the audience (see

Table 5.6). First, likability grants the opportunity to engage in a less‐confrontational manner.

Managers who develop quality relationships with employees may have an easier time convincing

them in regard to an issue or change. Second, believability and credibility come from expertise and

experience. Successful employees and managers gain an advantage in making convincing arguments

to peers and subordinates. Third, bonds grow as you spend more time with the same person. The

role of trust in persuasion should not be underestimated.

Table 5.6: Audience persuasion techniques

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Persuaded by someone you like

Persuaded by someone you believe

Persuaded by the one who is close

Source: Cialdini, R. B. (1984). In luence: The New Psychology of Modern

Permission. New York, NY: Quill.

When persuasion targets a group or department, the speaker should irst remember that he or she

might initially be in the minority. In other words, the audience may be composed of neutral and

hostile members. Therefore, for more contentious issues, one strategy is to approach the group not

alone, but rather with one other manager who will support your position.

Table 5.7 lists tactics oriented toward groups that focus on social conformity as the motive for

change or persuasion. When possible, reliance on an admired individual creates an ally for a

persuasive argument. If part of the audience agrees with your vantage point, then peer pressure may

serve as a valuable tool to gain acceptance of a point of view. Societal norms assist arguments that

involve the company as a citizen in the community.

Table 5.7: Sources of group persuasion through social conformity

Source Motivational Force

Admired

Individuals

Audience impressed by persons of higher rank, high performers,

industry leaders, likable individuals

Peer Pressure Desire to it in; common interests; pressure for conformity; group norms

Societal Norms Desire to be a good citizen; societal acceptance

Source: Larson, C. U. (1992). Persuasion: Reception and Responsibility (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Press.

When making verbal presentations to groups, recall that an effective persuasive speech or verbal

proposal involves careful use of several factors:

pitch, volume, and rate of delivery

vocal variety

articulation

pauses and silence

luency

Pitch, volume, and rate of delivery must be maintained within a range from low to high vocal tones

and rates of speech that do not imply feeling intimidated or angry, or convey a sense of panic. Vocal

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variety relies on varying rates of pitch, volume, and rate of speech. In a manner similar to musical

presentation, building to a crescendo involves starting low and slow, and building to a peak or key

point. Then a decrescendo slowly lowers rate, pitch, and volume. A persuasive speaker uses these

tools to emphasize emotions and key points.

Articulation means speaking clearly and avoiding confusion. Someone who mumbles and stumbles

quickly loses credibility with the audience. Articulation, for many speakers, involves rate of delivery.

By slowing down, it becomes easier to clearly state words and succinctly make an overall argument.

Pauses and silence allow the audience time to process assertions, claims, and supporting evidence.

Effective and persuasive presenters rely on silence to punctuate verbal messages. For example, after

reaching a crescendo, the speaker can pause for effect, making eye contact with audience members

to reinforce the importance of the point he or she just made, and then return to a more

conversational tone.

Fluency represents the opposite of distractions and verbal hedges. A presenter who continually says

"um," or "uh," or repeats words over and over, such as "like," and "ya know," sounds disorganized

and lacking in con idence. These distractions take away from the power and in luence of a

presentation designed to change people's minds. With so many potential approaches, a manager

should consider which one best aligns with his or her personal style as he or she employs

persuasive strategies and techniques.

Verbal presentations can be based on three methods of presentation (see Table 5.8). The speaker

should choose the approach that best suits the audience and the objective of the presentation.

Table 5.8: Persuasive verbal presentations

Format Method

Problem‐Solving (Inductive) Educate audience about the nature of the problem

Provide the remedy or solution

State the Case and Prove It

(Deductive)

Develop a central thesis with supporting arguments

Provide substantiation and facts

Psychological Progressive Pattern

Arouse and capture attention

Dissatisfy to display the problem

Gratify with a recommendation and endorsement

Visualize by showing how the recommendation will

work

Provide an action to take

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Source: Howell, W. S., & Bormann, E. G. (1971). Presentational Speaking for Business and the Professions. New York,

NY: Harper & Row.

Nonverbal elements are relevant as well. A speaker seeking to make a point can use de initive

gestures, make solid eye contact with audience members, step closer to the audience at key points,

and make certain his or her vocal pitch and intensity matches the body's posture or other

movements.

Identify the three primary media used in persuasion. (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Written channels include letters, memos, emails, and proposals. Verbal channels are formal

face‐to‐face, video‐ or teleconferencing, virtual and in‐person meetings, and virtual and

in‐person presentations. Informal communication constitutes a supplemental channel.

Many academic disciplines study attitudinal change with various objectives in mind. Psychology,

social psychology, sociology, and business experts have all examined persuasion methods. From

these studies, several factors have emerged as interpersonal forces that can aid in making a point

and changing a personal or group mindset. The interpersonal considerations identi ied include:

liking

reciprocity

social proof

consistency

authority

scarcity

As has been noted, when you like someone, it becomes easier for that person to convince you to

change your mind. Reciprocity involves an exchange. Persuasion in business settings often involves

leading the audience to believe there is "something in it for them." Social proof is much the same as

social conformity—we are more likely to be in luenced by peers in many communal settings.

Consistency re lects reasoning processes that do not deviate from previous assertions. A person who

makes arguments that are "all over the place" loses credibility due to inconsistent statements.

Authority has been noted as one element in persuasion related to ethos. Scarcity can be connected

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to time constraints. Setting deadlines and outlining speci ic courses of action take advantage of

scarcity tactics.

The inal element in any persuasion attempt is to review your approach prior to making any attempt

at convincing others. All types of persuasion contain common elements. Table 5.9 identi ies six keys

to persuasion.

Table 5.9: Keys to persuasion

1. Know the audience

2. Identify your objectives and the objectives of the

audience

3. Present persuasive evidence

4. Keep the argument simple

5. Listen carefully to objections and responses

6. Keep your emotions under control

By following these principles, the odds increase that you will in luence the views of others through

persuasive arguments, while remembering that ultimately the listener persuades him or herself and

that your power is limited to your in luence.

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A decision is a choice between alternative courses of action. Numerous business and management

communication skills affect the quality of the decision‐making process, including listening, effective

discussions, creativity, and verbal and written skills for the purposes of implementation. Two

primary decision‐making models are the rational/analytical thinking approach and intuitive

decision‐making.

When making decisions, following six well‐known steps provides a rational approach. Decision‐

makers should state the problem, name limitations, generate alternatives, evaluate those alternatives,

choose a solution, and prepare a plan of implementation. Creativity represents a key aspect of

generating alternatives. Managers should be aware of the pitfalls facing effective decision‐making,

which include expectations, emotions, employee attitudes, company politics, and a mismatch

between the decision‐maker and the decision. Critical thinking becomes a part of the decision‐

making process when inductive or deductive reasoning is used.

When matters arise within a company about which course of action to take, persuasion enters into

managerial communication processes. A persuasive communication message can target people in

favor of a position, those opposed, individuals who have not formed an opinion, and employees who

do not know about the issue. Three common persuasion objectives are to reinforce positive opinion,

crystallize latent opinion, and neutralize hostile opinion. Desired outcomes include creating new

attitudes, modifying existing attitudes, and reinforcing existing attitudes. An attitude summarizes an

individual's position toward an objective, person, or idea and consists of cognitive, affective, and

conative components. Two approaches to persuasion are behaviorism and cognitivism.

The steps of persuasion include preparation, unfreezing attitudes, moving attitudes, and refreezing

attitudes. When seeking to move attitudes, logos, pathos, and ethos approaches may be employed.

Persuasion media include written channels, verbal channels, and a supplemental channel. Written

channels consist of letters, memos, emails, and proposals. Verbal channels include formal

face‐to‐face, phone calls, video or teleconferencing, and meetings. Informal communication offers a

method to supplement formal messages.

affective component (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

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The part of an attitude that is the emotional element.

attitude (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Summarizes an individual's predisposition toward an object, person, or idea.

behaviorism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An approach to persuasion that focuses on actual behaviors.

cognitive component (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The part of an attitude that results from reasoning processes and exposures to facts.

cognitivism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An approach to persuasion in which behaviors only serve as indicators of what transpired mentally.

conative component (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The part of an attitude that results in action or behavior.

decision (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A choice between two or more potential courses of action.

deductive reasoning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Reasoning that moves from general to speci ic, by process of elimination.

ethos (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An ethical appeal based on expertise or credible information.

inductive reasoning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Reasoning that moves from speci ic to general, as one is "led to believe" or conclude that something

exists.

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logos (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The use of logical appeals to move attitudes.

organizational inertia (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Systematic resistance to change in an organization.

pathos (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An appeal in which the speaker or presenter inds a story, picture, or episode that demonstrates the

superiority of his or her position while at the same time evoking emotions.

risk (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Circumstances under which uncertainty is high.

uncertainty (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

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/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Situation in which incomplete information is available to the decision‐maker.

Explain which decision‐making model you believe would be best for the following situations:

rational or intuitive. Defend your reasoning.

choosing a movie script for a major Hollywood stara.

starting an upscale restaurant in a declining part of a major cityb.

selecting a new CEO for Amazon.comc.

selecting suppliers of automobile batteries, domestic or foreign, for General Motorsd.

Use the six steps of decision‐making, in complete detail, to analyze one of the following decisions.

major recording studio deciding whether to completely stop producing CDs and sell only

online

Subway deciding whether to open in the morning and sell breakfast productsb.

InBev deciding whether to acquire Miller/Coors lines of beersc.

country club deciding to close its golf course due to declining usage and revenuesd.

Identify the three potential objectives of persuasion and the three components of attitudes

associated with the following situations. Explain the connections between the elements.

United States military leadership's decision to endorse the repeal of Don't Ask, Don't Tella.

Any major airline's decision to charge overweight persons for two tickets and seatsb.

Local upscale restaurant's decision to not allow children under the age of 10 to dinec.

Company policy to move from three months to six months of paid maternity leaved.

Apply the AIDA model of persuasion to the following situations. Explain how you would employ

logos, ethos, or pathos in your presentation and your reasoning in detail.

attempt to unionize employees at Target—union perspectivea.

attempt to unionize employees at Target—perspective of those opposedb.

convincing employees to pay more for company‐sponsored health insurance to fend off layoffsc.

convincing CEOs with exorbitant salaries to take pay cuts to keep a company healthyd.

Choose a persuasion medium for each of the following circumstances. Create a plan of

presentation for that audience.

manager seeking to change the company cafeteria food from fast food to heart‐healthy menu

items

convincing an employee to take a promotion that involves moving, when his spouse has a

great local job

persuading buyers of sports equipment to change suppliers of sports clothing in a purchasing

group that includes seven separate companies

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selling a combined life insurance/pension plan package to a manufacturing companyd.

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During a question and answer session with college students, Bill

Gates and Warren Buffet discuss the way they make decisions for

their companies.

Bill Gates: Decision Making

From Title: Buffett and Gates Go Back to School (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=40885)

How do Bill Gates and Warren Buffet make decisions?

What resources do they use to help them?

How might decision‐making processes be different at

lower ranks, or non‐strategic decisions?

Carly Fiorina, CEO of Hewlett‐Packard, discusses leadership

requirements of self‐awareness, honesty, and persuasive

communication during times of change.

0:00 / 2:21 1x

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Leadership and Communication

From Title: Challenges of Leadership (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=30245)

As an outsider to Hewlett‐Packard, what communication

techniques did Carly Fiorina use to persuade employees

that she was a it leader? How did she make the case for

change?

What other challenges did Fiorina encounter and how did

she overcome them?

In August 2011 a major inancial rating company, Standard & Poor's (S&P), downgraded

the inancial rating of United States treasury bills from AAA to AA+. The following week,

stock values on the New York Stock Exchange and in other markets luctuated wildly, as

investors came to grips with the signi icant change in the world's inancial landscape.

The decision made by employees at Standard & Poor's brought to light a variety of issues,

among them the methods by which the company reaches its ratings. The same S&P

organization had granted AAA ratings to several major inancial institutions that failed

during the U.S. 2008 inancial crisis. Those poor judgments raised questions about the

organization's credibility in the eyes of some observers. Critics noted that business

organizations pay fees to S&P in order to receive various ratings, while governments do

not pay such fees. Can a company remain objective when its primary revenues come from

0:00 / 4:44 1x

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the very organizations it rates?

Further, when making the calculations that were part of the downgrade, members of the

United States Treasury argued that Standard & Poor's had made a major math error. A

Treasury Department spokesperson told reporters, "A judgment lawed by a $2 trillion

error speaks for itself."

The move by S&P followed decisions by two other major ratings agencies, Moody's

Investor Service and Fitch Ratings, to maintain the United States' AAA rating, though

Moody's assigned a negative outlook. Moody's and Fitch maintained the rating following

the governmental extension of the nation's credit limit, coupled with elements of debt

reduction in a short‐term budget bill.

In response, an S&P spokesperson said, "The downgrade re lects our opinion that the

iscal consolidation plan that Congress and the administration recently agreed to falls

short of what, in our view, would be necessary to stabilize the government's medium‐term

debt dynamics." The answer further angered some critics, suggesting that the language of

the opinion re lected political views rather than an objective analysis of the ability and

willingness of the United States government to make all interest and principal payments to

those holding treasuries.

As the days following the decision unfolded, one of the great ironies was that many

investors began taking money out of the stock market. Instead of stocks, many individuals

purchased U.S. treasuries, believing that they were a safer place to keep money. At the

same time, the downgrade created another political football for both sides of the aisle to

kick around, with the 2012 elections looming.

Review Questions

Assess the S&P decision using rational/analytical and intuitive perspectives.1.

Do you think any of the pitfalls to decision‐making affected S&P's judgment?2.

What type of reasoning, inductive or deductive, might have been used in S&P's analysis?3.

If you were a government of icial, what persuasion tactics would you use to lead the

company to restore the AAA rating?

The average person requires 1,200 to 1,500 milligrams of sodium per day in order to

regulate blood pressure and blood volume as well as muscle and nerve functioning.

Unfortunately, in the United States most people consume far greater amounts, which can

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threaten long‐term health. Excessive sodium leads to luid buildup, and aggravates

cirrhosis and kidney problems and can contribute to congestive heart failure.

Salt is used in food products because it produces several bene its. First, it adds to taste

and lavor. Second, salt helps preserve the food. It draws away moisture so that bacteria

do not grow. Consequently, many food vendors use generous amounts of salt. For example,

Van Camp's Baked Beans contain over 390 milligrams of sodium in a 15 oz can. Typical

diet‐food frozen dinners have over 500 milligrams per serving. The McDonald's Big Mac

contains over 1,000 milligrams of sodium and the Burger King Whopper has nearly 1,500

milligrams. In fact, a teaspoon of salt added to food as it cooks has 2,300 milligrams of

sodium (Medline Plus, 2011). Consequently, a normal diet in the U.S. leads to consumption

of over 3,000 milligrams of sodium per day.

Several companies have responded to calls for reduced sodium, with limited success. Lays

introduced a line of products with the label "Pinch of Salt," with 75 milligrams per serving,

as compared with 270 in a regular bag of Lays chips. However, the product did not sell

well enough to stay on the grocery store shelves.

Campbell's has introduced a product line lavored with sea salt, including low‐sodium and

less‐sodium items. The idea is to maintain lavor while reducing sodium content. The

products complement the Healthy Request soup selections offered by the company.

The problem facing Campbell's and other companies is demand. Some have dismissed the

salt situation as the current food paranoia of the month, noting other calls for more

healthy food products. Concerns about fat content, saturated fats, amount of sugar, food

colors, arti icial lavors, and MSG have all captured the attention of consumers and the

media in the past two decades, so the sodium issue may or may not continue to be a

major consumer concern.

In any major grocery store, the number of choices of canned soup seems endless.

Campbell's competes with Progresso as well as private‐label products. The variety of

potential products includes variations of the soup itself (tomato, chicken noodle, etc.),

calorie content, fat content, and, more recently, sodium content. Finding a niche in this

cluttered marketplace that will support a product with suf icient sales may be dif icult.

Review Questions

Write a persuasive proposal to continue selling low‐sodium products even though sales

are disappointing.

Prepare a persuasive verbal presentation to top management at Campbell's to continue

selling low‐sodium products even though sales are disappointing.

Prepare a persuasive proposal to target big box retailers and major grocery chains,3.

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convincing them to give better shelf space and additional marketing efforts to

low‐sodium Campbell's soup products.

Explain the roles of logos, ethos, and pathos in each of the three persuasive proposals.4.

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Jupiterimages

After reading the chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Utilize the forms of listening that take place on the job.1.

Overcome the types of listening distractions and barriers that disturb effective

communication.

Help managers improve their listening skills.3.

Use feedback to effectively communicate.4.

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What kind of listener are you? It might be tempting to respond with a one‐size its‐all answer, such

as, "I'm a good listener," or, "I'm an empathetic listener." In truth, listening varies according to the

content of a message and the context in which that message is delivered. For example, if you are

being "chewed out" by a boss, empathy for the audience may go right out the window. In any case,

listening plays an important role in business and management communication.

In management communication, several styles of listening may be used. Content listening means

that the receiver seeks to understand and remember the information presented by a speaker.

Questions are posed to clarify the content of a presentation without judging or creating an

argument. Even the speaker's limitations become of less interest, because the goal is simply to

obtain information (Bovee & Thill, 2005).

Active listening, which should occur in most business settings, involves listening with a purpose

(Barker, 1971). Doing so includes making a conscious effort to turn off internal ilters and biases in

the attempt to accurately perceive and understand what the other person says. In active listening,

questions clarify the message and encourage the speaker with support and positive feedback

(Brooks, 2003).

Empathic listening, a form of active listening, takes place when the receiver tries to understand the

other person, including his or her feelings, needs, and wants. You may not share the person's

perspective or point of view, but the idea is to appreciate the person's problems and situation.

Effective supervisors master empathic listening.

A type of listening that adds judgment, critical listening, occurs when the recipient goes beyond

comprehending the message to evaluating it. The analysis incorporates assessments of the logic of

the argument, the value of the evidence, the validity of the conclusions, the speaker's motives or

intentions, and any attempt to mislead or combine facts with opinions (Brownell, 2002).

Applying each of these listening venues at the proper times can enhance your chances of having a

successful career. No one likes being ignored or misinterpreted. Effective listening connects with

many other aspects of leading, including the ability to communicate verbally and in written format,

by irst knowing what the audience thinks or has to say.

This chapter concentrates on two aspects of managerial communication: effective listening and

providing feedback. The two interact in the sense that it will be impossible to provide quality

feedback unless you irst listen carefully. Providing quality feedback also enhances your prospects of

becoming a more valuable and effective manager, one worthy of promotion to higher ranks.

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What four listening styles are used in management communication settings?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Content listening means that the receiver seeks to understand and remember the information

presented by a speaker. Active listening, which should occur in most business settings,

involves listening with a purpose. Empathic listening, a form of active listening, takes place

when the receiver tries to understand the other person, including his or her feelings, needs,

and wants. Critical listening occurs when the recipient goes beyond comprehending the

message to evaluating it.

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Domino's novel approach to building

business includes a healthy dose of

listening.

Recently, the Domino's Pizza chain engaged in a two‐part advertising program designed to

build sales and market share in a declining economy. The key ingredient: listening to

customers. The original television advertising campaign shows clips of consumers in focus

groups, making such statements as, "Worst pizza I ever had; totally devoid of lavor,"

"Domino's pizza crust is to me like cardboard," and "The sauce tastes like ketchup" (Farhi,

2010).

The point: While Domino's had maintained its

market share during the economic downturn,

company leaders believed that they could

apologize for poor‐quality pizza and promise to

do better by creating pies with improved

ingredients and better recipes. New company

CEO Patrick Doyle used the company's listening

program to lead the way, saying, "We think that

going out there and being this honest really

breaks through to people in a way that most

advertising does not" (Farhi, 2010).

Some marketing experts expressed concerns that

consumers would not listen carefully to the message. They would hear the part about poor

quality but not the part about improving. Domino's managers believed the risk was

worthwhile.

Following the rollout of new, improved pizzas at bargain prices, the second phase of the

listening program began. The new campaign states, "We're only as good as our last pizza.

So tell us how yours was." The Domino's Pizza Tracker feature, which had been developed

two years before the recipe upgrades, provided a new listening device to facilitate

communication with individual customers.

The Pizza Tracker feature allows customers placing an online order at the Domino's

website to follow the progress of their order from the shop to their front door. Users

receive an email directing them to the order‐tracking page within seconds of placing an

order and, without having to refresh the page, are told precisely when their pie is placed

in the oven, checked for quality assurance, and dispatched to their home. The Pizza

Tracker informs the customer about who was responsible for an individual pizza during

preparation and delivery. Then, the customer can provide feedback directly to the store

where the pizza was made, which opens lines of communication with individual stores

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Digital Vision/Thinkstock

What level of listening do you use on the job?

and managers rather than with the larger corporation.

The Pizza Tracker feature suggests that store owners will listen when customers are

dissatis ied. By naming the actual individual responsible for any service failure, a store's

manager can improve operations on an employee‐by‐employee basis. Over the course of

the next apology campaign and new emphasis on customer feedback, sales increased

dramatically during the next two quarters (Skid, 2010). Time will tell if the novel

approach will yield longer‐term results.

Do you think that starting with negative statements about your company will cause

people to hear how you intend to improve or ix the problem?

What are the differences between listening to customers about problems and listening

to internal managers discussing the same issues?

As an employee, would you listen to a customer complaining about the pizza you just

made, when the customer was simply wrong in his/her feedback or criticism?

In any listening context, a person may engage in

various levels of attention. The good listener, or a level

one listener, stays involved in the conversation by

considering the speaker's interests and message. The

level one listener maintains an open mind and pays

attention respectfully by maintaining eye contact,

sitting or standing attentively (leaning forward), and

without an expression signaling disregard, boredom, or

overt disapproval.

Someone who hears the words but does not fully

appreciate their meaning or content is a level two

listener. This individual ignores or does not process

nonverbal cues. The level two listener will be less

interested in the speaker's intentions. Failure to fully engage in a conversation in this manner can

lead to misunderstanding or con lict.

When an intended recipient does not acknowledge the speaker and instead thinks about other

matters, the person becomes a level three listener. Such a self‐centered approach creates confusion

and greater misunderstanding. A level three listener misses important information and can make

poor judgments.

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As you have probably guessed, the ideal manager maintains level one listening. Unfortunately, many

employees remain at level two or three far too much of the time. The net result will be breakdowns

in communication, based on someone not paying proper attention (Burley‐Allen, 2001). Individuals

and organizations bene it when the listening skills of managers are re ined and enhanced.

What three levels of attention are found in organizational listening?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The good listener, or a level one listener, stays involved in the conversation by considering

the speaker's interests and message. Someone who hears the words but does not fully

appreciate their meaning or content is a level two listener. When an intended recipient does

not acknowledge the speaker and instead thinks about other matters, the person becomes a

level three listener.

The ability to listen effectively and provide valid feedback has a major impact on business

organizations as well as levels of personal success. In addition, excellent listeners often enjoy more

positive social relationships both on and off the job. Managers and employees both bene it from

effective listening techniques.

Personal Level Listening

In terms of personal activities, listening skills play vital roles in job searches, job training,

performance appraisals, and interpersonal interactions. In a job search, one key step will be the job

interview. An applicant will have only a brief amount of time to forge a positive impression. Poor

listeners often ind themselves rejected, because they were inattentive and either missed the point of

a key comment or failed to respond to an idea, suggestion, or question. Effective listeners create

positive impressions through their answers and feedback provided to the human resource of icer or

supervisor conducting the interview (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007).

Job training requires careful attention. Effective listeners learn jobs more quickly, ask more informed

questions, and tend to succeed (Mathis & Jackson, 2010). Trainers become frustrated with those

who fail to pay attention.

Performance appraisal processes should be interactive discussions. The employee learns about

perceptions of his or her strengths and abilities, as well as personal weaknesses or de iciencies.

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After these perceptions have been presented, the employee can provide feedback regarding his or

her assessment of the views of others and respond to challenges presented and new goals. Doing so

can be accomplished only when the employee irst listens carefully to what the reviewer has to say

(Grote, 2011).

Good listeners make better colleagues and friends. Interpersonal interactions in and outside the

workplace are enhanced when a peer listens closely to your problems, concerns, and feelings.

Effective managers, as well as good friends, provide feedback, even when it hurts a little. Rich social

and professional lives and effective listening are closely related.

Effective Listening in Organizational Activities

Companies bene it from effective listeners. Meetings become more productive when those involved

take the time to fully hear what others have to say. The leader of a group or team, when conducting

a meeting, serves the role of facilitating conversation and interaction. The leader must be an

effective listener in order to play such a role.

Numerous presentations also bene it from high‐quality listening. A speaker making an in‐house

report deserves the close attention of the audience. Salespersons calling on companies are better

served when the client listens carefully to the sales presentation.

In general, it is safe to say that listening merits equal attention to any verbal or written

communication skills. Much of the time, a manager will be a receiver or recipient of a verbal

message from employees and others. Those who listen effectively and provide quality feedback are

more likely to be considered as superior leaders. The remainder of this chapter focuses on methods

to help you become a better listener and someone who is capable of providing the best feedback to

others.

Name the personal activities and organizational activities affected by listening and

feedback. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

In terms of personal activities, listening skills play vital roles in job searches, job training,

performance appraisals, and interpersonal interactions. Organizational meetings,

presentations, and reports are affected by listening and feedback.

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Successful team players, managers, leaders, clients, and customers all have the ability to listen

effectively in common. Fortunately, even those who are poor listeners can have their skill sets

improved. Table 6.1 identi ies some of the characteristics of ineffective listeners that can be

improved. Basic listening skills involve a set of activities. The receiver irst should be aware of

potential distractions and barriers, seeking to reduce or eliminate their in luence. Second, the

listener can then work toward effective, active listening.

Table 6.1: Ineffective listening

Passively engaged

Provides no feedback, response, or encouragement

Constantly interrupts

Judges style over substance

Gets lost in details and misses the main point

Easily distracted

Allows barriers to listening to occur

Loses eye contact

Body language suggests inattention

Facial expression exhibits disagreement or boredom

Fiddles with distracting object

Before effective listening can even begin, a receiver should be aware of the many potential barriers

and distractions that disrupt communication and a conversation. The two elements that reduce the

ability to listen carefully are external distractions and internal distractions.

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Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Even the weather can become a distracting

in luence during a conversation.

External distractions take the form of any event or

object that turns a person's attention away from the

discussion at hand. Examples of external distractions

include motion, sound, intensity, contrast, and

novelty/familiarity. When listening to a speaker, any

nearby motion can take away from concentration.

Someone passing by a room where a speech takes

place can divert the attention of the audience. In an

individual conversation in an of ice, a passer‐by may

have the same effect. Sound‐based distractions take

many forms, including trying to hold a conversation in

a noisy room, next to construction, in a room with

music playing, or even during a loud thunderstorm.

Intensity consists of other diversions such as strong odors and smells. Trying to inish a

conversation with the aroma of a freshly cooked meal nearby becomes problematic.

Contrast occurs when a loud room suddenly becomes muted or when a burst of noise disrupts a

quiet room. Novelty means that seeing something novel in a familiar setting may redirect attention

away from what is being said. Familiarity results from discovering something recognizable in an

unusual setting (Nylen, 1980), with the same outcome: taking the person away from the speaker's

message. In the business world, newer open of ice spaces often distract people trying to engage in

interactive conversations. The same holds true for an open computer screen during any speech or

discussion. Cell phone rings or tones that indicate the person has received a text message interrupt

other interactions (Hymowitz, 1998).

Everyone has experienced the problem of not being able to concentrate. Personal matters such as a

troubled relationship, inancial issues, or even a traf ic ticket on the way to work, can capture a

person's attention. Other internal distractions include a headache, cold or other health issue, and

being hungry or thirsty. The ability to set these matters aside and pay attention to a speech or

conversation can become a major personal asset; yielding to internal distractions causes

miscommunication.

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What two types of distractions inhibit effective listening?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

External and internal distractions.

Figure 6.1: Internal and external distractions

Effective listening begins when a receiver becomes aware of the potential barriers

and distractions that disrupt communication.

In Chapter 2 on interpersonal communication, various barriers were presented. In addition to those

problems, several barriers to listening can emerge. Some of the more common include:

time pressures

discovery of disagreement

detouring the speaker

lack of willingness to listen

mental speed and capacity

selective listening

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David De Lossy/Thinkstock

Discovery of a disagreement often occurs as a

presentation or conversation takes place.

prejudgment

Time represents one of the most valuable and scarce

resources in business. When an employee feels pressed

for time, a natural reaction will be to try to close off

what may be perceived as an unnecessary interaction.

The receiver might abruptly cut the speaker off, either

by making a dismissive remark or arriving at a quick

judgment. In the receiver's mind, the thought is, "I

don't have time for this." The net result will be poor

listening.

Discovery of a disagreement often occurs as a

presentation or conversation carries on. At irst, the

receiver may not recognize the speaker's intention. All

of a sudden, a point of contention appears that is powerful enough to cause the receiver to fail to

hear the remainder of the message. The receiver, rather than listening, mentally forms the

counterargument that he or she will then present.

Detouring the speaker takes place when the receiver becomes distracted by a concept or a phrase

and then pursues that line of thought. Soon the speaker has moved to a different topic. The outcome

will be that the intended message never arrives.

The lack of willingness to listen emerges from more than one source. At times, a person may not

want to listen, believing he or she has the superior position. A receiver may also believe the topic is

trivial and not pay attention as a result. Further, some individuals would rather talk than listen. Such

individuals are inclined to interrupt responses to questions and comments (Bostrom, 1988). Many

people may avoid listening when they know a negative message or a disagreement may be

forthcoming.

Figure 6.2: Distractions and barriers

Finding ways to overcome these communication complications takes a step

toward becoming a more effective co‐worker, employee, or manager.

Mental speed and capacity refer to the mind's ability to process information much faster than

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normal conversation. The 75–25 problem means that people speak about 25 percent as fast as they

think (Lewis, 1987, p. 146). The differential allows a person's mind to wander while visiting with

someone.

Selective listening embodies one aspect of mental speed and capacity. It involves tuning out the

majority of what is being said until a key word or phrase captures the person's attention. Instead of

processing what was actually spoken, the receiver guesses or thinks he or she knows what was said

(Morreale & Bovee, 1998).

Prejudgment involves making up your mind before hearing the full message. In essence, the

response has been prepared before the message has been transmitted. Preconceived ideas about the

person engaged in the conversation based on his or her personality, appearance, or past

conversations lead to prejudgments.

These barriers to listening pose problems for employees and supervisors. The failure to pay

attention works in both directions during a conversation. Either person can create the kinds of

communication obstacles that inhibit the correct transmission and reception of a message. Finding

ways to overcome these communication complications (which will be described in the next section)

takes a step toward becoming a more effective manager.

What barriers to listening affect organizational communication?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Some of the more common barriers to listening include time pressures, discovery of

disagreement, detouring the speaker, the lack of willingness to listen, mental speed and

capacity, selective listening, and prejudgment.

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Listening occurs at two levels in business settings. In active listening situations, there will be little

or no opportunity to respond. Examples of active situations are hearing a speech by an

organizational leader or outside presenter in a formal setting, including those that have been

prerecorded on video. Empathic active situations might include a pep talk by a company manager or

outside motivational speaker. Active listening may also accompany a visit to a supervisor's of ice in

which the employee will receive a message and give a minimal response, such as, "Okay," or "I'll take

care of the problem."

Interactive listening situations include times when feedback and other forms of two‐way

communication take place. Interactive situations on the job take place during social and business

conversations, including relations with salespeople calling on the company, during meetings and

conferences, and as part of negotiation processes.

Listening tactics and techniques may be applied to both active and interactive situations. Many of

the key listening elements are the same for both. The listener adjusts the composition depending on

the situation at hand. Four phases of listening present opportunities to work toward higher‐quality

communication:

during preparation

during the presentation

during the interaction

during conclusion of the interaction and follow‐up

Explain active listening situations and interactive listening situations.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

In active listening situations, there will be little or no opportunity to respond. One example of

an active situation is hearing a speech by an organizational leader, or outside presenter, in a

formal setting, including speeches that have been prerecorded on video. Interactive listening

situations include times when feedback and other forms of two‐way communication take

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place. Interactive situations on the job take place during social and business conversations,

including relations with salespeople calling on the company, during meetings and

conferences, and as part of negotiation processes.

The irst opportunity to become a better listener—the preparation stage—occurs before any verbal

encounter. Two types of interaction are possible: planned and unplanned. And, two types of settings

occur: one‐on‐one and as part of an audience. One‐on‐one communications may be planned or

unplanned. Audience settings will normally be planned in advance. You can become a better

conversationalist and audience member by preparing for both.

What two types of interactions and two types of settings are present in verbal

encounters? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Planned and unplanned interactions; individual and as part of an audience.

Planned One‐on‐One Interactions

Planned interpersonal interactions begin with understanding the nature of the encounter. Individual

conversations are quite different from being a member of an audience or of a team or group. As a

listener in an individual conversation, such as being called into the bosses' of ice, preparation

involves anticipating the nature of the meeting or conversation. If the intent has not been

transmitted, an employee can inquire about it in advance. Unless a distinct reason exists for not

telling the person, the employee then can better prepare. Things to consider include:

wearing appropriate attire

bringing writing or note‐taking capabilities, if they will be needed

assuming the proper demeanor (formal, casual)

bringing informational or supportive materials that may be useful

Finally, the receiver should try to ascertain in advance whether the interaction will consist primarily

of active listening or interactive listening. For an active listening situation, methods such as

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Medioimages/Photodisc

Part of preparation for a planned one‐on‐one

interaction is wearing the proper attire.

note‐taking and other forms of recall assistance may

be valuable. For interactive listening circumstances,

seeking out information about the purpose of the

conversation can provide valuable tools. Many times a

planned interaction begins in active mode and evolves

into an interactive format. Therefore, it may be

advisable in many situations to prepare for both.

Planned Audience Interactions

Planned interactions as part of an audience necessitate

basically the same types of items as for interpersonal

situations. Effective audience members go a step

beyond by carefully studying any materials that have

been circulated prior to the presentation. They also bring along items such as pre‐printed or

electronically submitted reports and agendas. In other words, they show up prepared for the

presentation or meeting. As part of this process, the speaker should be aware of the type of

audience to expect—hostile or friendly, informed or uninformed, of the same rank/higher

rank/lower rank, and so forth.

Audience members also should try to ind out whether participation will be invited or discouraged.

If it will be discouraged, then active listening will be required. When it will be invited, an interactive

listening environment, audience members with a solid background on a topic or issue will be in the

best position to participate in an effective and positive manner.

Unplanned One‐on‐One Interactions

Many times, social and business interactions take place spontaneously. Even then, an effective

listener can apply basic tactics to improve communications. Among them, when a chance encounter

occurs, irst recall as much as you can about the speaker. This assists in understanding his or her

frame of reference. Second, consider the setting. When you meet in a crowded hallway, the

circumstances are much different from running into someone alone in a break room. Third, try to

assess the speaker's demeanor. Notice whether the person seems jovial, disturbed, in a bad mood, or

rushed, or is acting in some other fashion to convey emotions and purpose. Someone who is in a

hurry likely will appreciate your quick and brief response. A conversation with a person in a bad

mood may be best delayed until things improve. In general, one of the gifts of an effective listener

may be termed situation sensitivity, or the ability to quickly assess a conversation's context and

respond accordingly.

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When you are listening to a person in a conversation or a presenter in a larger setting, several key

tactics aid the process. Each can assist in active listening, empathic listening, and critical listening.

Effective listening during a presentation starts with attending skills and encouraging skills (Russell &

Munter, 2011). A receiver may also take advantage of message reception techniques in order to fully

process a presentation or directive by a supervisor in a one‐on‐one setting.

Attending Skills

Attending skills display interest in the message and support for the speaker. Effective listeners

remember that they have been speakers in other situations and appreciated the attention given by

receivers. Attending skills include listening posture, distance, eye contact, and eliminating barriers

(Baney, 2004).

Listening posture re lects the important role body language plays in listening. An effective listener

appears relaxed, yet attentive and alert. A seated receiver leans toward the speaker and tries to face

the sender squarely. There may be times when the speaker seeks to set a more informal tone

through his or her body language. By mirroring that posture toward the speaker, such as by relaxing

and putting an arm around the empty chair beside the receiver, the listener has responded with an

indication that he or she understands the more casual tone of the interaction.

Distance re lects the degree of intimacy in a conversation. Effective listeners do not crowd speakers

and also do not move too far away. Should the speaker appear to be leaning away, the receiver

should perceive that he or she might be a little too close. When the speaker keeps leaning in or

shifting forward, too much distance is present. Distance norms vary a great deal internationally.

Standing close to someone will be standard practice in Saudi Arabia, but not in Finland, where even

greater personal space than the United States will be used.

Eye contact, in Western culture, signals interest and involvement. Typically there will be instances of

direct contact accompanied by a more general view of the person's face, looking for additional visual

cues. Remember that, in other cultures, direct eye contact signals aggressiveness or disrespect

(Marchetti, 1995). An effective listener makes sure he or she understands this element of context

when engaged in a conversation or as an audience member in an international setting. In Western

cultures, failure to make eye contact suggests a person is hiding something, lacks con idence, or is

simply being rude. Someone who checks his or her watch or looks into the distance disrupts the

quality of the conversation.

Eliminating barriers involves taking steps to remove distracting factors. Does a door need to be

closed? Should you ask the people in the next room or the hallway if they can take their

conversation elsewhere? If a team is mowing the lawn outside, should you move to a room away

from the noise? Effective, active listeners are aware of things that divert attention and do their best

to remove them (Floyd, 1985).

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What attending skills facilitate effective listening? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Attending skills include listening posture, distance, eye contact, and eliminating barriers.

As part of a conversation or audience setting, receivers can offer support to the speaker through

several means. They help the speaker relax and more carefully frame his or her presentation or

thoughts. Encouraging skills are silence, expressions of encouragement, and asking open‐ended

questions (Bolton, 1987).

Silence communicates. A listener who gives a speaker time to pause, collect his or her thoughts, and

then continue provides encouragement. The effective use of silence includes knowing when it

becomes so long that the time becomes awkward. Long pauses can be interpreted as a lack of

interest or disapproval, or suggest that the receiver is not paying attention. Often, the combination of

eye contact and silence can reassure the speaker that the listener remains engaged. Also, as noted

earlier, silence in some cultures indicates that careful consideration is being given to the speaker's

words or proposal.

Expressions of encouragement start with simple phrases such as "Go on . . ." or a simple nod of

agreement or understanding. Stronger expressions include statements such as, "This is very

interesting. I'd like to hear more." Encouragement empowers the speaker to continue the message

with con idence.

Open‐ended questions are those that cannot be answered with a "yes" or "no" response. High‐quality

listeners use questions that encourage the speaker to elaborate. The inquiries focus on the speaker's

intentions and vantage point. The question, "What else can you tell me about this project?" serves as

an example. Inclusive language also provides support for the speaker. When a receiver says, "What

should be our next step?" the speaker should feel invited to provide even more information and

perceive that the receiver is on his or her side.

In general, attending skills and encouraging skills are directed at the speaker. Effective listeners

know that they will receive better information when they assist and facilitate the speaker right from

the start of the message. The next element will be to carefully process the information being

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provided.

What encouraging skills facilitate effective listening? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Encouraging skills include silence, expressions of encouragement, and asking open‐ended

questions.

As a presenter or speaker conveys a message, the receiver who utilizes active listening will obtain a

greater amount of information in a more accurate format. Especially at times when no responses or

questions are possible, the recipient has the ability to carefully consider the message as presented.

Some of the most common suggestions for effective listening during a presentation are:

Identify the primary and secondary points.

Organize the message.

Summarize the message.

Personalize the message.

Take notes when advisable.

What message reception techniques assist in effective listening?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Some of the most common suggestions for effective listening during a presentation include:

identify the primary and secondary points, organize the message, summarize the message,

personalize the message, and take notes when advisable.

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Taking notes physically involves the listener

in the presentation.

Identify the Primary and Secondary Points

Most speakers intend to present one or two major ideas. These will be followed with supporting

points or secondary information. By carefully watching the presentation, the listener may notice a

change in in lection, greater volume, or more de initive gestures suggesting the presence of a

primary point. The listener then can observe the secondary points to see whether they provide

effective, logical support for the primary message or messages.

Organize the Message

As a speaker, you are aware of the various methods to present a message, from a partitioned

approach (tell them what you're going to tell them; tell them; tell them what you told them) to an

unfolding stream‐of‐consciousness approach, to more logic‐based formats such as pros versus cons

or similarities and differences. The goal of listening will be to identify the presentation organization

to more effectively assimilate the information.

Summarize the Message

A summary consists of a mental review of the primary and secondary points. The listener should

reach the end of a speech or presentation with a solid handle on how the message was delivered, as

well as the content of the message. The summary includes evaluation of the connection between the

primary and secondary points.

Personalize the Message

A message takes on greater meaning when the listener

relates the idea to a personal issue or experience. In

essence, the listener may wonder, "How does this

affect my job?" or "How will this change the overall

company?" or, "Will I be involved?" as part of the

personalization process. As noted in the previous

chapter with regard to persuasion, a message might

impact a person's opinions, attitudes, or beliefs. Each

affects the personalization process. A message

targeting an opinion will differ from one aimed at

changing attitudes. The listener's processing of the

information will also be affected by the nature of the

message. Personalizing the message allows the listener to make the presentation more interesting

and relevant, and makes it easier to concentrate on what has been said.

Taking Notes When Advisable

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Taking notes physically involves the listener in the presentation. Note‐taking involves writing down

suf icient information to assist in organizing, summarizing, and personalizing the primary and

secondary points without putting so much effort into the process that it becomes a distraction

rather than a tool. When taking notes, be sure to avoid bothering the speaker or audience members

seated close to you. Some speakers gain con idence when they see audience members taking notes.

The objective should be to make note‐taking a positive part of the listening process for all

concerned.

Table 6.2 summarizes skills utilized by effective listeners. As shown, the following skills enhance the

elements of message reception techniques. Using all of the methods should lead to the best

understanding of a speech or presentation.

Table 6.2: Following skills

Skill Used Interpretation As Part Of

Paraphrasing

content

Putting speaker's words into

your own language

Identifying primary/secondary points;

organizing, summarizing, & especially

personalizing

Paraphrasing

feelings

Assessing how the speaker's

words affect your emotions,

opinions, and attitudes

Summarizing and personalizing

Note‐taking or

recording Keeping memory logs Organizing and summarizing

The speaker can assist in effective listening by following some simple guidelines. Four elements

should be considered before a conversation or presentation. Time, place, personalities, and

objectives merit the attention of the speaker.

In terms of time, managers know that end‐of‐the‐day communications tend to attract less attention,

as do meetings, conversations, and presentations right before the lunch hour. Schedule verbal

interactions during times when the listener will be least distracted and most willing to give active

attention. An effective speaker chooses places where external distractions are at a minimum. The

speaker can also match the formality of the space with the degree of formality and importance of

the message.

Personalities are of special importance in one‐on‐one interactions. Knowing that a receiver is prone

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to interrupting, pompousness, or some other tendency should be taken into account prior to the

conversation. An especially shy individual requires a different kind of preparation and presentation.

Objectives should be considered from the viewpoint of both the speaker and the receiver. When they

are in synch, the interaction takes a different tone from when disagreement or con lict might be

expected (Saporito, 1992).

Verbal conversations, as suggested in earlier chapters, resemble a dance between the sender and the

receiver. Effective listening, then, calls for both the speaker's and the audience's attention to detail.

After an initial presentation by a speaker, the next stage in the process will be the interaction phase,

in which additional tactics become useful tools to effective verbal communications.

After a speaker has made his or her presentation, many times an interaction phase begins in which

the listener and speaker exchange ideas about the conversation's start or the speech made in front

of an audience. As part of the interaction phase, the steps of listening may be followed (see Table

6.3). The interaction phase takes place during the evaluation and responding steps of the listening

process.

Table 6.3: Steps of listening

Receiving Physical reception including sight, sound, and any other cues

Decoding Assigning meaning to the message

Remembering Mentally storing the message for future use

Evaluating Assessing the quality, intention, and perceived accuracy of the message

Responding Preparing a reply

Three key elements of the listening process are validating the speaker, asking questions, and framing

the reply in positive terms.

Validate the Speaker: Af irming Statements

In any interaction from a small conversation to a major strategic speech, the speaker will be

vulnerable to some extent. Effective listening at the close of the speech, or at the point when

interactions take place, begins with a validation of the speaker. The three ingredients involved are

responding with af irming statements, restating and/or paraphrasing the message, and identifying

areas of agreement or common interest.

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Af irming statements can be directed to the content and/or the delivery of the message. In a

one‐on‐one conversation, a simple, "I appreciate your bringing this to my attention," offers gratitude

and validation. Table 6.4 provides other interpersonal af irming statements.

Table 6.4: Af irming statements

Interpersonal Interactions

"You have a way with words."

"Thanks for clarifying this so well."

"I didn't realize this was such a big deal."

"You have my attention."

As an Audience Member

"Thank you for your thoughtful presentation."

"It is clear you have given this a great deal of thought."

"I think everyone here now has a better understanding of the issue."

"Thank you for such a concise description of this problem."

An af irming statement that does not appear to be genuine will often damage the interaction. Any

praise offered must be sincere. The purpose of af irming is to move the interaction forward to a

meaningful discussion of the message and its intent.

Validate the Message: Restating or Paraphrasing the Message

After a basic level of rapport has been established, it should be easier to identify the speaker's intent

in presenting the message. By paraphrasing or restating what was said, any remaining ambiguity can

be reduced or eliminated. The secret will be to restate the message without demeaning or rejecting

it. At this point, the goal will not be to reveal differences but rather to clarify the message as

presented.

Validate the Rapport: Identifying Areas of Agreement or Common Interest

Identifying areas of agreement or shared interests further solidi ies and validates the relationship

between the speaker and receiver. It should be possible to ind at least some areas of common

ground. If nothing else, the receiver can agree with the speaker that a problem does indeed exist.

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Comstock/Thinkstock

Quality questions indicate interest, as they

serve the purposes of clarifying ideas,

expanding the discussion, and further

revealing positions and motives of those

involved.

What three methods can be used to validate the speaker during the interaction

phase of a verbal presentation? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The three ingredients involved are responding with af irming statements, restating and/or

paraphrasing the message, and identifying areas of agreement or common interest.

Asking Questions

Quality questions indicate interest. They serve the purposes of clarifying ideas, expanding the

discussion, and further revealing positions and motives of those involved. Three types of questions

posed by effective listeners are open or closed, primary or secondary, and neutral or directed

inquiries.

Open‐ended questions can elicit a variety of responses.

Rather than a perfunctory "yes" or "no," the speaker

can frame an answer as he or she sees it. As an

example, the question, "What do you think will happen

if we fail to act?" gives the speaker a chance to

speculate on an outcome. Closed questions typically

are directed to facts or time commitments, and receive

shorter answers. A closed question would be, "Can we

implement your idea in less than twelve months?"

Both types of questions can further the interaction

between a sender and receiver.

A primary question opens the discussions on a topic

by being the irst one posed about the issue. The

primary question will likely be about a more general

area of concern. Secondary or follow‐up questions then

probe further into answers provided to primary questions. The intention should be to obtain speci ic

information about the subject. Successful interactions normally include both primary and secondary

questions.

Neutral questions allow the speaker to respond without feeling lead to a certain type of answer. A

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neutral question asks, "What do you think?" A directed question causes the speaker to respond in a

certain way. Examples are phrases such as, "Doesn't the most plausible approach seem to be . . . ?"

or, "Wouldn't you agree that . . . ?" Directed questions obtain clari ications about the speaker's point

of view or items in the presentation. Neutral and directed questions, when asked at the appropriate

times, further interactions between a speaker and an audience.

What three types of questions do effective listeners pose?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Three types of questions posed by effective listeners include open or closed, primary or

secondary, and neutral or directed inquiries.

Framing a Positive Response

Even when people disagree, they can do so without being disagreeable. Framing a positive response

involves the rules of common courtesy. Effective listeners obey a minimum of four rules when

responding to a presentation and during an interactive phase:

Avoid overgeneralizations, such as "you always" or "you never."1.

Do not use labels, especially less‐respectful terms, such as "bean counter" for accounting or "nerd"

for information technology employees.

Do not cut off or interrupt the other person.3.

Do not dominate the conversation.4.

Effective listeners frame responses in nonthreatening ways, such as, "I can see why you feel that

way, but I see this differently." The ability to present a counterargument in a respectful manner may

be interpreted as a sign of weakness by some; however, over time being able to do so becomes a

career advantage. The skill has heightened value when dealing with members of other cultures,

especially where deferent language is normal in all business transactions.

At the end of a one‐on‐one meeting or a presentation in an interactive listening situation, a

conclusion point will be reached. Effective listeners know that the speaker wishes to end the

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interaction through the various verbal and nonverbal signals transmitted. Someone who closes a

notebook or picks up note cards and puts them in a pocket is trying to let the audience know that

the session has come to a close. Verbal cues may be even more direct. The conclusion of the

interaction may be open‐ended, as in "We can talk more about this later," or closed, "I think we have

our answer." As with any other verbal interaction, the sender and receiver should both express

appreciation for the time given to the subject and the attention paid to the speaker.

A verbal presentation greeted by effective listening will result in high‐quality organizational

communication. Listeners who prepare for verbal encounters, utilize attending and encouraging

skills, and effectively process messages are better able to interact with the speaker. The speaker can

exhibit situation sensitivity as well as the listener, taking into account time, place, personalities, and

the objectives of the interaction. Interactions based on af irmation of the speaker, questions, positive

responses, and attention at the close have the best chance of achieving various objectives.

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Constructive criticism focuses on methods to

improve processes and outcomes.

Every person wants to know how well he or she is

doing, in workplace settings and in other places.

Feedback is the information provided about a person's

level of performance or success in various activities. In

the workplace, feedback to employees plays several

key roles. It plays a major role in employee training,

managing ongoing tasks, and conducting the

performance appraisal process. Feedback will be

provided in interpersonal and collective situations,

including presentations and in group or team

meetings.

Two forms of feedback may be provided in the

workplace. Constructive criticism focuses on methods

to improve processes and outcomes. Destructive

feedback delivers criticism with no effort to stimulate improvement. Destructive criticism has little

use in the workplace or, for that matter, in other settings. Unfortunately, it is often the type provided.

To become a better communicator, the goal should be to move toward constructive criticism

whenever possible (Williams, 2002, pp. 706–707).

De ine feedback, constructive criticism, and destructive feedback.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Feedback is the information provided about a person's level of performance or success in

various activities. Constructive criticism focuses on methods to improve processes and

outcomes. Destructive feedback delivers criticism with no effort to stimulate improvement.

The goal of offering constructive criticism can be achieved by following a series of principles. To

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provide effective constructive criticism, the speaker irst considers the elements of the setting,

timeliness, and severity of the issue. Carefully working with these factors improves the chances that

the advice will receive consideration.

The best constructive feedback may be ignored or rejected if delivered in the wrong setting. Most

people become upset when they are publicly criticized. Privacy will be important for many

messages. An exception to this would be a forum in which a speaker asks for criticism of an idea or

proposal with the goal of making it better.

Timeliness indicates the importance of immediate feedback. Successful managers understand when

to deliver constructive criticism, recognizing there are times that it will be best to wait, so that the

person can "cool off" following a failure or bad episode. The manager should not wait too long,

however, because the advice might lose its potency (Robbins, 2005, p. 614).

Next, when considering offering constructive criticism, consider the severity of the issue. When an

employee exhibits a behavior that damages his or her performance, then it should be quickly

brought to the person's attention. Other, less‐important matters may wait, and the advice can be

given in more casual settings.

Three elements of constructive criticism are positive reinforcement, negative feedback, and mixed

feedback. Clearly, the easiest to deliver will be positive reinforcement. The goal of positive feedback

should be to encourage the same behaviors and levels of effort in the future (Luthans & Kreitner,

1975). Positive reinforcement provided to a speaker or presenter takes the next step toward

implementing the person's ideas.

Negative feedback and mixed feedback require careful thought and delivery. When possible, negative

information should be part of a mixed feedback presentation, offering both criticism and

congratulations. Constructive criticism or feedback should be offered using the following guidelines

and methods (Alessandra & Hunsaker, 1993):

focus on speci ic behaviors

remain objective

avoid labels

speak in plain terms

de ine unclear terms

keep feedback goal oriented

focus negative feedback on behaviors the individual can control

Work‐related feedback should concentrate on speci ic behaviors. Telling an employee, "You have a

bad attitude," does not lead to desired results. Examples of speci ic behaviors that can be addressed

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Brand X Pictures/Thinkstock

Pointing out to a male supervisor who uses

terminology such as "sweetheart" or "honey"

that those phrases demean female employees

contains an element of emotion that would

make objectivity dif icult.

as being problematic are absenteeism, tardiness, foul language, the habit of leaving messes for

others, rude comments to co‐workers or customers, and inattention or instances of ignoring people

(Robbins, 2005, p. 614). Other work‐related constructive criticism should concentrate on methods of

improvement, such as:

showing someone how to more effectively cope with an angry customer

explaining how to more ef iciently use a computer or piece of equipment

demonstrating how to run a meeting and handle an unruly team member

helping someone write a more effective memo or report

explaining why a rule or procedure is in place

Keep in mind that "constructive" suggests a process of

"building." When ideas focus on speci ic, observable

behaviors, it becomes possible to offer high‐quality

advice.

Objectivity may not be possible in every situation.

Some behaviors, issues, and opinions may run counter

to a person's attitudes and values. For example,

pointing out to a male supervisor who uses

terminology such as "little missy," "sweetheart," or

"honey" that those phrases demean female employees

contains an element of emotion that would make

objectivity dif icult. At the same time, the feedback

provider can seek to remain calm and point out the

negative impact of such language without aggressively

personalizing the point.

Various labels can be attached to the person being criticized or to the behaviors and outcomes

involved. Labels inspire defensive responses (Resker, 2008). Using them detracts from helping the

person receiving the feedback to improve. Examples of labels are provided in Table 6.5.

Table 6.5: Types of labels

Personal Judgmental of Outcomes Exaggerations

Unprofessional Bad "You always. . ."

Irresponsible Worse "You never. . ."

Immature Worst "It's impossible"

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Sexist/racist Awful Pathetic

Speaking in plain terms and de ining unclear terms go together. When offering constructive criticism,

use the most precise language possible. Make sure that any technical terms or managerial ideas are

clearly de ined (Claiborne, 1983). Feedback sessions fail when arguments arise about the use of

words and what they mean rather than paying attention to the intent of the feedback.

As with other managerial processes, the use of goals can inspire more effective performance.

Offering constructive criticism with speci ic objectives in mind targeting speci ic employee behaviors

provides the best chance of success (Locke, 1968; Locke et. al, 1981). When feedback suggests

targeted goals, such as increasing a number of sales calls, or following up both successful and

unsuccessful sales calls within 10 days with a letter or email, the respondent knows exactly how to

improve performance.

Finally, constructive criticism should be oriented toward behaviors an employee can control. A

production manager may not be able to control the quality of the raw materials the department

receives. The corresponding rise in defects will be something he or she cannot change through

various behaviors. The same manager can improve his or her level of safety training and irst‐aid

skills, because they are controllable elements in the manager's department.

Constructive criticism serves the ultimate goal of offering caring assistance. Taking the time to

carefully prepare the message and its delivery makes achieving that goal possible. Destructive

criticism that tears down another person damages short‐term morale and your long‐term credibility.

As the person who receives constructive criticism, the principles listed in Table 6.6 may help

(Wilson, 2000; Morse, 2004).

Table 6.6: Principles for constructive criticism recipients

Take a deep breath to calm your nerves.

Listen carefully to fully understand the nature of the criticism.

Try to remain objective rather than defensive.

Identify the speaker's objectives in providing the critique.

Take your time.

Acknowledge the person's efforts and valid points.

Respond when you know you're ready.

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Almost everyone has felt "unjustly accused" at

one point or another.

The ability to receive constructive criticism and put it to good use re lects emotional maturity.

Supervisors and managers appreciate employees who are "teachable." At the same time, unfair

criticism deserves a response as well.

What guidelines and methods can be used to present constructive criticism or

feedback? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

To provide effective constructive criticism, the speaker irst considers the elements of the

setting, timeliness, and severity of the issue. The best constructive feedback may be ignored

or rejected if delivered in the wrong setting. Timeliness indicates the importance of

immediate feedback. Successful managers understand when to deliver constructive criticism,

recognizing there are times that it will be best to wait, so that the person can "cool off"

following a failure or bad episode. When an employee exhibits a behavior that damages his

or her performance, then it should be quickly brought to the person's attention. Other,

less‐important matters may wait.

Almost everyone has felt "unjustly accused" at one

point or another. Feelings of defensiveness are natural

in those circumstances. Causes of disagreements

include misunderstanding of the nature of the

problem, an unfair interpretation of an event or

outcome, or being criticized for the misdeed or failure

of someone else. The person receiving the unfair

feedback should try to respond in a professional

manner. Framing disagreement involves several

actions, including (MindTools.com, 2011):

trying to remain calm

having the point repeated to make sure it was

correctly presented

pointing out errors of fact

explaining why an interpretation is inaccurate or unfair

noting the reasons why something was beyond your control or was not your responsibility

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The goal at the end of the discussion will be to politely move on. It may not be possible to change

the other person's mind. In that circumstance, gently extricating yourself may be the best option.

In a mentoring relationship, feedback travels in two directions. It moves from the senior mentor to

the mentee in the forms of praise and constructive criticism. It also transfers from the mentee to the

mentor. A mentee can enhance the relationship by following a few basic feedback principles

(Ambrose & Moscinski, 2011):

Spell out the issues on which you would like information/discussion/criticism from the mentor

Ask permission to give feedback to the mentor before starting

Express appreciation for the things your mentor does well

Thank the mentor for his or her time

Feedback in both directions can build trust and a stronger relationship. Mentors who are truly

interested in mentee success take feedback to heart.

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Listening represents a critical part of management communications. Content listening occurs when

the listener seeks to understand and remember the information provided by the speaker. Active

listening involves hearing with a purpose and making a conscious effort to turn off internal ilters

and biases, in the attempt to accurately perceive and understand what the other person says.

Empathic listening takes place when the receiver tries to understand the other person, including his

or her feelings, needs and wants. Critical listening occurs when the recipient goes beyond

comprehending the message to evaluating it.

A level one listener, or a good listener, stays involved in the conversation and considers the speaker's

interests and message. Listening skills play vital roles in personal job searches, job training,

performance appraisals, and interpersonal interactions. Companies bene it from effective listening

through more‐ef icient and effective team meetings and through careful attention to presentations.

Two elements reduce the ability to listen carefully: external distractions and internal distractions.

Barriers to listening include time pressures, disagreements, detouring the speaker, the lack of

willingness to listen, mental speed and capacity, selective listening, and prejudgment.

In active listening situations, there will be little or no opportunity to respond. Interactive listening

situations include times when feedback and other forms of two‐way communication take place. In

both situations, listening involves preparation, efforts during the presentation, tactics used during

the interaction, and methods to conclude an interaction and follow‐up. Verbal encounters can be

planned or unplanned. Verbal communication occurs in interpersonal interactions and when a

person is part of an audience. Situation sensitivity is the ability to quickly assess a conversation's

context.

When listening to a presentation, attending skills that display interest are listening posture, distance,

eye contact, and elimination of barriers. Encouraging skills encompass silence, expressions of

encouragement, and the asking of open‐ended questions. Message reception techniques during the

presentation include identifying the primary and secondary point; organizing, summarizing, and

personalizing the message; and taking notes when advisable. The speaker's role is to assess the

time, place, personalities involved, and the objectives of the listeners.

During the interaction phase, three key efforts are validating the speaker, asking questions, and

framing the reply in positive terms. Validation can be transmitted through af irming statements,

restating or paraphrasing the message, and identifying areas of agreement or common interest.

Questions may be open or closed, primary or secondary, and neutral or directed. Framing a positive

response includes avoiding overgeneralizations and labels, refraining from cutting off or interrupting

the other person, and having the ability to not dominate a conversation. A polite close involves

suggesting that further conversation is in order or that the matter has been settled.

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Feedback is the information provided about a person's level of performance or success in various

activities. Constructive criticism focuses on methods to improve processes and outcomes. Destructive

feedback delivers criticism with no effort to stimulate improvement. Constructive criticism begins

with the assessment of the setting, timeliness, and severity of the issue. It continues through the use

of positive reinforcement, negative feedback, or mixed feedback.

Constructive criticism or feedback involves focusing on speci ic behaviors, remaining objective,

avoiding labels, speaking in plain terms, de ining unclear terms, and keeping feedback goal‐oriented

and focused on behaviors the individual can control. A person who can gracefully accept

constructive criticism appears to be a mature employee. Disagreements can be handled in a

professional manner by remaining calm, asking to have the point repeated, pointing out errors of

fact, explaining why an interpretation was unfair or inaccurate, and noting when the issue was

beyond the person's control. Constructive criticism can help build a relationship between a mentor

and a mentee.

active listening (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Listening with a purpose, including making a conscious effort to turn off internal ilters and biases.

active listening situations (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Listening situations in which there will be little or no opportunity to respond.

constructive criticism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Criticism that focuses on methods to improve processes and outcomes.

content listening (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

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Listening in which the receiver seeks to understand and remember the information presented by a

speaker.

critical listening (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Listening that occurs when the recipient goes beyond comprehending the message to evaluating it.

destructive feedback (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Criticism delivered with no effort to stimulate improvement, which often focuses on personal rather

than behavioral or decision issues.

empathic listening (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A form of active listening in which the receiver tries to understand the other person, including his or

her feelings, needs, and wants.

feedback (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The information provided about a person's level of performance or success in various activities.

interactive listening situations (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Listening situations in which feedback and other forms of two‐way communication take place.

situation sensitivity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The ability to quickly assess a conversation's context.

Which form of listening, content, active, empathic, or critical, matches the following

circumstances?

employee at a performance appraisal sessiona.

salesperson listening to a customer complaint while merchandise is being returnedb.

manager hearing complaints about a supervisor by a highly valued employeec.

purchasing of icer hearing a sales pitch by an outside company sales representatived.

Provide examples of external and internal distractions in the following settings.

members of the press (the audience) hearing a CEO's statement about a company's safety

violations

a team of three supervisors (the audience) who will select a new division manager

interviewing three inalist candidates for the job

star college basketball player listening to an assistant coach give advice, when the coach never

made the team in college

a purchasing group hearing sales pitches from three automobile companies seeking to sell the

company a new leet of cars

Explain how the barriers to listening might affect the following verbal situations.

marketing team listening to a member of an advertising agency saying that the company must

respond to a competitor's advertisement with three days or lose customers

a high‐performing employee receiving his irst poor performance evaluation, based on

con licts with co‐workers and negative attitudes exhibited toward management

a male supervisor being told by a member of human resources that he has been charged by

two female subordinates with creating a hostile environment of sexual harassment

Explain the relationships between planned and unplanned interpersonal interactions with the

attending and encouraging skills needed when hearing a presentation.

Explain the use of message reception techniques, including differences and similarities for each, in

the following circumstances.

you are in total agreement with what the speaker is sayinga.

you are in complete disagreement with what the speaker is sayingb.

you agree with part of what the speaker says but disagree with other partsc.

What are the relationships between the three forms of validation provided to a presenter,

af irming statements, restating or paraphrasing the message, and identifying areas of agreement

or common interest, with the three forms of questions that may be asked during the interaction

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phase of a verbal presentation?

Explain the use of constructive criticism guidelines in the following situations: employee has just

revealed con idential information about a co‐worker as gossip

employee has just revealed con idential information about a co‐worker as gossipa.

manager has just inadvertently offended a visitor from a foreign country by failing to

understand cultural differences

employee has great natural talents for innovations in technology but is disorganized and loses

work in progress as a result

marketing manager has fallen behind in terms of understanding the competition and how the

marketplace is changing

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This clip demonstrates how the Obama administration used social

media to listen to voters.

Facebook: Political Impact

From Title: The Facebook Obsession (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47286)

How does the Obama administration listen to voters with

social media?

What methods does the administration use to get feedback

from the public?

What similar methods could managers use to listen to their

employees?

In business, feedback is sourced in three ways: from the staff, to

the staff, and from the customers. This clip examines the feedback

process in the hospitality indistry.

0:00 / 2:47 1x

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Hospitality Work: Feedback

From Title: Teamwork in Hospitality (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=41138)

How can restaurant managers use feedback to improve the

quality of the business?

What methods of obtaining feedback are best? What types

of feedback should managers give restaurant employees?

How should managers get feedback from customers?3.

Tips for effective listening are described in this video clip.

0:00 / 5:13 1x

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Listening Skills

From Title: Listening Essentials (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=40422)

What verbal and nonverbal activities show active listening?1.

How can you become a more effective listener when the

speaker says something you disagree with?

After a devastating tornado swept through the city, the employees of Marie's Floral and

Gift Shop felt fortunate in some ways, and not in others. No one from the staff lived in a

house that was ruined by the storm, and none of the employees had family members who

were injured. At the same time, the roof of Marie's Floral and Gift Shop was badly

damaged, which meant the business would be closed until repairs could be made.

Marie Krause, the owner, employed a day‐ and a weekend manager to tend to the loral

shop at times when she was away. The three met with two roofers who provided

estimates for the needed repairs. The irst, Tucker Roo ing, had the reputation of being

more expensive, but the company worked quickly and used the highest‐quality materials.

The second, Bridgestone Roo ing, was perceived by many in the city as offering the "best

deal," in terms of price and quality.

When the bids were submitted, Marie and her managers were surprised. The Tucker

Roo ing bid was $14,000, far below the $20,000 bid submitted by Bridgestone. Marie and

her managers, Ted and Riley, sat at a table with her husband Joe, an attorney who was

normally not involved in the loral shop's operations.

0:00 / 3:32 1x

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In this meeting, however, Joe was the irst to speak. "I just don't understand this," he

started, "something is just not right with these bids."

Ted and Riley had both worked in construction before. Ted replied, "Oh, you'd be

surprised. This sort of thing happens all the time, one bid is way less than the other, for

the exact same work."

Riley chimed in, "Yeah, I've seen this a bunch of times. One guy may need work really bad,

so he goes really low with the bid to make sure he gets the job. Maybe Tucker needs some

work."

Marie asked, "Are you guys sure these bids are exactly the same?"

Ted replied, "Yeah, yeah. Look, it's for the same thing. The whole roof."

Marie concluded, "Well then, I guess we go with Tucker."

Joe remained unconvinced. He was certain something was amiss. But he decided that it

was not his business, so he kept silent.

The work began and Tucker Roo ing completed the repairs in short order. The next day,

Fred Tucker visited Marie's Floral and Gift Shop.

Tucker, in a highly apologetic manner, began, "I'm sorry Mrs. Krause. When we bid your

building, we didn't think that back storage area was going to need to be ixed. But it took

some pretty bad damage. So, while we were up there, we went ahead and made the

repairs. But that raises the price to $22,000. I'm sure your insurance will pick up most of

the difference."

"Wait a minute," Marie asked, "I thought your irst bid was for the whole building."

"No, it wasn't. See right here?"

Fred Tucker then showed Marie the bid, and he was right. This explained why the Tucker

bid was lower than the Bridgestone bid, which had been for the entire building. Her

managers, Ted and Riley, had not looked carefully enough at the documents. Joe had been

right, something was out of order. He calculated what the insurance company would pay,

and the net result was going to be that Marie's would pay $1,000 more for the roof repair

than if the shop had accepted the original Bridgestone bid. Needless to say, he was not

happy.

Review Questions

What type of listening had Joe used during the meeting in which they chose a roo ing1.

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company to make the repairs?

What was his level of listening during the meeting?2.

What kinds of listening barriers led to the error in selecting the roo ing company?3.

What should Marie do about the faulty advice given by Ted and Riley?4.

Antonio Farenza was about to retire from a successful career as a restaurateur. His upscale

Italian dining establishment, Antonio's, had been in business for nearly 40 years. Repeat

business and regular customers kept the company thriving, even when more dif icult

economic times took place. Antonio always believed that the keys to his success were

excellent food and great service. He was about to turn the restaurant over to his son

Marcus.

Marcus had recently completed an MBA degree and was at irst reluctant to take over the

family restaurant. After months of coaxing, he concluded it offered the best opportunity to

make a solid living. He wanted to learn more about how to keep the successful operation

moving forward, incorporating new technologies into the business.

The irst step Marcus wanted to incorporate was a social media presence. He believed that

new, younger customers might try the establishment if he created a Facebook page and a

Twitter account. He also wanted to incorporate online reservations to those made by

telephone.

When Marcus presented his ideas to his father, Antonio listened thoughtfully. After a long

pause, Antonio responded, "You know, you're probably right. You need to move this place

into the new century. But remember, repeat business is what this place is all about. You

have to make sure our regular customers don't get intimidated by all these new gizmos."

Marcus agreed. "I see the social media stuff reaching a different market. Mostly up‐and‐

coming business people who are used to using the Internet."

Antonio then commented, "You will have to convince our head waiter that he can use your

system. Make sure you train him. And then, listen to him."

"Why," Marcus asked, "What else will he have to say?"

"He's gonna tell you what makes for a successful server. We train them all the same way.

We show them how to take orders, how to bring the food out on time, not too soon and

not too late, how to deal with someone who sends something back to the kitchen, and

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how to make each customer feel special. The ones that listen, well, they make a good

living. The ones that don't, they don't last. You'll see these guys that think they know

better. They don't keep their uniforms clean, or they ignore tables so the food gets

delivered cold, they mess up orders because they don't pay attention, and the next thing

you know, you're talking to an angry customer. They don't learn. They don't listen when

you try to show them how to do a better job. You know, you can lead a horse to water, but

you can't make it drink."

Marcus responded, "So what you're telling me, is that our best servers are good listeners."

"You got that right," Antonio replied with a smile, "They listen to us when we train them,

and they listen to customers when they serve them. They turn customers into friends."

"I won't forget, Dad," Marcus concluded.

Review Questions

What kind of listening is involved in being a restaurant server?1.

What internal and external distractions might prevent a server from doing a good job on

any given night?

Is serving in a restaurant an active or an interactive listening situation? Explain your

answer.

Do you think setting up a customer review section on the company's web page will help

Marcus and his staff to listen more effectively? Why or why not?

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Stockbyte

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Relate communication processes to negotiation situations.1.

Apply bargaining principles that lead to successful negotiation outcomes.2.

Utilize management communication techniques to facilitate the stages of negotiation.3.

Identify forms of con lict in organizations and the roles played by communications channels.4.

Employ effective methods of con lict resolution.5.

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Many aspects of organizational life, beginning with applying for and accepting a job, involve

bargaining and negotiation. Many company activities also involve negotiations, both within the irm

and with other organizations. Communication processes play major roles in the successes and

failures that individuals and groups experience in negotiations and bargaining processes.

The terms bargaining and negotiation have been viewed from two perspectives. One sees them as

being the same (Wall, 1985; Robbins, 2005, p. 434). The other suggests that negotiation refers to

"win‐win" situations in which the ultimate objective will be inding mutually acceptable solutions to

complex con licts. Bargaining, in that context, represents a competitive "win‐lose" circumstance in

which both parties seek to obtain the best possible outcome for their side (Lewicki, Barry, &

Saunders, 2010, p. 3). This chapter uses the irst approach, treating the terms interchangeably. In

that context, negotiation is a give‐and‐take decision‐making process involving interdependent

parties with differing objectives or outcome preferences (Bazerman & Neale, 1992).

Two types of negotiations take place in employment settings (Walton & McKersie, 1965). When a

single issue is involved, and a zero‐sum game exists in which one's side gain or advantage becomes

the other side's loss or disadvantage, it is a distributive negotiation. An automobile manufacturer

negotiating the price for batteries to be placed in its cars provides an example of a distributive

negotiation. Every dollar that the car manufacturer has to pay for batteries becomes a dollar of

revenue to the battery supplier.

The second circumstance, in which a win‐win solution can be found, is an integrative negotiation.

This involves a problem‐solving agenda in which two or more sides try to obtain a settlement that

bene its both. Integrative negotiations occur when a company forms a partnership with a charity to

stage a fund‐raising event. They also take place when two irms form a joint venture to create a

product. Integrative solutions succeed when the two sides can establish a mutual goal.

Table 7.1 shows forms of negotiations present in the business community. Individual negotiations,

company‐to‐company negotiations, and company negotiations with outside agencies or organizations

constitute the primary categories. Both distributive and integrative negotiations take place in those

areas.

Table 7.1: Types of negotiations

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Individual With Company Company to Company Company With Outside Group

Employment Contract Sales Unions

Wages Collaborations Special Interests

Bene its Government

Job Status

These negotiation situations require various forms of business and managerial communications.

De ine negotiation, distributive negotiation, and integrative negotiation.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Negotiation is a give‐and‐take decision‐making process involving interdependent parties with

differing objectives or outcome preferences. When a single issue is involved, and a zero‐sum

game exists in which one's side gain or advantage becomes the other side's loss or

disadvantage, it is a distributive negotiation. An integrative negotiation is a problem‐solving

agenda in which two or more sides try to obtain a settlement that bene its both.

Every three years, the Writers Guild of America, East and the Writers Guild of America,

West meet to confer with the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers

(AMPTP) to negotiate a contract for compensation for various writing activities. In a

previous bargaining session and contract enactment, the writers had agreed to a minimal

amount of compensation for revenues earned from sales of movies and other materials on

VHS videotapes. As the popularity of home videos exploded, many in the guilds felt

shortchanged by the amount of compensation. In 2007, the bargaining team for the

writers was resolute about receiving payments for sales of DVD and other digital content,

especially because it would soon be possible to watch programming on a cell phone and

other remote receivers at any time via computers and the Internet.

As contract talks continued and the deadline for expiration of the contract between the

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The Writers Guild negotiation took place

over several months and included a work

stoppage.

AMPTP and the guilds approached, the producers

took a hard stance and removed residual

payments for DVD sales from their offer. On

October 20, 2007, the guilds voted to strike if an

acceptable arrangement could not be reached

(Finke, 2007).

After engaging in these lengthy negotiations, the

guilds went on strike over compensation during

the 2007–2008 television season. Estimates of

revenue loss from the strike range from $300

million at the low end to $2.1 billion at the top

(New York Times, 2008).

Numerous stakeholders beyond the producers

and writers were involved. Late‐night television

programming, such as The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, The Daily Show with Jon Stewart,

and the Late Show with David Letterman irst broadcast re‐runs of programs, hoping for a

quick end to the strike. The Late Show, owned by a separate production company, was

able to negotiate an "interim" contract returning its writers to work after two months.

Soon after, Leno and Stewart received criticism for crossing picket lines and continuing

their programs without the use of writers. Both argued that doing so helped keep other

program employees from enduring greater inancial hardships. Meanwhile, television

production of various series on all major networks (NBC, ABC, CBS, and FOX) also came to

a halt as new scripts ran out. Daytime drama programs also were affected.

In addition, the groups affected included information, leisure, and hospitality; professional

and business services; trade, transportation, and utilities; inancial activities; and

education and health services (Milken Institute, 2008). Also, other unions, such as the

Screen Actor's Guild and Teamsters had vested interests in the negotiations.

In February 2008, the two sides reached an agreement. The writers quickly rati ied the

contract, and soon all were back to work. The economic impact continued for the

remainder of the year, in the entertainment industry and also in Southern California and

New York City.

How was the writers' strike both a negotiation and a con lict?1.

What role would public relations play in these negotiations?2.

What ethical issues did Jay Leno and Jon Stewart encounter as part of the strike?3.

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As Table 7.1 notes, individual employees negotiate with companies for a variety of outcomes. Often

individual negotiations begin with how much a person is to be paid, including a signing bonus in

some circumstances. Other issues are bene it packages that contain pro it‐sharing plans, retirement

plans, health insurance, vacation time, sick leave, and other elements. Job status is another

potentially negotiable issue and de ines where the person will be placed in an organizational

hierarchy, including responsibilities and levels of authority. These discussions continue throughout a

person's career. Initially, factors that in luence negotiations for pay and bene its are (Brophy, 2004):

the strength of the job market

the company's compensation policies

the company's inancial health

the applicant's bargaining position, including offers from other companies; personal

accomplishments, including degrees and awards; and success in previous jobs

Individual negotiations consist of face‐to‐face interactions, exchanges of letters and emails, telephone

conversations, and, in some instances, a formal written contract specifying all the elements of an

agreement. The two parties involved are the employee and one or more management

representatives.

The majority of individual negotiations for pay and bene its take place during the inal stages of the

hiring process. Normally, the management representative will be the irst to ask about expected

salary and other conditions of employment. When the question is posed during the employment

interview, before the person has been selected for the position, the candidate should answer in a

way that will not hurt his or her chances of obtaining the position. Advisable responses are that you

are "open" or looking for a "competitive offer." Once the position has been offered, then

more‐concrete negotiations begin (Bovee & Thill, 2012). During the course of a career, additional

negotiations takes place regarding pay raises, job assignments, and even when and how a person

will retire (phased versus full).

Two of the more common company‐to‐company negotiation issues concern a sale or a partnership.

A sales transaction speci ies the price, terms of delivery, procedures for handling defects and

returns, and the manner in which any disputes will be resolved, including the state in which all legal

matters, such as contract interpretation, would be resolved.

Sales negotiations occur in a variety of ways, including through conversations at trade shows, visits

to a company by a sales representative, social encounters such as lunches and gol ing events, and

telephone conversations. Others transpire via mail, email, and through formal offers and contracts.

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Environmental groups, as well as government

agencies, engage in negotiations over the

ways in which companies dispose of waste

and use energy.

The level of trust between the companies often dictates the manner in which bargaining will take

place, including the communication venues to be used.

Companies form many types of partnerships. Examples are corporate sponsorships of various events

and charities, cooperative advertising programs, and agreements to co‐produce goods and services.

Each involves a series of negotiation sessions to inalize all arrangements. Often more than two

parties are included. For example, Interstate Batteries maintains a relationship with NASCAR that

features cooperative advertising and expense sharing with M&M's. Community events, such as a

Fourth of July ireworks display, may involve numerous partners.

Negotiations to develop partnerships use the same communication venues as those available for

making sales. Informal talks can often lead to formal negotiations to establish a relationship.

Effective bargaining during these sessions can create bene its for both parties without any need for

adversarial tactics. Negotiations can occur at any time during these relationships.

Managers often negotiate with outside groups that

have interests in a irm's operations. A union is an

example of an outside group. Every company that has

employees represented by a union will engage in

negotiations. Contract bargaining can occur annually,

or irms can reach multiyear agreements with unions

regarding wages, hours, and conditions of employment.

Strict governmental regulations are in place to ensure

that such negotiations proceed in as orderly a manner

as possible.

Company representatives also may negotiate with

governmental of icials to obtain various contracts.

These sales agreements, while highly regulated, can

include bargaining sessions. Other negotiations with

governmental agencies involve interpretations of regulations and mediation sessions when con licts

with other companies arise. Many such negotiations have occurred regarding federal pollution

standards and company practices.

In certain circumstances, company leaders ind it necessary to negotiate with members of special‐

interest groups. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) has engaged in sessions with

members of pro it‐seeking companies regarding methods of killing and cooking chickens, the use of

dogs and other animals in developing and testing cosmetics, and humane treatment of animals in

ilm‐making, and with rodeo organizers. Other organizations have challenged how companies

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portray ethnic groups in advertising. Environmental groups, as well as government agencies, engage

in negotiations over the ways in which companies dispose of waste and use energy.

Communication venues are established for negotiations in each of these company‐to‐outsider group

interactions. These bargaining sessions often include sets of individuals, such as the bargaining team

for labor and a separate team representing management in a union‐management negotiation. The

two sides often face each other across a bargaining table, creating a formal, perhaps adversarial,

tone. Negotiations with governmental of icials and special‐interest groups range from informal,

personal meetings to mediated sessions and courtroom encounters.

What three types of negotiations take place in the business community?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Individual with company, company with company, company with other organization.

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Effective bargaining begins with understanding how the process will work. Managerial negotiations

with future and ongoing employees differ in format from those involving other companies or outside

agencies. However, many of the activities are largely the same, including understanding the

preconditions to negotiation, the stages involved, and the proper tactics to employ.

Before any bargaining process begins, managers should believe negotiation represents the best

option. Table 7.2 identi ies times when it is better to ind some other approach. After considering

these precautions, the preconditions to bargaining may be examined. Three preconditions are an

understanding of the bargaining environment, the availability of bargaining resources, and the

characteristics of the bargaining issue.

Table 7.2: When negotiation is NOT an option

The

other

side

Acts in bad faith (does not follow legal

protocols)

Makes unethical demands

Your

side

Is not well prepared

Could simply wait and improve its position

Does not have time to negotiate

Might lose everything Will gain little or nothing

Sources: Lewicki, R. J., Barry, B., & Saunders, D. M. (2010). Negotiation

(6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw‐Hill, p. 7. Levinson, J. C., Smith, M. S. A.,

& Wilson, O. R. (1999). Guerrilla negotiating: Unconventional weapons

and tactics to get what you want. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, pp.

22–23.

The Bargaining Environment

Negotiation can take place only in the proper climate. When such a frame of mind does not emerge,

negotiations become more likely to fail. The most important psychological elements are (Moore,

2011):

identi ication of the participants

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Before beginning any actual negotiation, all

sides should be able to say, "We're ready."

readiness to negotiate

willingness to agree on some issues

willingness to settle

Managers should be aware of the various stakeholders

and participants present, prior to any bargaining

process. In the case of negotiations with outside

agencies, for example, a company may seek to reach an

agreement with a union, while remaining aware of

governmental constraints, such as those related to

bargaining in good faith, equal‐opportunity legislation,

and antitrust laws.

A stakeholder group consists of people with a vested

interest in the outcome of a negotiation, as Chapter 1

describes. These individuals should tangibly

demonstrate their readiness to be seated at the

bargaining table. An individual or group conveys the readiness to negotiate by committing to

conduct the needed investigation before any irst meeting. A stakeholder should have adequate time

to prepare a negotiation strategy. Before beginning any actual negotiation, all sides should be able to

say, "We're ready."

Negotiation will not be possible unless some agreement on issues and interests exists. For example,

an applicant should be able to agree with company leaders that hiring him or her at a given rate of

pay and bene its will bene it the applicant and the company. Two companies should be able to agree

that the sale of a product bene its both organizations. The parties to a negotiation should be able to

commit to a joint decision‐making process based on such agreements (Kolb & Williams, 2003).

Negotiations succeed when participants want to settle. A negotiation will be doomed to failure if

continuing a con lict takes on more importance than settling. In essence, for an agreement to be

reached, the disadvantage created by failing to ind an agreement must be more signi icant than

keeping the con lict going.

The Availability of Bargaining Resources

Participants in a negotiation should have access to suf icient time and money to fully engage in a

dialog. Additional bargaining resources include bargaining skills held by key negotiators. When one

side's resources are inadequate or unequal to the other side's resources, this may impede effective

negotiations and lead to greater disparity in the inal outcome of the negotiation, producing win‐lose

results. The resources held by a group in a negotiation include a "means of in luence" form of

leverage, as Table 7.3 shows (French & Raven, 1959).

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Table 7.3: Sources of in luence in negotiations

Legitimate Superior position based on a governmental dictate

Ownership of a patent or similar protection

Contractual advantage from a previous negotiation

Individual with a speci ic degree or status (e.g., CPA, JD)

Reward Access to additional business partners or customers

Establishing a basis for future agreements

Company's ability to pay and grant bene its to individuals or

companies

Coercion Loss of revenues

Loss of supplies

Damaged relations with customers

Damaged relations with governmental organizations

Individual's ability to seek employment elsewhere

Company's ability to terminate or not hire an individual

Expertise Presentation of factual evidence

Analysis by experts in the area or ield

Individual with credentials that make him or her unique

Charisma Personal persuasiveness

Thought‐provoking questions and discussion

Characteristics of the Bargaining Issue

The bargaining issue itself presents a potential roadblock to or opportunity to bargain. To become a

viable bargaining issue, various characteristics of that issue must be in place. Among these are

interdependence, the willingness to compromise, unpredictability of the outcome, negotiable issues,

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If one company knows that a lawsuit against

another company only has a 50–50 chance of

success, the irm's management team may

decide that its best interests are served by

negotiating instead.

and participants holding the authority to decide.

Interdependence forms when an attachment of some

kind between the parties exists. An applicant

bargaining for salary has the knowledge or a skill that

the organization needs, which creates the

interdependence as part of the job search/employment

offer process. Parties to a sale, such as a situation in

which one company seeks to provide a service to

another company, should in some way cause both

sides to rely on each other in order to have their needs

met or interests satis ied. When one party to a

bargaining arrangement inds that it can satisfy its

needs without the help or cooperation of the other, no

real reason to negotiate exists.

In many negotiations, compromise may be necessary

for the parties to reach an agreement. If one side

determines that the other has "dug in" and no

compromise will be possible, negotiation might not be

the best option.

Parties negotiate when the outcome of an issue cannot be predicted. If one company knows that a

lawsuit against another company only has a 50–50 chance of success, the irm's management team

may decide that its best interests are served by negotiating instead. The reason for the decision

would be that, by negotiating, the company would receive at least some of what it wants; a court

order could completely favor the other side. The same holds true when an individual considers

walking away from a job offer, rather than taking a lower salary or reduced bene its (Schalzki,

1981).

Negotiators must believe that acceptable settlement options can be discovered. Room for

give‐and‐take must be present. When only win‐lose settlement possibilities are apparent, the parties

involved become more reluctant to enter into dialog.

In any negotiation, the participants involved must have the authority to make a decision, whether it

is a hiring decision, sales agreement, or resolution with an outside agency. When they do not, or

when a rati ication process has not been established, negotiations will normally be limited to an

information exchange between the parties (Lewicki & Hiam, 2006, pp. 40–73).

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What three preconditions to negotiations should be examined to see if bargaining

should take place? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Three preconditions are understanding the bargaining environment, the availability of

bargaining resources, and the characteristics of the bargaining issue.

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When two parties decide that negotiation represents the best option for settling an issue, the

various states of negotiation can begin. Achieving results comes from careful management of the

entire process. At the most general level, negotiation consists of three overall stages, the preliminary,

bargaining, and ending phases. Each involves various activities. Table 7.4 presents elements of a

three‐stage model of negotiation.

Table 7.4: The stages of negotiation

Preliminary Stage Bargaining Stage Ending Stage

Prepare Framing Close

Open Discovery Follow‐up

Consensus

Packaging

What are the three main stages of the negotiation process?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The preliminary stage, the bargaining stage, and the ending stage.

In the preliminary stage, two primary activities receive attention: preparation and opening. When

managers plan thoroughly, the chances for achieving desired bargaining goals increase. The failure to

plan provides the other party with a bargaining advantage that continues through the remainder of

the process.

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Preparation

Preparation begins at the point when management decides negotiations should go forward. Several

principles guide preparations. Managers should identify and evaluate the receiver, sender, and

purpose of the negotiation (Hynes, 2011, p. 245).

The receiver analysis involves discovering the type of person (and company) who will be sitting

across the table. Some will be quiet and reserved; others will be bombastic and aggressive. Cultural

differences can dictate negotiation styles in various regions of the country and in international

settings. These include the degree of deference, eye contact, gift‐giving, and silent pauses.

Analysis of the sender involves establishing the style that your side will use. Exuding con idence

constitutes a primary advantage in negotiation. Remember that body language communicates a great

deal during a negotiation. When a negotiator rolls up his sleeves, removes his jacket, and pours a

cup of coffee, the message conveyed is that he expects a long session. Nervous inger‐tapping or

twirling a pencil suggests a level of nervousness and lack of con idence (Ilich, 1983). Table 7.5 lists

various styles and strategies related to negotiation.

Table 7.5: Negotiation styles

Surprise Quick new request; quick concession

Bluff Withhold information; act as though you have a stronger position than

you do

Fait Accompli Bluf ing that an agreement has already been reached that favors your

side

Stacking Combine your idea, demand, or proposal with a reference to a similar

situation

Screen Use a third party to negotiate

Take No

Prisoners

Try to dominate the other side by suggesting and leveraging a major

power differential

Take It or Leave

It A inal offer; should only be used once

Source: Lewicki, R. J., & Littere, J. A. (1985). Negotiation. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.

Analysis of the purpose involves looking at what each side intends to achieve during the negotiation.

A new employee seeks to reach the best wage and bene it deal. Most of the time, employees are able

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A negotiator will often try to discover the

BATNA of the opposing side in order to

further expedite negotiations.

to discover pay levels of co‐workers, even when the company tries to maintain a closed pay policy.

As a result, management may wish to keep the compensation level at a point where ongoing

employees are not upset when they learn of the pay package. Bargaining during a sales call involves

not only one transaction but also the potential for an ongoing relationship.

Also as part of the preparation process, two concepts take precedence. Negotiators need to know the

maximum supportable outcome, which is the absolute most a side can ask for as an opening

position, within reason. Second, the lowest supportable outcome constitutes the least amount or

least favorable position a side will accept from a negotiation. Table 7.6 displays the interactions of

these two concepts, which create the settlement range or bargaining zone.

Table 7.6: Maximum and lowest supportable outcome

Salesperson ‐ Company 1 Purchasing Of icer ‐ Company 2

Maximum Supportable Outcome $1.5 million Lowest Supportable Outcome

Lowest Supportable Outcome $1.35 million Maximum Supportable Outcome

Settlement range or bargaining zone = $1.35 to $1.5 million

Closely related to the lowest supportable outcome is

BATNA, or the best alternative to a negotiated

agreement. It identi ies the lowest acceptable value to

a party as a substitute to a stalemate (Bazerman &

Neale, 1992, pp. 67–68). BATNA allows the person

bargaining to know when an offer is higher than one

that would lead to an impasse, because it is above that

" loor" level.

For example, in the sales situation presented in Table

7.6, the representative of the selling company knows

that $1.35 million constitutes the lowest supportable

outcome, because it covers the company's shipping

costs to send the items to another country. If Company

2's inal offer is $1.3 million, the negotiator for Company 1 can walk away, knowing that a domestic

irm will pay $1.28 million for the items and that the company will not incur the same shipping

costs. The domestic company offers the best alternative to a negotiated agreement with the foreign

customer (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 1992). A negotiator will often try to discover the BATNA of the

opposing side, in order to further expedite negotiations.

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Preparation includes establishing long‐term goals such as trust and con idence in the other party.

Mutual principles and concerns begin with whether the relationship will be adversarial or

cooperative. One of the more destructive forces in the process takes place when the urge to win

overwhelms rational thinking (Malhotra & Murningham, 2008). Preparation involves selecting

approaches or procedures that lead to problem‐solving whenever possible.

De ine maximum supportable outcome, lowest supportable outcome, and BATNA.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The maximum supportable outcome is the absolute most a side can ask for as an opening

position, within reason. The lowest supportable outcome constitutes the least amount or

least favorable position a side will accept from a negotiation. BATNA, or best alternative to a

negotiated agreement, identi ies the lowest acceptable value to a party as a substitute to a

stalemate.

Opening

The opening begins when parties make initial contact in person, by telephone, by mail, or online. In

this stage, negotiators seek to build rapport and try to establish a cordial relationship. Most

negotiations begin with casual conversations about non‐bargaining issues. Cultural and particular

industry forces often impact and determine the length of these initial interactions.

At the beginning of a bargaining session, negotiators express the desire to reach an agreeable

outcome. Announcing that your side is committed to following through the established procedures

creates a more professional tone. Both sides should fully understand the processes that will be used

(Moore, 2011). A standard opening includes the steps in Table 7.7.

Table 7.7: Opening negotiation procedures

Introduce the parties involved.

Parties make statements demonstrating the willingness to listen, share ideas, remain open to

reason, and seek to bargain in good faith.

Establish guidelines for behavior.

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State mutual expectations for the negotiations.

Describe history of problem and explain why there is a need for change or agreement.

Identify interests and/or positions.

De ine issues and set an agenda.

Source: R. J. Lewicki, B. Barry, & D. M. Saunders (2010). Negotiation (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw‐Hill, 41–70.

A negotiator should also understand that "no" may be the opening position or that the irst offer

made by the other side will often be above expectations. The bargainer or team should be wary of a

"reluctant buyer or seller" ploy that involves deliberate stalling and transmitting the unwillingness to

reach a quick agreement. A negotiator should be ready to respond to such tactics and any other

complications. Developing methods to handle strong emotions is part of preparation for the opening

(Shell, 1999). Tactics include suggesting a "time out," or cooling off period, using humor to diffuse

the situation, or bringing in a third party to calm both sides, individually or collectively.

Brie ly describe the two activities that take place in the preliminary stage of

negotiation. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

In the preliminary stage, two primary activities receive attention: preparation and opening.

During preparation, managers identify and evaluate the receiver, sender, and purpose of the

negotiation. The opening begins when parties make initial contact in person, by telephone,

by mail, or online. In this stage, negotiators seek to build rapport and try to establish a

cordial relationship.

The bargaining stage includes the processes of framing, discovery, consensus, and packaging, as

Table 7.4 notes. When negotiations are fully under way, one common approach involves starting with

an issue in which there will be a strong impact on all participants, only minor disagreements are

present, and a strong likelihood of agreement exists. Then, each party explains how it views the

situation. At this point, the session will be more effective if someone encourages participants to

express their sides in suf icient detail to ensure that all involved understand the individual's or

group's viewpoint. Each participant should have a chance to describe how he or she views the

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situation.

Effective negotiators engage in active listening, ask open‐ended questions, and focus on collecting

information, while asking questions that clarify the message and encourage the speaker with

support and positive feedback (Brooks, 2003). When answering questions, follow two key guidelines.

First, never answer until the question is fully understood. Second, take time to think through your

answer. Table 7.8 indicates methods of response to bargaining questions.

Table 7.8: Responding to questions during negotiations

Method of Response Purpose

Complete and forthright answers To move forward to the next issue

Partial answer Tactfully avoid revealing damaging information

Clarify the question Then, answer the part that best serves your interests

Answer a different question To gain an advantage by what you say

Create a positive response Turn a disadvantage into an advantage

Sources: Putnam, L. L., & Poole, M. S. (1987). Con lict and negotiation, in Jablin, F., Putnam, L., Roberts, K., & Porter,

L. (eds.) Handbook of organizational communication. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications. Byrnes, J. F. (1987). Ten

guidelines for effective negotiation. Business Horizons, May–June, 7–12.

Framing

A bargaining session moves more ef iciently when both parties begin by identifying speci ic items to

be discussed. A frame is a subjective mechanism through which negotiators can make sense of

situations, leading them to pursue or avoid subsequent actions (Goffman, 1974; Bateson, 1972). The

types of frames used in negotiations are substantive, outcome, aspirational, and loss‐gain. A

substantive frame identi ies a primary point of disagreement. An outcome frame suggests what a

negotiator seeks to achieve as a result of the process. An aspirational frame moves from one small

issue to a larger set of interests. A loss‐gain frame de ines the risks and rewards associated with

various outcomes (Lewicki, Barry, & Saunders, 2010). Issues should be framed to be presented in a

nonjudgmental, neutral manner whenever possible. Beyond starting on an agreeable note, most

negotiations will bring up issues about which the parties will disagree, creating the framing process.

As part of the initial process, both sides reveal information that bene its their arguments and avoid

revealing damaging information. Persuasion techniques are employed, including silence, verifying

information, and recon iguring arguments to best suit a party's position (Goldman & Rojot, 2003).

When in the framing phase, salespeople use a variety of techniques. Some attempt to control the

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Discovery involves reviewing the needs of

parties that relate to disputed areas and

looking for agreements in principle.

agenda of the sales meeting by ensuring that only relevant information that pertains to the potential

sale is discussed. Buyers may attempt to control the agenda as well. Either party may attempt to

slice a deal by tabling issues on which they cannot reach agreement and instead focusing on smaller

slices of the deal. They may also attempt to split the difference when arriving at a inal deal. Here,

they would focus on meeting halfway or somewhere in between the parties' desired outcome on

subjects such as price, delivery demands, and other issues pertaining to the inal agreement.

Discovery

During the discovery stage, parties try to generate

options for settlement. Discovery involves reviewing

the needs of parties that relate to disputed areas and

looking for agreements in principle. Negotiators may

consider breaking a major issue into smaller, more

manageable issues and generating solutions for these.

Discovery tactics are (Lewicki, Barry, & Saunders,

2010, pp. 71–106):

alternating proposals, allowing each side to "win"

certain elements

presenting position/counter‐position arguments

making trades or concessions for items of value

trying to generate ideas that bene it both sides

Tradeoffs and compromises are explored in the discovery phase. Negotiators avoid any attempt by

the other side to rely on a "higher authority," such as, "My boss won't go for that offer," as a

rationale for not meeting various negotiation points. Also, the effective bargainers are aware of the

"vise" tactic, in which the other side continually uses phrases such as, "You'll have to do better than

that," to put the squeeze on a bargaining position.

Discovery results in true give‐and‐take. As the two parties defend their areas of greatest interest,

they can offer compromises on other matters. Unless or until a stalemate occurs, discovery

continues.

Consensus

Consensus or a lack of agreement will be signaled in different ways. A lack of agreement will be

indicated when one side concludes that an impasse has been reached. To handle an impasse, three

approaches are to offer to set the issue aside and deal with other issues, change one of the

negotiating points, or bring in a third party to seek a resolution.

The second type of signal notes that agreeable terms are within sight. When a negotiator says

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something along the lines of, "That sounds like something we can live with," the signal has been

sent. When a union negotiator responds, "I think our members would ratify that proposal," a signal

of potential consensus and agreement has been offered.

Packaging

Packaging begins after a signal has been sent that an agreement is possible. It takes place when

negotiators assess inal options for settlement. This includes a review of the interests of the parties

involved and an analysis of how many interests can be met by the offered options. Part of assessing

options includes the evaluation of costs and bene its of selecting each option.

At that point, a party can revise bargaining strategies if necessary. Typically, one side's power

increases by getting the other side to commit irst. To move toward the inal stage of negotiation,

both sides should be willing to note agreement.

One method used to signify that an agreement has been reached involves writing a letter of intent.

Often these take the form of a memo, rather than a full letter, and can be sent electronically. The

purpose served will be to make sure no surprises result later (Byrnes, 1987). Verbal statements such

as "Are we ready to act?" and "Have we got a deal?" indicate that the ending stage has been reached.

What four processes take place during the bargaining stage of a negotiation?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The bargaining stage includes the processes of framing, discovery, consensus, and packaging.

The ending stage can begin after the two parties completely agree to the alternative or set of

alternatives. A sale reaches the ending stage when the terms, including price, delivery schedule,

inancing, and other matters have been inalized. An agreement between a company and a union

occurs when all issues present in the bargaining session are resolved. An individual negotiating for

salary and bene its reaches the ending stage when all elements of the employment contract have

been agreed upon. Two elements of the ending stage are the close and the follow‐up.

The Close

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Many times, a handshake accompanies a

close.

The parties should establish a procedural means to

formalize the close. A close will take the form of a

written memo or a legal contract, depending on the

scale and scope of the agreement. Any written

document should contain suf icient detail to

implement the agreement and handle any potential

contingencies or complications. In many situations,

monitoring protocols are established to make sure

both sides comply with the terms of the agreement.

An individual negotiating for a job with a company has

reached the close when a contract or memo spells out

the date employment will begin, along with all of the

details of the agreement. A close will often simply be a verbal commitment by the employer and

applicant, but many such agreements are put in writing, especially for professional occupations.

To close a sale, a contract or similar document specifying the nature of the purchase will be signed

or verbally agreed upon by both parties. Monitoring in a sales situation includes updates regarding

when orders have been shipped and received. The contents sent in a shipment are noted in a bill of

lading. A performance bond also helps guarantee that a project will be properly completed, as with

construction of a building or facility.

Mergers, joint ventures, and more complex agreements between companies require a more‐detailed

close. Normally, notice of a inal agreement or close occurs when the two organizations have

formally signed legal documents creating the relationship.

For a union‐management agreement to close, the bargaining contract has been agreed upon by the

negotiators and then a vote by union members will certify the contract. In a formal ceremony,

negotiators for both sides will sign the inal document. Monitoring of union‐management

agreements normally includes speci ied procedures for iling grievances regarding contract violations

or other matters of contention or disagreement.

Many times, a handshake accompanies a close. Congratulations are offered, and both parties can

relax and enjoy the accomplishment of completing an acceptable agreement.

Follow‐up

The standard methods used to follow up include emails, phone calls, letters, and other interactions.

These contacts help reassure the other side that the agreement is acceptable and that the terms will

be carried out. Then, over time, further efforts can be made to continue the relationship through

phone calls, email, videoconferences, mail, and personal visits.

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In summary, effective negotiations take place when both sides take seriously each aspect of the

three‐step process. Careful preparations include analysis of the receiver, sender, and the purpose of

the negotiation. The bargaining stage plays out through professional framing, discovery, consensus,

and packaging, relying on persuasion rather than taking matters personally. A cordial ending

involves a ceremonial close, along with all necessary paperwork and efforts to sustain the

relationship.

What two activities are involved in the ending stage of the negotiation process?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Two elements of the ending stage are the close and the follow‐up.

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Interpretations of the term "con lict" have taken several directions in the past few decades. One

early perspective suggested that con lict constitutes a negative force. Words such as "violent,"

"destructive," and "angry" portray this point of view. As time passed, con lict began to be

conceptualized as a continuum from mild disagreement to major confrontations, but still with a

negative connotation. More recently, concepts of con lict have evolved from considering it as

something to be avoided or eliminated to viewing con lict as an inevitable, but manageable, process.

Some see con lict as a driving force that leads to innovation and much‐needed change (Fink, 1968;

De Dreu & Van de Vliert, 1997).

For our purposes, con lict will be de ined as a circumstance in which one party negatively affects or

seeks to negatively affect another party in both observable and perceived ways (Thomas, 1992; Wall

& Callister, 1995). Some forms of con lict take place even when it would be dif icult to point it out as

an observable event. In others, the manifest strife will be readily apparent.

Con lict can be compared to another concept, competition, which is a situation in which all parties in

an event or situation attempt to do their best, and the winner emerges as the person or group with

the highest level of performance. A sales contest between individuals or teams is a competition; a

confrontation between two members of a sales force in which one accuses the other of "stealing a

sale" becomes a con lict situation.

Con lict has been conceptualized as taking two forms. Functional con lict serves the organization's

interests in some way. An example of functional con lict would be one in which improvement in

performance or greater cooperation among individuals or groups takes place. Other terms used to

describe functional con lict include constructive, cooperative, and substantive con lict (McGrath,

1984).

Dysfunctional con licts include the destructive activities that hinder group or organizational

performance (Amason, 1996). Poor organizational communication can create dysfunctional con licts.

Quality communication systems assist in developing and resolving functional con licts, and aid in

avoiding many con licts.

De ine con lict, functional con lict, and dysfunctional con lict.

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Con lict is a circumstance in which one party negatively affects or seeks to negatively affect

another party in both observable and perceived ways. Functional con lict serves the

organization's interests in some way. Dysfunctional con licts include the destructive activities

that hinder group or organizational performance.

Many forms of con lict exist. Members of the business community should be aware that four levels

of con lict occur in the workplace. Resolving con lict cannot occur until the level has been properly

identi ied. The four levels of con lict are:

between individuals1.

between groups or departments2.

between companies3.

with the government4.

Communication processes often accompany the various forms of con lict. Table 7.9 lists the

communication venues that can become part of both functional and dysfunctional con licts.

Table 7.9: Communication channels and con lict

Interpersonal Group Between

Companies

With the

Government

Face‐to‐face

verbal

Meetings Advertising Meetings with

of icials

Memos and

letters

Informal channels Media releases Media releases

Telephone Social media Court documents Court documents

Email and text Email and memos Social media Social media

Social media Meetings with

supervisors

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Jupiterimages/Thinkstock

Workplace bullying is repeated, health‐

harming mistreatment of one or more

persons. Bullying involves one or more

perpetrators and takes the form of verbal

abuse, offensive conduct, and work

interference.

What four levels of con lict take place in business settings?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The four levels of con lict are those between individuals, between groups or departments,

between companies, and with the government. Intergroup con lict transpires between various

groups or departments.

Con licts Between Individuals

Con licts between individuals, or interpersonal

con licts, take place between employees both on‐ and

off‐site. Personality con licts often result from

workplace incivility and risky communication.

Examples of incivility and risky communication are:

sexually inappropriate comments, racial or ethnic

slurs, ridicule of older or younger workers, derision

based on sexual orientation, and insensitive comments

about physical or mental disabilities (Blau & Anderson,

2005).

Workplace bullying is repeated, health‐harming

mistreatment of one or more persons. Bullying

involves one or more perpetrators and takes the form

of verbal abuse, offensive conduct, and work

interference (Workplace Bullying Institute, 2011). Workplace bullying can create another forum for

con lict. Reyner & Hoel (1997) identify ive types of workplace bullying, including the items in Table

7.10.

Bullying can happen at the same organizational rank (employee to employee) or involve hostility by

a supervisor toward an employee. The tactics in Table 7.10 lead to various types of con licts, some of

which go unresolved, as the individual is too intimidated to react. Others lead to withdrawal

behaviors, including increased absenteeism and the search for a different job.

Table 7.10: Types of workplace bullying

Threats to professional Belittling opinion

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status Public professional

humiliation

Accusation regarding lack

of effort

Threats to personal

standing

Name‐calling

Insults

Intimidation

Devaluation with regard to

age

Isolation Preventing access to

opportunities

Physical or social isolation

Withholding of information

Overwork Undue pressure

Impossible deadlines

Unnecessary disruptions

Destabilization Failure to give credit when

due

Meaningless tasks

Removal of responsibility

Repeated reminders of

blunders

Setting up to fail

Source: Rayner, C., & Hoel, H. (1997). A summary review of literature

relating to workplace bullying. Journal of Community and Applied Social

Psychology, 7(1) 191–191.

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Con licts between individuals play out in many ways, as do the bullying tactics in Table 7.10.

Face‐to‐face confrontations are the most visible and require the most direct, quick action. Other

interpersonal con licts take place in the form of email exchanges, comments made in meetings,

questions and arguments following presentations, text messages, and sometimes hostile memos and

letters. Telephone skirmishes are also common in commerce. More recently, postings on Facebook, in

Twitter accounts, and through other social media indicate the presence of con lict. Remember that

anything you post electronically, such as an email or text, is typically considered the property of the

company. As with any message you put in writing, it can provide evidence of your misbehavior,

inappropriate use of language, and other transgressions.

Groups and Departments

Intragroup con lict refers to incidents between members of one group. Disagreements about goals,

methods of operation, and who will be the leader create intragroup con licts. The end result can be

poor decisions and ineffective group functioning, when con licts are not properly managed and

resolved (Bazerman & Neale, 1992). Intragroup con lict takes the forms of confrontations during

meetings, between group members in other locations (face‐to‐face) and also by phone and email,

and through social media. Many times, informal communication or gossip becomes part of the

con lict process.

Intergroup con lict transpires between various groups or departments. Besides con licts between

departments within companies, other factions can emerge around any common point between

employees (e.g., ethnicity, gender, position of power, etc.) and this can become the basis for various

battles. Intergroup con licts emerge when disagreements about goals, differences of opinion about

which group should be assigned a project or task, or budget allocations become the focus of

attention. Intergroup con licts may be brought to the attention of management through memos and

emails, and by asking for personal contacts with managers at high levels to present grievances

regarding the conduct of the other group or department.

Describe intragroup and intergroup con lict. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Intragroup con lict refers to incidents between members of one group. Intergroup con lict

transpires between various groups or departments.

Con licts Between Companies

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Con licts between companies and with the

government may involve the use of formal

mediation.

Numerous con licts emerge between companies over proprietary matters. Often, con licts involve

advertising claims or other business tactics deemed unfair or designed to compete in unfair, illegal,

or unethical ways. In those circumstances, company leaders engage in private negotiations, issue

public statements and releases, and request the intervention of entities such as the Better Business

Bureau and Federal Trade Commission.

As an example of con licts between organizations, the toy company Mattel employed an individual

named Carter Bryant for many years. Bryant left the company and became part of MGA

Entertainment, where he designed and developed the popular Bratz line of dolls to compete with

Mattel's Barbie brand. Mattel's executives claimed that Bryant came up with the idea for the Bratz

line while still employed at Mattel. After intense confrontations, the matter went to court. Mattel

won a $100 million judgment against MGA Entertainment; however, no punitive damages were

assessed. Both sides claimed victory as a result (WCCO, 2010).

A wide range of additional con licts are possible beyond disputes over products. Companies may

dispute rights to other properties, employment of rival workers, theft of trade secrets, and clash

over suppliers and retail outlets. The issues and communication tactics vary by the type of

engagement involved.

Con licts With the Government

Many companies engage in various types of con lict

with governmental of icials and agencies.

Disagreements over regulations, taxes due, and

meeting various regulatory requirements can spur

clashes with individuals from the government. These

include encounters with local, state, and national

of icials, depending on the size and scope of the

company and the issue involved. Also, some company

managers in international irms cope with

governmental of icials from other countries.

Domestically, con licts arise with representatives of the

Environmental Protection Agency, Occupational Safety

and Health Administration, Internal Revenue Service, Food and Drug Administration, and Federal

Trade Commission. Communication venues with these individuals include formal written reports,

in‐person meetings, telephone conversations, email correspondence, courtrooms, and formal

mediation situations. An increasing number of companies take disputes with governmental

organizations to the public through public relations releases and social media campaigns.

Each of these four types of con lict requires an intervention. In the case of an intrapersonal con lict,

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a counselor or adviser may assist. Intragroup and intergroup con licts may be resolved in a variety

of ways, most notably by the intervention of managers. Con licts between companies and with the

government often result in reliance on attorneys to assist in reaching an acceptable solution.

Managers choose the most appropriate method for dealing with each problem as it arises.

In 1967, Louis Pondy developed an often‐used model of con lict. A modi ied version appears as

Figure 7.1. Pondy's model notes the presence of the con lict cycle, in which individuals or groups

engage in a series of con licts, even when they are only spectators. This causes them to become

increasingly sensitized to the events, which in turn makes subsequent con lict more likely. After a

series of con licts has been resolved, the company enters a more tranquil period. During that time,

individuals and groups may become more patient with each other, and the net result will be reduced

numbers of potential and open con licts. Managerial skill and intervention can break the cycle of

increasing con lict.

Figure 7.1: An adaptation of Pondy's conflict model

This adapted version of Pondy's model shows the con lict cycle, which starts with

latent con lict or all the potential sources of the con lict. The cycle continues with

felt and perceived con licts. Then comes open con lict, which is the confrontation

resulting from escalation of the issue. After open con lict, resolution must take

place. The aftermath of the con lict then cycles back to latent con lict again.

Adapted from: L. R. Pondy (1967). Organizational Con lict: Concepts and Models. Administrative Science Quarterly, 12 (September), 296–320.

As shown in Figure 7.1, latent con lict represents all the potential sources of con lict at the individual

or group level. These potential sources may or may not erupt into open confrontations. Some

problems may exist for years without ever becoming manifest. Others may take a "fast track" and

quickly develop into altercations. Table 7.11 lists the potential sources of con lict within an

organization. A lack of communication or poor communication can worsen latent con licts.

Misinterpreted messages often heighten personality issues and other disagreements. Posts on social

media can also exacerbate any latent sources of con lict.

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Table 7.11: Sources of con lict

Individual Group or Departmental

Job assignments Group task assignments

Performance appraisals Budgets/resource allocation

Promotions Personalities of group members

Pay raises Dependence/bottlenecks

Personality issues and incivility Goals

Dependence/bottlenecks Communication breakdown

Goals Ethical issues

Status differences

Communication breakdown

Power differences

Ethical violations

Inappropriate use of social media

Sources: Thomas, K. W. (1994). Con lict and negotiation processes in organizations, in Dunnette, M. D., & Hough, L.

M. (eds.) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, second edition, Vol. 3. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting

Psychologists. Jehn, K. A. (1994). Enhancing effectiveness: An investigation of advantages and disadvantages of

value‐based intragroup con lict. International Journal of Con lict Management, 5(3) 223–238. Baack, D. (1998).

Organizational behavior. Houston, TX: Dame Publications, 406–408.

Felt con lict occurs when people know something is wrong but cannot pinpoint the source. It is not

unusual to have the experience of walking into a room and feeling immediately that something is

wrong without knowing the actual problem. That point is the felt con lict stage.

Perceived con lict means that those near a con lict know the issues and the people involved, yet do

not feel discomfort from it. In essence, the con lict is "someone else's problem." Often perceived

con licts appear in other departments or parts of the organization.

When two individuals or parties become engaged in a con lict, perceptions play major roles.

Inaccurate perceptions of the other side's position or of the issue at hand lead to inaccurate mutual

perceptions in which resolution becomes increasingly dif icult (Hynes, 2011). In essence, as felt and

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perceived con licts intensify, perceptions become distorted. The tendency shifts toward interpreting

people and events as either with one side or against that side. Thinking reverts to more

stereotypical and biased forms that favor a person's viewpoint. This sets the stage for more‐open

con lict.

Open con licts appear as showdowns, confrontations, and other outward signs. Often an open con lict

results from ongoing escalation of the issue. As this takes place, communication between the parties

decreases, issues become blurred by generalizations and blanket statements, such as "You always . .

." or "You never . . ." Parties to the con lict lock into positions and tend to magnify differences and

minimize similarities between the two sides.

Manifest con lict behaviors include yelling, loud arguments, and violence toward others at the

individual level and work slowdowns, strikes, and deliberate rules violations at the group level.

Evidence of con lict in meetings or presentational formats can be revealed through the questions

audience or team members pose. Controlling questions take the form of mini‐lectures in which one

side of an argument or disagreement seeks to dominate the other. Hostile questions aggressively

point out the con lict at hand (Munter, 2012). Other forms of manifest con lict are found in memos,

emails, and phone exchanges between the parties. At that point, con lict resolution must take place.

A manager or arbiter will need to step in.

What are the stages of the con lict cycle? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Latent con lict, perceived and/or felt con lict, open con lict, con lict resolution, and con lict

aftermath.

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Con lict resolution includes an understanding of the concerns of the parties. Both concerns about

personal outcomes and concerns about the other side's outcomes affect the nature of the con lict.

Figure 7.2 lists the potential responses.

Figure 7.2: Responses to concerns

Both concerns about personal outcomes and the other side's outcomes affect the

nature of the con lict and subsequent responses.

When one side has little concern about the other's outcomes, two responses are contending and

inaction. Contending or competing occurs when one side fully pursues its outcomes with no regard

for the outcomes of the other side. Other terms associated with contending are dominating and

forcing (Rahim, 1985). Forcing expresses a high concern for production with low concern for people

(Hall, 1986). With this approach, one sees stronger tactics, such as threats, intimidation, and

unilateral action.

Inaction or avoiding is withdrawal or remaining passive during the con lict. The passive party has

little regard for its own outcome and is not concerned about the other's outcome. Some authors

equate inaction or avoiding with a low concern for people and a low concern for production in the

workplace (Blake & Mouton, 1970). In response, one side retreats from the con lict.

A third response involves circumstances in which concerns for the other's outcomes are high. Two

possible actions are yielding and problem‐solving. Yielding or accommodating involves seeking to

help the other side achieve its outcomes with little care about one's own outcomes. Yielding can also

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Con lict resolution is an important

management communication activity.

be termed obliging or smoothing (Rahim, 1985). It

occurs when one party has a high concern for people

and low concern for production (Thomas & Kilman,

1974).

Problem‐solving or collaborating occurs when high

concern for the other's outcomes accompanies high

concern for one's own outcomes, and when the parties

share high concerns for both people and production

(Blake & Mouton, 1970). The goal becomes a win‐win

solution. Problem‐solving has also been labeled as an

integrating approach.

When moderate levels of concern emerge for both

personal outcomes and the other side's outcomes, and concerns for people and production are also

moderate, the most common approach involves compromising. A compromise becomes more likely

when consensus cannot be reached, the goals of the two parties are not strongly connected, and the

two sides hold equal levels of power.

Managers normally have the responsibility of discovering the relative positions of the two sides to a

con lict. In order to resolve the con lict, managers try to identify the level of give‐and‐take that will

be possible by assessing the strength of commitment each side has to its position. More effective

negotiations or resolutions then become possible. Then, the venue and method for con lict

resolution can be chosen. Individual meetings and group settings can accommodate con lict

resolution.

What are the ive main responses possible in a con lict resolution, based on levels of

concern for others? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Contending/competing, inaction/avoiding, yielding/accommodating, problem

solving/collaborating, and compromise.

A manifest con lict often requires a cooling‐off period before any attempt at resolution can start.

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When emotions are high, reasonable dialog will be unlikely. When an arbiter or manager surmises

that both sides have suf iciently calmed down, con lict resolution can commence. The steps of the

con lict resolution process are:

Identify the parties involved.1.

Identify the issues.2.

Identify the positions of the parties.3.

Find the bargaining zone.4.

Make a decision.5.

Managers identify the parties by investigating whether a con lict involves individuals or groups.

Identifying the issues takes time. Often a con lict becomes manifest through an unrelated issue.

When two employees become involved in a shoving match over a space in the parking lot, the real

con lict may be that one person was passed over for a promotion that was given to the person who

"stole" his parking space.

When identifying the positions of the parties, a two‐person or two‐group con lict should have a

fairly straightforward analysis. Many times, however, a problem or concern exhibits many facets, and

the net result will be that several people or coalitions have some sort of vested interest. In that

circumstance, the moderator tries to determine the agendas of each party.

The bargaining zone may be kept con idential, presented openly, or can be deciphered by a third

party. In a con lict resolution, the bargaining zone represents the settlement range in a negotiation,

or the boundaries of acceptable solutions for both sides. It consists of the area in which

give‐and‐take can be carried out. At times, no such range may be found; one side will win and the

other will lose. Table 7.12 suggests key negotiation techniques when seeking to resolve a

disagreement.

Table 7.12: Negotiation techniques during

con lict resolution

Focus on ideas and information rather than personalities

Find areas of agreement

Deal with important rather than trivial issues

Discuss potential tradeoffs

Identify objective criteria when assessing solutions

Find ways to move on following a resolution

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Source: Andrews, D. C., & Andrews, W. D. (2004). Management

communication: A guide. Boston, MA: Houghton Mif lin Company,

150–152.

Making the inal decision determines the outcome of the con lict. A win‐win solution allows all sides

to make gains in the con lict resolution. Win‐win solutions can occur only when four conditions have

been met (Zand, 1972):

The parties believe cooperation will be better than con lict.1.

The parties trust each other.2.

Status differences between the parties have been minimized.3.

Mutually acceptable solutions can be found.4.

A win‐lose solution means one side gains the advantage over the other. A lose‐lose, or compromise,

means both parties gain on some issues but lose on others (Rackham, 1976).

When the result of a con lict resolution has been well handled, bene its may appear. Table 7.13 lists

some of the positive outcomes associated with dealing directly with con lict. These occur at the

interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup levels.

Table 7.13: Bene its of dealing directly with

con lict

Individual

Stronger relationships with co‐workers

Increased self‐respect for taking action

Personal growth and development in understanding how

you responded

Organizational

Increased ef iciency and effectiveness following effective

resolution

Spurs creativity

Allows for synergy and teamwork among employees

Source: O'Rourke, J. S. IV (2010). Management communication: A

case‐analysis approach (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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What are the steps of con lict resolution? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The steps of the con lict resolution process are: Identify the parties involved. Identify the

issues. Identify the positions of the parties. Find the bargaining zone. Make a decision.

The goal of any con lict resolution should be to reach a functional settlement. Three desired

outcomes of con lict resolution are (1) agreement, (2) stronger relationships, and (3) organizational

learning. Agreement has been achieved when both sides believe a settlement was fair or equitable.

Stronger relationships emerge when both parties try to build trust and goodwill for the future.

Organizational learning takes place when an individual or group achieves greater self‐awareness

and/or better understands how to ind creative solutions to problems. While desirable, these goals

will be dif icult to achieve. Many times, the negative aftereffects of con lict, as listed in Table 7.14,

become the result.

Table 7.14: Potential negative aftereffects of

con licts

Anger, revenge, continuing attempts to make the other

side look bad

Noncompliance with orders and decisions

Reduced effort/passive resistance

Empire building, withholding information, territory

defense

Increasingly legalistic approach to tasks and assignments

Withdrawal behaviors such as daydreaming or meeting in

groups to visit

New lobbying efforts

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Sarcasm in front of the mediator

Increased sensitivity to statements and comments

Effective management of con lict includes two primary activities. The irst involves managers actively

analyzing potential sources of con lict at all times. Then reducing, modifying, or removing the source

can be accomplished. Second, managers should seek to become adept con lict arbiters. Remember

that impartiality, a sense of humor, and a calm disposition are major assets in con lict resolution.

What bene its are associated with dealing directly with con lict?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

For individuals, there can be stronger relationships with co‐workers, increased self‐respect

for taking action, and personal growth and development in understanding how you

responded. For organizations, there can be increased ef iciency and effectiveness following

effective resolution, as well as greater creativity, and it allows for synergy and teamwork

among employees.

What negative effects can accompany a con lict resolution?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The potential negative aftereffects include: anger, revenge, continuing attempts to make the

other side look bad, noncompliance with orders and decisions, reduced effort/passive

resistance, empire‐building, withholding information, territory defense, an increasingly

legalistic approach to tasks and assignments, withdrawal behaviors such as daydreaming or

meeting in groups to visit, new lobbying efforts, sarcasm in front of the mediator, and

increased sensitivity to statements and comments.

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Negotiation is a give‐and‐take decision‐making process involving interdependent parties with

differing objectives or outcome preferences. Distributive negotiations involve a single issue and a

zero‐sum game in which one side's gains becomes the other side's losses (win‐lose). Integrative

negotiation resembles a problem‐solving agenda in which two or more sides try to obtain a

settlement that bene its all sides. Negotiations take place between individuals and companies,

between companies, and when companies bargain with outside groups such as unions, the

government, or special interests.

Prior to entering a negotiation, managers should believe it represents the best option. By studying

the bargaining environment, the availability of bargaining resources, and the characteristics of the

bargaining issue, the preconditions to negotiation can be met.

The three stages of negotiation are the preliminary, bargaining, and ending phases. In the

preliminary stage, the maximum supportable outcome and lowest supportable outcome de ine the

settlement range or bargaining zone. This zone for each side can be kept con idential or shared

openly across the bargaining table. BATNA represents the best acceptable alternative to a negotiated

agreement, which speci ies the lowest acceptable value to a party as a substitute to a stalemate.

Bargaining consists of framing, discovery, consensus, and packaging. The ending stage includes the

close and efforts to sustain a future relationship.

Con lict is a circumstance in which one party negatively affects or seeks to negatively affect another

party in both observable and perceived ways. Functional con lict occurs when the organization's

interests are served in some way. Dysfunctional con lict includes the destructive activities that

hinder group or organizational performance. Con licts occur between individuals, between groups or

departments, with other companies, and with the government. The stages of con lict are latent,

perceived, felt, and open phases.

Responses to con lict are determined by the level of concern for others versus concern for one's own

side. Responses include contending/competing, inaction/avoiding, yielding/accommodating,

problem‐solving/collaborating, and compromise. The steps of con lict resolution begin with

identifying the parties involved. Then, a manager or someone who intervenes identi ies the issues,

the positions of the parties, and attempts to discover the bargaining zone. Finally, a decision will be

reached, including win‐win, win‐lose, and lose‐lose options. Con licts offer both potential bene its

and problems, depending on how they arise and how they are settled.

BATNA (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

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/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The best alternative to a negotiated agreement that identi ies the lowest acceptable value to a party

as a substitute to a stalemate.

con lict (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A circumstance in which one party negatively affects or seeks to negatively affect another party in

both observable and perceived ways.

distributive negotiations (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A negotiation involving a single issue and a zero‐sum game in which one side's gains become the

other side's losses (win‐lose).

dysfunctional con licts (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Con licts that include the destructive activities that hinder group or organizational performance.

functional con lict (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Con lict that occurs when the organization's interests are served in some way, such as improvement

in performance or greater cooperation among individuals or groups; also called constructive or

cooperative con lict.

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integrative negotiation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A problem‐solving negotiation agenda in which both sides try to obtain a settlement that bene its

both, or a win‐win solution.

intergroup con lict (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Con licts that take place between various groups or department over matters such as disagreements

about goals, differences of opinion about which group should be assigned a project or task, or

budget allocations.

intragroup con lict (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Incidents between members of a group, including disagreements about goals, methods of operation,

and who will be the leader.

lowest supportable outcome (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The least amount or least favorable position a side will accept from a negotiation.

maximum supportable outcome (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

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/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The absolute most a side can ask for as an opening position, within reason.

negotiation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A give‐and‐take decision‐making process involving interdependent parties with differing objectives

or outcome preferences.

stakeholder group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A group of people with a vested interest in the outcome of a negotiation.

workplace bullying (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Repeated, health‐harming mistreatment of one or more persons by one or more perpetrators that

takes the form of verbal abuse, offensive conduct, and work interference.

The past several chapters have examined channel richness in terms of various media, including

face‐to‐face interactions, telephone conversations, emails, teleconferencing, letters, memos,

reports, and presentations. Discuss the role and importance of channel richness in negotiations in

these circumstances:

Individual bargaining for wages and working conditionsa.

Airline companies seeking to form an international partnershipb.

Union‐management bargainingc.

Describe the potential for con lict and the types of con lict that might be expected to emerge in the2.

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following negotiations. Then explain the most likely channels of communication to be used in each

circumstance.

individual bargaining for wagesa.

sales call—company to companyb.

company leaders with unionc.

company leaders with the governmentd.

company leaders with leaders of a special‐interest groupe.

The ive sources of in luence in negotiations include legitimate, reward, coercive, expertise, and

charisma. Explain how these would be present for both sides of a negotiation in the following

bargaining circumstances. Then explain which channels of communication should be used in the

negotiation.

successful CEO negotiating to become CEO of a different companya.

Intel negotiating to sell its processors to a new computer companyb.

United Auto Workers negotiating with General Motors, which is seeking to reduce pay and

bene its to stay in business

Major inancial institution bargaining with the United States government for a loan to

maintain operations

Make a chart that explains the potential for con lict, the type of con lict to be expected, and the

channels of communication that should be used in the following stages of negotiation:

Preliminary Stage Bargaining Stage Ending Stage

Prepare Framing Close

Open Discovery Follow‐up

Consensus

Packaging

At times, a con lict stands a better chance of effective resolution when a third party intervenes.

Alternative dispute resolution attempts to incorporate more user‐friendly methods of dispute

resolution, seeking to avoid adversarial approaches. The methods used in this approach include

facilitation, conciliation, peer review, ombudsman, mediation, and arbitration. Facilitation involves

a third party urging the two sides to meet and to deal directly in a constructive, positive fashion.

Conciliation uses a neutral third party who acts informally as a communication conduit to help

resolve a dispute without directly meeting. Peer review asks a panel of trustworthy co‐workers

who can remain objective to render a nonbinding verdict or opinion about how the con lict should

be resolved. An ombudsman will be a respected employee who will hear both sides of an argument

and attempt to arrange a solution that is acceptable to both sides. Mediation employs a trained

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arbiter to ind innovative solutions to the con lict. Arbitration retains a third party who will

operate in a formal, court‐like environment and will hear testimony and evidence before rendering

a judgment about how the con lict should be resolved. Describe three circumstances in which

these options would be better than a manager stepping in to resolve a con lict.

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After an executive bonus scandal at American Airlines, the new

CEO discusses the ongoing process of communication and

negotiation between workers and management.

American Airlines: Management vs. Labor

From Title: Inside American Airlines (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=39098)

What are the major areas of con lict between managers

and unions at American Airlines?

How has CEO Gerard Arpey managed this con lict? How

have other managers dealt with the con lict?

What roles do trust and mistrust play in this con lict

situation?

Jennifer Swann faced one of the bigger decisions in her young life. She graduated college

with a degree in physiology but changed course and became a massage therapist instead.

0:00 / 4:34 1x

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She built a solid clientele list while working in a local beauty salon, HairPros. She paid a

monthly rental fee for booth space and in exchange for some telephone support in terms

of employees taking messages. More important, the salon sold gift certi icates on her

behalf, which greatly increased her business, especially during the holidays.

Tragically, a ire destroyed the HairPros facility. After careful consideration, its owner,

Bruce Penske, decided to relocate to a more upscale part of the city rather than to rebuild

on the current lot. As part of the moving process, Bruce also felt it was time to renegotiate

his agreement with Jennifer.

Meanwhile, Jennifer had taken the initiative to rent a separate space during the initial

period in which HairPros was closed. She informed her clients that they could receive

massage at the same rate in her temporary location, which helped maintain her income.

She no longer had the advantage of phone service, but had mostly relied on her own cell

phone to make appointments for the past year. She was concerned about losing

gift‐certi icate business. At the same time, the rental for her temporary of ice was lower

than the amount Bruce had charged, and she was able to set her own hours. She did not

tell Bruce about her temporary of ice for the irst three weeks following the ire.

After a month had passed and HairPros was about to resume operations, Bruce offered

Jennifer a new agreement. He asked her to raise her rates for all her services. In exchange,

he was willing to lower her rental fee and pay her a small amount to supervise that part

of his business. He noti ied Jennifer of his plans to hire a second therapist, as the new

facility would have two rooms. The new therapist would charge a lower rate per session.

Jennifer would have irst choice of rooms.

Jennifer worried that most new business, including the part that came from gift‐certi icate

sales, would go to the second therapist. She also wondered if the modest increase in her

rates would affect her regular customers. At the same time, she worried that "going solo"

by staying in her temporary location and cutting ties with HairPros would be a risky

move. She would no longer have referrals from hairstylists in the same location, several of

whom were her clients.

Review Questions

What are the bargaining issues in this scenario?1.

What channels of communication should Bruce and Jennifer use while negotiating their

new arrangement?

What would de ine the settlement zone in this situation?3.

What should Jennifer do? Defend your answer.4.

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Winston's Cleaning Service had enjoyed a long run as the premier clean‐up company in

the greater Cincinnati area. Myron Winston founded the company three decades earlier

and built the business through careful attention to customer and employee needs. He was

well known for giving unscheduled bonuses when he believed an employee or team had

gone above and beyond to keep a client happy. The local Chamber of Commerce had

recognized Winston for building the city's "Most Respected Minority‐Owned Company."

Winston's Cleaning Service served a variety of local irms. Shifts began at 6 p.m. as crews

would head to of ice buildings, banks, and other facilities that closed earlier in the day.

Shifts ended at 2:00 a.m. Employees worked ive days per week, with either Saturday or

Sunday off, along with one weekday. They received a week of paid vacation after one year

of service, two weeks per year for two to ive years on the job, and three weeks per year

for any time after ive years. Wages were slightly above prevailing local rates for

comparable work.

When Myron Winston retired, his son Tyler Winston took over the role of top manager.

Unfortunately, after only three years in the role, he was forced to step down because of

health problems. He did retain ownership of the company. The new company manager was

promoted from the ranks. Billy Branton was known for his willingness to tackle the most

repugnant tasks, including sewage spills and other nasty assignments. He was always the

irst to arrive and the last to leave for a shift.

It did not take long for Branton to make his mark. He began assigning workers to come in

for ive consecutive days, even when this meant the worker had to be on the job over the

weekend.

He also tended to be harsh and critical about poor performance, rather than excited and

supportive for superior work. It did not take long for employee grumbling to grow.

A group of employees contacted Tyler Winston about the situation. They expressed

concern that Branton was gradually changing the culture of the company. They carefully

noted that Branton did not seem to value their efforts in the same way that Tyler and

Myron Winston had over the years. Tyler promised to visit with Branton to discuss the

issues.

Two weeks later, however, the situation reached a boiling point. Branton announced that

there would be no further raises until companywide performance improved. He stated that

there was too much malingering at various sites, making jobs take too long. Then, Branton

noti ied employees that he had scheduled shifts for Thanksgiving night, Christmas Eve and

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Christmas night, as well as New Year's Eve and New Year's night, because he had

contacted organizations and companies that wanted clean‐up services on those occasions.

The Winston family had always made sure that all employees had each of those evenings

free, along with other holidays such as Hanukkah, Easter, Passover, Memorial Day, the

Fourth of July, Labor Day and even President's Day.

Branton sniffed when asked about those working additional holidays. "What are you

complaining about? You make time and a half," he told a group of employees.

"What if we would rather have time with our families?" asked one brave employee.

"You know, in this economy, I just can't imagine it would be too hard to replace someone,"

came the reply.

"You know," the employee responded, "I have friends that are Teamsters. They have been

talking about paying this company a visit. Maybe they could get us organized."

"Bring it on," Branton replied.

The next day, another group of employees approached Tyler Winston. They really did not

want to go through the unionization process, if it wasn't necessary. Mainly, they just

wanted the same treatment that they had always received.

Review Questions

What form of latent con lict is present in this situation?1.

Did this con lict become felt or perceived, or just move directly into open con lict?

Explain your analysis.

What steps should Tyler Winston take to resolve the con lict?3.

Is a functional con lict possible in this situation? Defend your answer.4.

What should Tyler Winston do about Billy Branton?5.

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Design Pics/Thinkstock

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After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Describe what constitutes ethical management communication.1.

Identify the major ethical dilemmas in management communication.2.

Communicate clear, transparent, accurate messages and respond effectively to unethical

tactics.

Improve your ethical reasoning processes when communicating.4.

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Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of thought that addresses questions about

morality and deals with concepts such as right and wrong, virtue and vice, and justice and crime

(Rae, 2009, p. 15). Ethical challenges have been part of the world of business for as long as there

has been a business world.

Recent dramatic stories involving Enron, BP, Arthur Andersen, and other corporate giants, as well as

several banking chains involved in the 2008 mortgage crisis, have reignited interest in building a

more ethical business climate. Enron engaged in manipulation of energy prices and illegal

accounting practices. Arthur Andersen was complicit by failing to identify the illegal accounting

practices as part of audits of company books. BP failed to follow safety protocols and record

keeping, which led to the 2010 Gulf oil spill disaster.

Communication systems inevitably play into a fraud or unethical action taken by a corporation,

manager, or employee. Ethical decisions are made not only by corporate leaders, but also by every

member of an organization. As recent headlines have been packed with ethical issues, colleges and

universities teaching the business leaders of tomorrow have enhanced training and awareness of

ethical decision‐making. One perspective, ethical management, favors training for individuals

preparing to enter the world of business (Waite, 2011). We will focus on this approach in this

chapter by examining the nature of ethical and unethical communication and by offering analytical

models and reasoning processes associated with moral dilemmas and ethical choices.

Values form the building blocks of an ethical system (Rae, 2009). Individual and collective values

vary, of course, because they are in luenced by numerous forces, including religion, national origin,

upbringing, and social associations. This means that the distinction between right and wrong can be

debatable or controversial. For example, charging interest is considered wrong in some cultures,

while most of you reading this have come to expect to pay interest on certain purchases, such as

your tuition or the purchase of a house.

An ethical system that determines what is good or bad, right or wrong, and appropriate or

inappropriate leads to a code of behavior based on those principles. The belief that stealing, theft, or

obtaining money through a less‐than‐transparent business practice is wrong leads to a code of

behavior in which it would be objectionable to take money from innocent people through "legal," if

not ethical, business practices. Such a choice might cause a person not to conduct business with a

company dealing in payday or car‐title loans, or with similar lending institutions. Business ethics

are standards and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce and the development of

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relationships in business (Ferrell, Fraedrich, & Ferrell, 2011).

Ethical communication consists of passing information along in a manner that is truthful, does not

violate the rights of others, and does not aim to deceive (Kolin, 2001). This chapter explores the

value of ethical communication in the context of business management. Unethical communication, on

the other hand, violates the principles of truthful communication and can hurt others. Examples of

unethical communication appear in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1: Selected examples of unethical communication

Theft of intellectual property, including patents, copyrights, trade secrets, Internet domain

names

Misleading by omitting essential information

Selective misquotation

Distorting statistics and facts

Violating privacy of others

Sources: Cheeseman, H. R. (2003). Contemporary business and e‐commerce (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice

Hall. Kolin, P. C. (2001). Successful writing at work (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mif lin.

De ine ethics, business ethics, and ethical communication.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of thought that addresses questions

about morality and deals with concepts such as right and wrong, virtue and vice, and justice

and crime. Business ethics are standards and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce

and the development of relationships in business. Ethical communication consists of passing

information along in a manner that is truthful, does not violate the rights of others, and does

not aim to deceive.

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Many inancial lending

institutions contributed

signi icantly to the 2008

economic crisis in the United

States.

In early 2012, Bank of America, Wells Fargo, JP Morgan Chase, Citigroup, and Ally

Financial paid a $25 billion settlement for foreclosure abuses. The payments were

designed to assist those consumers who had been injured by unethical practices in the

banking and mortgage industries (Associated Press, 2012).

Three entities contributed to the inancial disaster that

resulted from the 2008 mortgage crisis—consumers,

inancial institutions, and governmental agencies. Many

consumers applied for and received mortgages that they

simply could not afford. Enticed by 100 percent inancing

offers and other high‐risk instruments (sub‐prime

mortgages), many consumers purchased homes at prices

that were far beyond their means. In addition,

governmental of icials failed to recognize a trend in which

far too many of these high‐risk mortgages were being

granted (including those made by quasi‐governmental

lenders Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac) and that those

instruments were being packaged and bundled to sell in

the securities markets, where they eventually failed. Many

inancial lending institutions contributed mightily to what

took place.

These lenders often failed to adequately explain the terms

of mortgages to customers, whether by deliberate

deception or mere exuberance. A great deal of paperwork was either never illed out, was

partially completed, or was simply ignored, regarding a consumer's ability to make

payments on homes with potentially arti icially high prices. Consequently, a large number

of high‐risk loans were written (Wilson, 2010).

Internal management communication failed to notify those creating mortgages that a

problem existed. It may have been top inancial of icers who knew of the problem and

failed to report it internally, or that internal communications were intentionally deceptive.

In either case, the loans placed many of these institutions at risk, and eventually

government bailouts of these banks became the only remedy that would forestall a

worsening recession in the U.S. economy.

When the housing market began to collapse, many mortgage‐holders were "under water,"

meaning that the amount remaining on the mortgage was higher (in many instances, much

higher) than the value of the house, should it need to be sold. Individuals who lost jobs or

faced other inancial dif iculties soon faced foreclosure. Oftentimes, however, the original

loan had been sold to another institution and bundled into a inancial package, and the

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actual paperwork for a foreclosure was either lost or never created in the irst place.

Still, numerous homeowners were told that foreclosure proceedings had begun, even when

legal paperwork was not available. This form of deception caused many homeowners to

lose their residences without fair legal representation (Adelman, 2012).

As a result, the government began investigating such abuses. The initial $25 billion

payment was made to assist those who were under water but still in their homes and to

help others who had fallen behind on payments. Governmental of icials retained the right

to pursue any further legal action, if actual fraud were to be identi ied.

Which group do you think holds the greatest responsibility for the inancial crisis,

consumers, inancial institutions, or the government?

Was the failure by these banks to inform customers of the potential for default an ethics

violation or an illegal act?

How could a management communication system be improved to make certain such an

event does not occur in the future?

Individuals, cities, and countries develop laws and regulations designed to protect citizens and

businesses. The same holds true for companies and collectives of businesses. In each instance,

ethical frameworks, to whatever degree they are present, are founded on the basic philosophical

principles of morality. While the study of ethics can be broad and complex, we will focus on four

approaches that particularly relate to decision‐making in business and in management

communication: utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach, and the justice approach.

Utilitarianism

When decisions are made based on what is the greatest good for the greatest number of people, a

utilitarian principle may be the guiding force. Utilitarianism has been termed the "calculus of pain,"

because it tries to minimize pain and maximize pleasure for the greatest number of people, based in

part on the concept of hedonism. Many economic models that rely on utilitarian principles explain

how consumers and producers seek to maximize personal utility or organizational pro its.

The utilitarianism perspective, however, often overlooks the rights or needs of the minority. As an

example, paying subsistence wages to workers in unsafe conditions in one country may create

lower‐priced goods for the majority of consumers in other countries, but the system creates great

harm to those in the factory. A company that hides the fact that it engages in such business practices

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may be viewed as unethical in terms of the practice itself, as well as in terms of the communication

system that hides the activity.

Ethicists might conclude that utilitarianism involves a judgment call as to what constitutes "good," as

well as considering that "good" in light of its effects on both the majority and the minority. Care

should be given in deciding how much "pain" to others is acceptable (Velasquez, Andre, Shanks, &

Meyer, 2011).

Individualism

The degree to which society values personal goals, personal autonomy, and privacy over group

loyalty constitutes the level of individualism present. In an individualist society, ethical decisions

are based on personal self‐interests, as long as one's actions do not harm others (Sexton, 2008).

Use of the individualist approach may cause the weakest members of society or of a business to

suffer the most. In a business setting, the individualist perspective would suggest that an employee

should be able to write personal messages using the company's email system, so long as those

messages do not harm the company. In point of fact, the law dictates that organizations own all

email information and can inspect it at any time, which violates the individualistic point of view.

Managers have to deal with balancing these perspectives on a daily basis in many organizations.

Rights Approach

A social system that makes decisions based on the belief that each person has fundamental rights

that should be respected and protected re lects the rights approach. Such rights include freedom of

speech, privacy, and access to due process, plus the right to a safe and healthy environment at work

and at home (Ferrell & Gresham, 1985).

The dif iculty with the rights approach is that, in many instances, the rights of one group, or a

certain type of right, may infringe on others. For example, an ongoing con lict exists between a

client's right to privacy or con identiality and the obligation of a corporate of icer to protect the

public's interests when a questionable or unethical business practice exists. Instances of insider

trading of common stock serve as an example; Martha Stewart faced such a charge in 2002–2004.

When an investor takes advantage of privileged information that is being kept from the public, in

deciding to buy or sell stock, and that investor makes a pro it, a corporate of icer faces the dilemma

of exposing the inside trader but also divulging potentially damaging corporate secrets. Trying to

ascertain whose rights supersede the others (the public's interest versus a company's interest) can

create an ethical dilemma that is dif icult to resolve.

Justice Approach

Decision‐making based on treating all people fairly and consistently demonstrates the justice

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Comstock/Thinkstock

Decision‐making based on

treating all people fairly and

consistently demonstrates the

justice approach to ethical

reasoning.

approach. Distributive justice concentrates on the fairness of

rewards, punishments, and outcomes, such as promotion

decisions, equitable pay in the workplace, termination decisions,

and decisions regarding who will be laid off during downsizing.

Procedural justice focuses on fair, consistent application of rules

and protocols, including grievance procedures when unions

represent employees, as well as the use of the discipline system in

a manner that does not discriminate against individual employees

for any reason.

The justice approach suggests that when someone is hurt by your

actions, as an individual or in a collective, consequences should

result. These consequences are supposed to punish you for the

misdeeds and serve as a deterrent to others. Also, when your

actions help others or lead to a greater good, the consequences

should return in the form of a reward. In both circumstances

(harm or good), the methods by which rewards are granted or

negative sanctions are imposed should be based on an impartial,

reasonable, and constant program of justice.

One problem with the justice approach is that what one person

considers a proper reward or punishment may not seem fair to another. Many people believe capital

punishment represents a just outcome. Others believe it is never justi ied. The same holds true

regarding those who make the judgments. What may seem like a fair procedure to one person or

group when making a termination, promotion, or hiring decision, including communicating how the

process will take place to individual employees and employee groups, could appear to be completely

biased to another.

What are the four primary approaches to ethical thought described in this chapter?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Four approaches that particularly relate to decision‐making in business and in management

communication are utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach, and the justice

approach.

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Jupiterimages/Thinkstock

Shareholder activism involves large investors,

A complex interaction of components in luences the study of business ethics. Different levels of

ethics combine to create an entire ethical climate in businesses. Moral responsibilities and ethical

decisions are in luenced by and re lect the activities of individuals, organizations, and entire

governmental systems.

Individuals

Every day employees routinely make ethical choices. Many of the issues raised in this chapter

involve the decision by a speci ic person to engage in communications that deceive or injure others.

Further, ethical dilemmas exist in a variety of actions beyond communication. As part of your career,

from entry level to top management, moral complications will emerge as part of workplace life.

Organizations

Business ethics concern the conscience that every company possesses, even when moral codes are

not spelled out in management communications. Groups of leaders in organizations make moral and

ethical choices. For example, "greenwashing" is the practice of making an organization appear to be

concerned with the environment and the preservation of natural resources when, in fact, the

company pollutes or conducts other environmentally damaging activities. Greenwashing cannot be

accomplished by a single individual, but rather by groups of leaders in the company. Decisions and

actions can be shaped by the ethical climate present in an organization, even when an individual

carries out the speci ic act.

Governmental Systems

National governments engage in moral choices. A country that fails to enact or enforce intellectual

property or patent protections has made a moral decision. Any government that allows imports from

nations where forced labor is used to produce goods has made a moral choice. Any government that

censors all messages except those approved by of icials has made a moral choice.

Interaction Among Levels

Individuals, organizations, and governmental systems

all interact to create a business climate in which

companies and their employees operate. At the system

level, some stockholders have become involved in what

has been termed shareholder activism. Large investors,

particularly institutional investors, are becoming more

directly involved in decisions made by corporate

executives. Such activism may add one more layer of

protection to the general public's interests, as well as

to the well‐being of shareholders (Schulte, Roth, &

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particularly institutional investors, becoming

more directly involved in decisions made by

corporate executives.

Figure 8.1: Decision‐making frameworks

Ethical, economic, and legal components are

all part of a person's decision‐making

framework when moral dilemmas arise.

Zabel, 2011).

At the same time, a case can be made that managers

make as many ethical mistakes or misjudgments as

governments or the marketplace. The sources of these actions can be lack of information (not

knowing an activity will have a negative effect on society) or a deliberate violation of ethical and

moral principles by a manager. Thus, although some managers may not have been aware of the

effects that certain materials (such as asbestos) would have on workers, the net result was the same.

Conversely, when the top management team at Peanut Corporation of America chose to sell

salmonella‐contaminated products to the public in 2009, the managers apparently placed pro its

ahead of public safety (Hartman, 2009).

Management communication often serves as an instrument when ethical and unethical activities

transpire. Managers seeking to act in the most ethically sensible manner should examine the moral,

economic, and legal implications of the choices they make. These can then be communicated to

others in the organization and in larger society, through public statements, memos, letters,

comments in corporate documents such as shareholder statements, and company policy decisions,

and by the examples set by leaders, even in one‐on‐one conversations.

Three frameworks form the basis of an ethical decision‐making approach. The three points of view,

when combined and balanced, can help to guide decision‐making processes as various ethical

dilemmas arise. The perspectives or elements consist of the ethical, economic, and legal components

of the matter at hand (see Figure 8.1).

Ethical Components

The irst key element present in a decision is the

individual's or group's desire to act in an ethical

fashion. This ethical component re lects the extent to

which the individual or group is willing to seek out

and act on justi iable reasons, and to remain impartial

when making ethical choices. The decision‐maker

would compare personal gain or loss resulting from an

action or activity with the needs and interests of the

larger organization (Boatright, 2006, pp. 7–9).

Whistle‐blowing provides an example of a choice with

an ethical component. An employee who exposes

improper company activities often risks retribution from others in the organization, and the

disclosure may damage the economic well‐being of the company. In the United States, the employee

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might rely on the legal component of the decision‐making process discussed later—protection for

whistle‐blowers, to care for his or her own interests.

Economic Components

Economic theories vary in terms of how business systems should operate. Adam Smith and Milton

Friedman (1962) argued that the invisible hand of the marketplace guides the conduct of business.

According to proponents of the "invisible hand" perspective, companies that ignore the rights and

well‐being of the large public will eventually fail. This means governmental intervention should be

limited—companies should not be encumbered by too many laws and regulations. In such a system,

companies should be left free to maximize pro its for shareholders.

In contrast, the governmental duty perspective suggests companies that only pursue pro its may not

hold the larger interests of society as important. Therefore, government plays the role of protecting

citizens from business practices in the economy that create harm, such as polluting the environment

or exploiting workers. More recently, the governmental duty perspective has expanded to include

protecting employees from losing jobs that are being outsourced to countries in which pay is

insuf icient and deplorable working conditions prevail (Watson, 1991).

Legal Components

The third element, legal issues, cannot and should not be confused with ethical arguments. Many

times, a practice in business has been considered legal, but could be considered unethical. The 2008

inancial crisis in the United States resulted from legal inancial maneuvers that placed individuals

and the entire economy at risk. If more inancial managers had examined legal loans to individuals

at high risk of default, and more inancial of icers had not bundled the same loans into legal,

high‐risk instruments that eventually failed, the nation would have avoided unnecessary risk, debt,

and economic instability (C‐Span.org, 2011).

In summary, ethics apply at many levels, from what individuals do, to what groups do, to what

companies do, to the actions of entire nations. The ethical frameworks described in the last section

can be applied to each level. Utilitarianism and individualism point out the con lict of personal

interest and well‐being with the consideration of the good of the larger group. The utilitarian

position favors the group; individualism favors the individual.

What three elements are present in an ethical decision‐making framework?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

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Three perspectives or elements include the ethical, economic, and legal components of the

matter at hand.

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Management communication may be viewed as essentially a "blank slate." It is neither ethical nor

unethical in its inherent state. Managers can use the system to inform, persuade, and call to action

in a highly transparent and ethical manner. Others can use the very same system to hide the truth

and to cover the presence of unethical activities. Others still may pervert the actual communication

system. This section examines communication as a medium for unethical and ethical actions.

Over the years, organizations have engaged in the socially irresponsible behaviors listed next. In

those instances, communications serve the purposes of covering up the act or distracting others

from noticing what has transpired. Unethical communications in these circumstances are:

deliberate mistruths

half‐truths

withholding information

silence/stonewalling

misdirection

obfuscation

Deliberate mistruths occur when an individual or

corporation seeks to deceive the public or another

person through the use of false information. When a

company assures consumers that a product is

completely safe, knowing otherwise, a mistruth has

been communicated. Half‐truths involve offering only

elements that can be veri ied, while attempting to hide

more damaging or con idential information. As noted,

many instances of greenwashing result from a

company claiming that its actions are environmentally

friendly, when, in fact, the company's actions have no

impact, or a negative impact, on the ecosystem

(Spaulding, 2009).

Withholding information includes concealing what

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The tobacco industry has been accused of

suppressing information about the health

hazards associated with smoking and using

tobacco in other forms.

could be damaging facts about a company's misdeeds.

The tobacco industry has been accused of suppressing

information about the health hazards associated with

smoking and using tobacco in other forms. Silence and

stonewalling go beyond withholding information,

constituting a complete refusal to comment on or discuss an action. In more than one instance,

owners of coal mines have been accused of withholding, from both employees and the public, safety

and inspection information that may have been connected to mining accidents (United States Mine

Rescue Association, 2012; Rostum, 2002).

Misdirection occurs when company spokespeople seek to distract the audience by pointing attention

to some other event or cause, rather than its own misdeeds. In the case of the Ford Explorer

vehicles that experienced blowouts and rollovers, Ford implied that Firestone tires were the cause of

the problem; Firestone suggested that people were overin lating the tires and even provided

pressure gauges to dissuade the public from thinking the company's products were at fault (Reaves

& Greenwald, 2001).

Obfuscation means deliberately making something more dif icult to understand in order to confuse

the audience. The inancial crisis of 2008 also included elements of obfuscation by spokespersons

defending various companies that took unnecessary risks and that even counted on instruments

failing in order to make pro its, through processes such as shortselling (Bajaj & Bowley, 2008).

What are the methods used to make communication a medium for unethical

actions? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Unethical communications include deliberate mistruths, half‐truths, withholding information,

silence and stonewalling, misdirection, and obfuscation.

Words matter. In fact, many times words hurt. Unethical messages seeking to injure or damage

another in some way are common. Some of the more notable forms of unethical messages include

(Redding, 2011):

coercive

intimidating

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Hemera/Thinkstock

Exclusive language uses terminology or a

frame of reference to include people in or

exclude them from social interaction.

destructive

intrusive

secretive

exclusive language

hegemonic language

manipulative

exploitative

Coercive messages seek to force another to do something against his or her will. Coercive messages

can be constructed to cause someone to perform an unethical act because the individual believes the

consequences of not following an order or directive will be dire. For example, when a clerical

employee worries that she will be ired if she does not falsify a record, a coercive message has been

used.

Intimidation creates power for the sender. Someone who fears a supervisor may not point out

mistakes or problems, or stand up for personal rights. Intimidation can be used to create silence in

others as a form of workplace bullying (Long, 2011).

Destructive messages take many forms, including those

used to harass others. Sexual‐harassment comments,

racial remarks, and statements about another person's

intellectual level or body type hurt co‐workers.

Destructive messages belittle the other person.

Intrusive messages pry into another person's affairs.

Asking about family matters, inancial dealings, and

other relationships can be designed to discover private

information to be used later or to make the person feel

uncomfortable. Implying that you know something

about a person that could harm him or her, such as

that the person has previously been in prison, suggests

the use of intrusive information and is a form of

blackmail.

Secretive statements intentionally withhold information from co‐workers. In a manner similar to

withholding information, only a select few have access to a message.

Exclusive language uses terminology or a frame of reference to include people in or exclude them

from a social interaction. As Chapter 2 notes, exclusive language accentuates the differences between

employees and creates an eventual barrier, based largely on excluded employees feeling as if they

are not part of the "in‐crowd" on the job.

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Social media make it possible to send

unethical messages with nearly complete

Hegemonic processes limit the choices of others by perpetuating the in luence of a dominant culture

and are closely related to exclusive language. In certain male‐dominated industries such as

engineering, for example, the speci ic use of exclusive language can be used to deter women from

even considering applying for certain positions (Connell, 2005).

Manipulative messages seek to in luence behavior through the use of emotion, context, or some

other closely related method of interpersonal in luence. If you can make someone afraid of an

imagined threat, fear serves to manipulate that person. The same holds true for causing someone to

believe that actions are "patriotic" or to follow religious dictates (Papa, 2011).

Exploitative messages take advantage of another person's weaknesses. A typical form of exploitation

involves one person exaggerating his or her own needs and preferences, while minimizing the needs

and preferences of the message target (Mills & Clark, 1986). When one employee says, "I need this

client more than she does; I have to feed my family," to a supervisor, in order to take the client away

from another employee, the irst employee has engaged in the use of an exploitative message.

What are the forms of unethical messages used to hurt other people?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Some of the more notable forms of unethical messages include those that are coercive,

intimidating, destructive, intrusive or secretive, that use exclusive or hegemonic language,

and those that are manipulative or exploitative.

Informal Communication and Social Media

Many times, informal communication channels are

used as part of the process of supporting unethical

actions, as well as to create unethical communication.

At the most extreme, the inancial activity of short‐

selling involves essentially betting (by purchasing

stock futures) that a stock price will go down, in order

to make a pro it. Informal communication has been

used to transmit messages that a certain company was

experiencing trouble, such as an expected decline in

sales or a shortage of investment capital, in order to

suppress stock prices. This, along with other unethical

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anonymity.actions, led to a suspension of shortselling practices in

2009.

Social media make it possible to send unethical messages with nearly complete anonymity. Use of

social media pages to coerce, intimidate, send destructive messages, reveal secrets, create exclusive

language, and manipulate and exploit others has become part of the business landscape. In essence,

these media do not create new forms of unethical communication; rather they provide a new and

explosive channel through which such messages may be sent.

In summary, management communication systems and actual messages both can carry unethical

components and serve unethical intents. The use of language to achieve these ends often establishes

a climate that encourages future violations. A cycle of dishonesty can emerge from the continued use

of media to obfuscate, confuse, distract, or fool others. A pattern of unacceptable interpersonal

relations results from using unfair or inaccurate messages to gain an advantage over others inside

and outside the workplace.

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Individuals, groups, organizations, and governments can make ethical responses to communication

issues. Individuals can aspire to act and communicate in a morally responsible fashion. Groups can

work to avoid groupthink or any other pattern of behavior that would lead to the development and

delivery of unethical messages or use of communication to assist in unethical actions. Organizations

can utilize various mechanisms to foster an ethical environment through both rewards and

punishments. Governments have responded to unethical actions with improved laws and

enforcement of existing laws. This section examines the nature of ethical communication at these

levels.

Two activities assist in becoming ethical members of a company and the larger society. The irst is

avoiding the unethical use of communication that was described in the previous sections, with

regard to both communication messages and the use of communication to cover unethical acts.

Second, an individual, group, or organization can seek to be positive and proactive, when creating

management communication, by utilizing the following principles:

clarity

transparency

honesty

objectivity

credibility

coherence

loyalty

respect for human beings

No matter the format—whether written or verbal, a short message or a lengthy report—the

principle of clarity offers several bene its. First, the reader or listener will be better able to

comprehend the intent and content of the message. Second, clarity lessens the possibility of

unnecessary con lict. And third, with regard to ethical management communication, clear messages

do not allow for the tactics noted above, such as half‐truths and obfuscation. In essence, clarity

represents the opposite of ambiguity and intentional deception.

Transparency refers to an environment of openness in which all participants in a conversation or

organization activity, such as a team or group meeting, receive access to the information needed to

process messages, noting that it is equally important to treat some information delicately and

privately in order to protect individuals and certain organizational secrets. Individuals' medical

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Objectivity requires setting aside personal

biases and preferences when engaged in

communication.

histories and other personal information should be

protected. Organizational secrets include patents and

managerial plans, such as when a major product

launch will take place, expansion plans, and other

actions that would give a company a irst‐mover

advantage that in no way unethically or illegally harms

others. Transparency on a larger scale means that

outside observers have suf icient access to corporate

documents and transcripts of meetings to know that

deceptive practices and other unethical actions do not

take place "behind closed doors" (MoreBusiness.com,

2007).

Honesty accentuates the direct intent to provide

information in the most forthright manner possible.

Beaulieu (2009) presents several ideas related to

honest business communication. They include insisting

on candor in others by including an analysis of it in

employee performance appraisals and pay raise decisions. Honesty can be emphasized through role

reversal games that encourage employees to see the other side of a debate. Involving all levels of the

organization in ethics inspections and leading by example also foster an environment less tainted by

half‐truths and mistruths.

Objectivity requires setting aside personal biases and preferences when engaged in communication.

Thompson (2005) provides guidelines to help maintain objectivity in business communication. First,

carefully distinguish between facts and opinions in any message. Also, report all pertinent

information, even the data that do not favor your side or preference. Use bias‐free language in terms

of gender, age, race, and other diversity and organizational differences. Finally, remain impersonal in

your communication style, rather than relying on emotional or argumentative approaches.

Credibility must be earned. Accuracy in a report represents one key aspect. When communication is

not accurate, the sender loses credibility. Trust in a person's integrity and credibility can easily be

damaged with inaccurate or misleading messages; this trust can be very hard to restore. As a result,

vigilance and attention to detail help build credibility over time (Richards, 2011).

Coherence re lects the use of logic in business communications. Well‐written, understandable

messages, including those designed to persuade, result not only from writing, but from rewriting. A

coherent letter, memo, or report removes the potential for obfuscation, misdirection, and half‐truths,

because an outside reader is able to verify information contained in the document and study the

reasoning used to create any argument or message.

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Image Source/Thinkstock

Mentoring processes, whereby

senior members of an

organization tutor and assist

newer employees, provide an

additional venue for teaching

ethical behaviors and the use of

ethical management

communication messages.

Loyalty means treating employees and other groups with fairness,

objectivity, and a sense of respect that grows from sharing a

common bond (Guffey & Loewy, 2011). Loyalty in communication

results in careful consideration of the message, medium, and

audience. Sensitive messages travel through organizations daily.

Notices of layoffs, terminations, and transfers are unsettling

messages. Others are performance appraisals with negative

information, announcements of promotions that involved

consideration of internal candidates, and plans for disciplinary

actions. The manner in which an employee receives this

information re lects the presence or absence of loyalty.

Respect for human beings extends far beyond the world of

business. Treating people with deference in communications

includes the choice of words and tone. Sarcasm and derision

communicate a lack of respect. Management experts note that

respect must be earned—you receive respect only by granting it

irst.

To help achieve these objectives, individuals can seek ethical

training through conferences, seminars and college courses, and

ethics counselors and hot lines, which are made available to

individuals and industries. The elements described in this section

can be used to help combat the tendency to create unethical

messages or to hide the unethical activities of an individual, group, or organization. Mentoring

processes, whereby senior members of an organization tutor and assist newer employees, provide

an additional venue for teaching ethical behaviors and the use of ethical management

communication messages.

What concepts can be used to promote ethical values in organizational

communications? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An individual, group, or organization can seek to be positive and proactive when creating

management communication by utilizing the following principles: clarity, transparency,

honesty, objectivity, credibility, coherence, loyalty, and respect for human beings.

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Many organizations and some professions engage in ethical self‐regulation. Organizations such as the

Better Business Bureau help businesspeople and overall organizations regulate themselves. Ethical

codes, such as those followed by members of the American Medical Association, the Academy of

Management, and the National Communication Association, help direct the activities of those

engaged in commerce and in educational systems that provide education for those entering the

business world.

Codes of ethics can be applied to all members of an organization, whether it is a nonpro it or

for‐pro it, in any given profession. Table 8.2 presents the credo and guiding perspectives of the

National Communication Association.

Table 8.2: Credo and guiding principles: The National Communication

Association

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Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical

communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision‐making and the

development of relationships and communities within and across contexts,

cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human

worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal

integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical communication

threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well‐being of the

society in which we live. Therefore, we the members of the National

Communication Association, endorse and are committed to practicing the following

principles of ethical communication.

We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of

communication.

We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to

achieve the informed and responsible decision‐making fundamental to a civil

society.

We strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and

responding to their messages.

We promote access to communication resources and opportunities as necessary to

ful ill human potential and contribute to the well‐being of families, communities,

and society.

We promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect

the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators.

We condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through

distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of

intolerance and hatred.

We are committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of

fairness and justice.

We advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing signi icant choices

while also respecting privacy and con identiality.

We accept responsibility for the short‐ and long‐term consequences of our own

communication and expect the same of others.

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Source: National Communication Association, Retrieved from: http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles

/About_NCA/Leadership_and_Governance/Public_Policy_Platform/PDF‐PolicyPlatform‐

NCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf (http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/About_NCA

/Leadership_and_Governance/Public_Policy_Platform/PDF‐PolicyPlatform‐NCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf) .

Used with Permission.

In addition to codes of ethics, individual companies create messages signaling the intent to conduct

business ethically and in a socially responsible fashion. Corporate ethics statements posit the

company's values and intentions with regard to its citizenship in the larger society. Many company

websites include pages that speci ically address these issues.

In summary, responding to ethical dilemmas involves irst awareness of and rejection of unethical

activities, and avoiding the use of management communication to conduct unethical activities. It also

involves seeking to communicate in positive ways that re lect the goals of creating a higher personal

moral standard and improving organizational communications. Codes of conduct, while not complete

answers to moral questions, can provide guidance, especially when accompanied by ethics training,

careful attention to past experiences, and the willingness to consult with others as issues arise.

Educational programs, ethics counselors, and mentors can help individuals deal with moral and

ethical dilemmas. In those settings, employees are able to ask questions, discuss both real and

hypothetical ethical challenges, and ask for advice when they encounter a moral dilemma, through

contacts with those who are specially trained or have greater experience to help with such issues.

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Digital Vision/Thinkstock

Employees can to seek to communicate in

positive ways that re lect the goals of creating

a higher personal moral standard and

improving organizational communications.

Personal ethical reasoning processes evolve over a

lifetime. As you enter a career, beliefs about what is

right or wrong, appropriate or inappropriate, and

moral or immoral may be based on one set of

premises. As time passes, experiences, teaching, and

role modeling by others in luences those assumptions.

Ethical values become the result. Ethical sensibility,

ethical reasoning, ethical conduct, and ethical

leadership comprise key elements that assist in

making ethical or moral judgments in communications

and other settings (Paine, 1991).

Ethical sensibility re lects a person's capacity to

impose ethical order on an encounter by identifying

the aspects of the situation that contain ethical

elements. Ethical reasoning consists of the ability to reach a solution, when an ethical dilemma

arises, by using logic, objectivity, and the goal of moral correctness. Ethical conduct results in

clearly observable words and deeds designed to seek the goal of integrity in everyday business.

Ethical leadership provides examples to those of all ranks about how to seek the greater good and

ind moral responses to ethical dilemmas.

These four ingredients lead to increased levels of ethical competence. Table 8.3 lists signs that an

employee has achieved a stronger level of ethical competence.

Table 8.3: Signs of ethical competence

Self‐awareness The individual understands his or her own values and morals,

and knows how to apply them to ethical dilemmas

Self‐con idence The person acts with less hesitation when dealing with ethical

situations

Character Others notice and comment on the person's moral iber

Moral imagination The ability to consider unusual or unique ethical challenges

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Resistance to outside

pressures Withstands demands by others to engage in unethical acts

Follow‐through Turns ethical decisions into actions, behaviors, and

communications

Source: Adapted from Johnson, C., & Hackman, M. Z. (2002, November). Assessing ethical competence, paper

presented to National Communication Association, and Walker, R. (2011). Strategic management communication for

leaders (2nd ed.). Mason, OH: South‐ Western Cengage Learning, p. 52.

In achieving ethical competence, three frameworks that assist when examining personal moral

growth and the development of ethical reasoning are the works of Lawrence Kohlberg, Carol

Gilligan, and William Perry. You can use these frameworks to re lect on how you view and respond

to ethical issues.

What four ethical elements are associated with ethical values and ethical

competence? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Ethical sensibility re lects a person's capacity to impose ethical order on an encounter by

identifying the aspects of the situation that contain ethical elements. Ethical reasoning

consists of the ability to reach a solution to an ethical dilemma by using logic, objectivity,

and the goal of moral correctness. Ethical conduct results in clearly observable words and

deeds, designed to seek the goal of integrity in everyday business. Ethical leadership provides

examples to those of all ranks about how to seek the greater good and ind moral responses

to ethical dilemmas.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1966) believed that moral reasoning results from a process called

internalization. Over time, a person's moral framework moves from externally driven behaviors (fear

of being scolded by parents and teachers) to internal control ("I think this is wrong, so I'm not going

to do it"). As the shift takes place, ethical reasoning evolves (see Table 8.4).

Table 8.4: Kohlberg's theory of moral development

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Preconventional Reasoning Behavior is controlled by external rewards and

punishments

Stage One: Punishment

and Obedience

Driven by authority igures

Motivated by fear of punishment

Stage Two: Purposeful

Individualism

Individual furthers self interests

Reciprocal arrangements ("I'll scratch your back if you

scratch mine")

Insistence on justice and fairness

Conventional Reasoning

Behavioral standards moderately internalized although the

standards are still imposed by others such as parents,

authority igures, and laws

Stage Three:

Interpersonal Norms

Desire to be socially accepted drives behaviors (being a

"good boy" or "good girl")

Behaviors judged as much for intentions as for

consequences

Stage Four: Law and

Order

Behavior driven by desire to maintain social order, insure

justice, perform duty

Postconventional Reasoning Totally internalized reasoning, personal moral code

Stage Five:

Contractual–Legal

Rights and standards of society govern behaviors

Unfair limits to personal freedom challenged and changed

Stage Six: Enlightened

Conscience

Universal human rights are the most profound guides to

behavior and actions

The highest level of moral reasoning

Kohlberg's view is that over time, a person will move toward the highest stage, an enlightened

conscience. Four qualities of stage development complete his theory:

Stage development is ixed. One cannot get to a higher stage without going through the preceding

stage.

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Individuals may have dif iculty seeing the logic of moral reasoning more than two stages above

their own.

People tend to be attracted to the reasoning of the next highest level.3.

Movement through the stages is affected when a person's current level of reasoning proves

inadequate to a given moral dilemma.

Kohlberg's theory may shed some light on how people react to the communication issues suggested

in this chapter. Positive and ethical management communications that result from reasoning

processes move beyond strictly legal responses to messages designed from an enlightened

conscience. As you navigate through a career, it will be possible to consider whether your view of

what is right and wrong is "legalistic" or is technically unethical to the higher state Kohlberg

suggests. Doing so would help you avoid using tactics such as obfuscation or mistruths when

designing management communication messages. At the least, use of the framework might assist in

helping you understand how you view ethical issues.

What levels of ethical reasoning are part of Kohlberg's theory of moral

development? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The three levels are preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

Carol Gilligan (1982) took issue with some of the conclusions regarding ethical reasoning that were

reached by Kohlberg. Her primary criticism was that Kohlberg based his theory on studies using

only male subjects, and that there may be differences in the ways female subjects look at ethical

reasoning. For example, women may be more likely to view moral development in terms of

connections with others. In circumstances in which men may be more likely to value justice and

individual freedom, women are more likely to believe caring, interpersonal communication, and

developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships are more important ethical outcomes. A

review of Kohlberg's model, as shown in Table 8.4, con irms that concepts about ethical and social

justice appear to be fairly "legalistic" rather than relationship‐based.

As an individual, consider the role that your gender and that of others plays in how you view ethical

dilemmas. This could lead you to include such concepts as treating others fairly and well, when

considering the ethical consequences of actions, including the use of communications. Such an

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approach applies more than just laws and principles; it moves into the realm of positive human

relationships, which are a major part of business activities and management communications.

What criticism does Carol Gilligan raise about Kohlberg's theory?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Her primary criticism was that Kohlberg based his theory on studies using only male

subjects, and that there may be differences in the ways women look at ethical reasoning.

William Perry (1968) wrote that moral development takes place in nine, rather than six, stages. The

stages can be grouped into categories called dualism, relativism, and commitment.

Dualism re lects the belief that things are absolutely right or wrong, good or bad. Such beliefs often

rely greatly on guidelines provided by experts or authorities, and to some seem fairly simplistic.

Relativism expresses the view that many points of view about right and wrong are potentially valid.

A particular situation often determines what is morally acceptable. For instance, in dire

circumstances one may take actions that help others survive, although those actions would be

unacceptable in other situations.

According to Perry, commitment is the search for evidence to support actions and explore the

consequences of various acts. One's own set of personal values is integrated with those actions. A

person will utilize his or her own set of beliefs to make moral judgments, in a manner similar to

Kohlberg's postconventional stage.

As part of your own ethical reasoning, the concept of relativism may be particularly germane when

interacting with those from other cultures. What is ethical and/or legal varies, depending on the

nation involved. As an example, nations guided by Islamic law tend to outlaw or frown upon

charging interest on loans. Therefore, communication documents regarding sales offers, prices, and

terms of repayment should be carefully worded to re lect this ethical value.

In other nations, women may be expected to refrain from speaking or to act in a highly deferent

manner in social settings, which may offend the ethical reasoning of a woman from the United States

or other Western culture. The concept of relativism may help such a person analyze and respond to

such circumstances.

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Commitment involves adding your own personal values to the manner in which you view ethical

challenges. Doing so might add elements of your religious training, as well as personal experiences,

into your views of the world and how to respond in an ethical manner.

Each of these three frameworks (Kohlberg, Gilligan, and Perry) suggests at least two sets of

guidelines when making personal ethical and moral decisions. The irst involves the views and

guidance of others; the second concerns one's own personal instincts, values, and reasoning

processes. As you consider the ethical communications issues described in this chapter, these

frameworks can serve as a guide regarding beliefs about what is ethical and what is not, as well as

how you will respond.

What are the stages of ethical development in William Perry's theory?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The stages can be grouped into categories called dualism, relativism, and commitment.

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Ethics are principles about what is good or bad, right or wrong, and appropriate or inappropriate

that often lead to a code of behavior based on those principles. Business ethics are standards and

guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce. Ethical communication consists of all messages and

relevant items of information that are passed along in a manner that is truthful, does not violate the

rights of others, and does not aim to deceive.

Ethical issues arise for individuals, groups and organizations, and in governmental systems. Ethical

management communication challenges among these are simply part of operating in an active

business world. Shareholder activism involves shareholders taking a more active role in in luencing

decisions, including ethical components, made by corporate executives.

Four common foundations of ethical thought guide business and communication decision‐making:

utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach, and the justice approach. Also, three ethical

components in any system are the ethical, economic, and legal elements.

Communication can serve as a medium for unethical actions through deliberate mistruths,

half‐truths, withholding information, silence and stonewalling, misdirection, and obfuscation. The

goal of each of these unethical actions is to deceive or to communicate information that violates

ethical standards. Unethical messages designed to harm others include coercive, intimidating,

destructive, intrusive, secretive, exclusive, hegemonic, manipulative, and exploitative messages.

Ethical responses include promoting ethical communication through clarity, transparency, honesty,

objectivity, credibility, coherence, loyalty, and respect for human beings. Four elements in ethical

activities are ethical sensibility, ethical reasoning, ethical conduct, and ethical leadership. Codes of

ethics also assist in building ethical business environments.

Three frameworks aid in understanding personal moral development. Kohlberg's theory, Gilligan's

response, and Perry's framework all portray ethical reasoning as something that develops and

evolves over time.

business ethics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

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Standards and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce and the development of relationships

in business.

corporate ethics statements (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Statements that posit the company's values and intentions with regard to its citizenship in the larger

society.

ethical communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

All messages and relevant information that are passed along in a manner that is truthful, does not

violate the rights of others, and does not deceive in any way.

ethical competence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The combination of ethical sensibility, reasoning, conduct, and leadership.

ethical conduct (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Clearly observable words and deeds designed to seek the goal of integrity in everyday business.

ethical leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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371 of 468 3/14/2017 1:41 PM

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Providing examples to those of all ranks about how to seek the greater good and ind moral

responses to ethical dilemmas.

ethical reasoning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The ability to reach a solution when an ethical dilemma arises by using logic, objectivity, and the

goal of moral correctness.

ethical sensibility (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A person's capacity to impose ethical order on an encounter by identifying the aspects of the

situation that contain ethical elements.

ethics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

A branch of thought that addresses questions about morality and deals with concepts such as right

and wrong, virtue and vice, and justice and crime.

individualism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

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/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The degree to which society values personal goals, personal autonomy, and privacy over group

loyalty, commitments to group norms, involvements in collective activities, social cohesiveness, and

intense socialization.

mentoring processes (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Systems in which senior members of an organization tutor and assist newer employees.

the justice approach (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Ethical decision‐making based on treating all people fairly and consistently.

the rights approach (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A social system that makes decisions based on the belief that each person has fundamental rights

that should be respected and protected.

utilitarianism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

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/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Making ethical decisions based on the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Compare the four foundations of ethical thought, utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach,

and the justice approach, to these three perspectives:

The "invisible hand of the marketplace" approach, in which the market punishes irresponsible

irms and rewards those that earn pro its and maximize shareholder value without violating

laws

The governmental duty perspective, which emphasizes the importance of regulation and

intervention when companies violate citizens' rights and engage in unfair competition

The enlightened management approach, which suggests ethical managers promote values

that include defending the well‐being of others

Explain the ethical, economic, and legal components in the following instances:

Ford and Firestone of icials' explanations of tire blowouts and rolloversa.

Financial of icers creating false rumors about companies, resulting in lower stock values but

leading to pro its for investors through short‐selling tactics

Companies using the label "lite" on products that contain carbohydrates and other

calorie‐laden ingredients

The driving force behind socially responsible actions, according to Adam Smith, is enlightened

self‐interest. He further argued that sel ishness and greed are not virtues. Acting in a sel ish or

greedy manner leads to deceptive advertising, fraud, theft, and taking advantage of others. How

would enlightened self‐interest become apparent in the ield of business and management

communications? How would sel ish actions and greed be discovered?

The Sarbanes‐Oxley Act of 2002 is an example of a governmental response to unethical activities in

the accounting profession and in the larger business community. More recently, Congress has been

pressed into action due to the mortgage and foreclosure crisis. Lenders that used deceptive tactics

when granting loans to individuals who could not afford to make the payments led to many of the

foreclosures. Should similar legislation be created for management communications? If so, what

kinds of laws should be enacted?

Explain the forms of unethical messages related to the following activities:

seeking to garner an undeserved promotion over more‐quali ied candidatesa.

maintaining the glass ceiling in a companyb.

trying to justify a pay raise after a poor year of performancec.

Apply the principles of proactive, positive ethical communication to the following circumstances:

Facebook postsa.

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emails and written memosb.

proposalsc.

presentationsd.

interactions during meetings with co‐workerse.

messages to the publicf.

You have a co‐worker who consistently complains that a supervisor does not "follow the rules."

The supervisor is a woman; the co‐worker is a man. Explain the moral reasoning your co‐worker

may be using from the following perspectives:

Kohlberg's theory of moral developmenta.

Gilligan's responseb.

Perry's theory of moral developmentc.

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President Clinton's public denial of his personal relationship with

Monica Lewinsky is analyzed by body body language experts to

reveal his dishonesty.

Nonverbal Communication Under Pressure

From Title: Secrets of Body Language (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=43109)

What non‐verbal communication indicated deception from

President Clinton?

In 1994, tobacco company executives testi ied under oath that they

did not believe nicotine to be addictive. Following the hearings,

con idential documents were made public and exposed the tobacco

industry's knew more than they admitted publicly.

0:00 / 1:48 1x

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Cozy Killer: The History of Cigarettes

What types of unethical communication did tobacco

executives engage in?

How could tobacco executives have acted ethically when

communicating about the addictive nature of nicotine?

Sherman Olson was in a frustrating position. He had information that would help his

company but would damage his job and career. Deciding what to do next had kept him

awake for the past two nights.

Sherman was a purchasing of icer for Finley Manufacturing. His job was to inalize

purchases of all sorts, including of ice equipment and supplies, raw materials for

production, and even bathroom items. In each situation, he would con irm the purchase

price with the seller when the sale was authorized and then check the inventory and bill

of lading before authorizing payment.

One of the key raw materials purchased by Finley Manufacturing was industrial resin. The

company had developed a longstanding relationship with Murphy Resins to the point at

which re‐orders were routine. Sherman's immediate supervisor, Taylor, was a good friend

of Martin Murphy, son of the owner of Murphy Resins.

0:00 / 29:23 1x

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On a day in which Taylor was away from the plant, Sherman received a visit from a

competitor to Murphy Resins. The salesperson made a strong presentation in which she

provided information that her company's materials were superior for the type of products

made by Finley Manufacturing. Then she offered a price that was lower than what had

been charged by Murphy Resins for the past two years. Sherman carefully asked if this

was a one‐time enticement or a more‐permanent price. The salesperson assured him that

the price would remain the same for at least one year, and as long as her company's costs

did not increase. Sherman carefully documented all of the information.

When Taylor returned the next day, Sherman showed him the offer. Taylor's response was,

"Yeah, we get stuff like this all the time. Let's just stay with what we know."

Sherman decided to follow up with some research of his own. He contacted other regional

manufacturers and discovered that several had changed to the competitor company for the

two reasons the salesperson noted: price and quality. Further, the companies he spoke

with indicated a high degree of satisfaction with both the product and the company's

method of conducting business.

Sherman once again approached Taylor with the additional information. This time Taylor

appeared genuinely annoyed and said, "Look, no one asked you to investigate this. You'd

better stick with doing your job, or you may have a big problem." Taylor added, "Besides, I

just put in a big order that will carry us for at least six months."

In essence, Taylor had taken over Sherman's job for that one purchase. Sherman carefully

documented the price being paid to Murphy Resins in comparison with the price the other

company would have charged. A purchase from the new company would have saved his

company over $100,000. He placed a copy of the comparison in Taylor's of ice mailbox,

but kept a copy for himself. Now it was time to decide what to do next.

Review Questions

What unethical management communication practices had Taylor used?1.

How would ethical communication practices have kept this situation from occurring?2.

What should Sherman do?3.

If you were a senior manager and Sherman approached you with this information, how

would you react?

Dr. Eileen Kennedy faced a dif icult moment in her career. As the Dean of the Friedman

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School of Nutrition, she had made a controversial statement and a questionable

endorsement of the American Society of Nutrition, which had been established to evaluate

the nutritional merits of various products. Kennedy supported the society's Smart Choice

program, which extended across several companies.

Several food industry leaders had created the American Society of Nutrition conglomerate

that would approve various products to carry the Smart Choice label, a bright‐green check

mark inside a red box that could be prominently placed on a product's package, with the

words "Guiding Food Choices" included. To outside observers, it was a clear attempt to

imply a governmental or health of icial's recognition of the product's healthy

characteristics (Ruiz, 2009).

Ten large food manufacturers enrolled in the program, including Kellogg's and Kraft. Any

company seeking to obtain the program's approval would pay up to $100,000 per year to

the American Society of Nutrition. Quickly, numerous food producers enrolled in the

program, and the endorsement appeared on sugary cereals, snacks, and sandwich spreads.

Among the products carrying the Smart Choice endorsement were Kid Cuisine

Cheeseburgers, Teddy Grahams, Froot Loops, and Cocoa Krispies (Neuman, 2009).

Dr. Kennedy had been quoted in the New York Times. Evoking a hypothetical parent in the

supermarket, she said, "You're rushing around, you're trying to think about healthy eating

for your kids, and you have a choice between a doughnut and a cereal. So Froot Loops is a

better choice." She displayed a small, 100‐calorie package of the cereal as her evidence

(Dumke & Zavala, 2009).

The Smart Choice program quickly drew scrutiny. Following reports on the CBS Evening

News (Pinkston, 2009) and in other outlets, companies began to withdraw support for the

program and the logo. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a "Guidance for

Industry" letter, stating that the organization would analyze food labels with the intent of

identifying any that were misleading. Quickly, the Smart Choice label disappeared.

Dr. Kennedy's words and endorsement, however, did not. The Friedman Sprout, the school

newspaper for the Friedman School Nutrition Science and Policy, published an article

suggesting that the school's image had been severely damaged (Dumke & Zavala, 2009).

Dr. Kennedy received a great deal of criticism, but did not step down.

Review Questions

What ethical issues are involved in the Smart Choices program?1.

If the American Society of Nutrition did not pay Dr. Kennedy, had she violated any ethical

codes? If she had been compensated, how would your answer change?

Explain how the Smart Choices program might be viewed in terms of its moral, legal,3.

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and economic components.

What type of formal communication channel should Dr. Kennedy use to justify her

stance? What should be her message?

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After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Communicate effectively in formal and informal groups.1.

Manage communication through the stages of group development.2.

Successfully lead team and group meetings.3.

Create effective business and management communications when acting as part of a group or

team.

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Today's business world features a considerable number of tasks that cannot be performed by a

single employee. Complex assignments demand the attention of a series of individuals. Managers

designate teams and groups to complete such projects.

Business management requires effective communication in groups. A group consists of two or more

people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal (Schein, 1980). Formal and informal groups

function in companies on a daily basis. It may be tempting to think of a group and a team as the

same thing. Recent literature suggests otherwise. Both consist of a small set of people and seek to

achieve goals, but differences exist. Teams become distinct from groups when synergies emerge

from greater interdependence and shared effort (Katzenbach & Smith, 1999; Rico et al. 2008). This

chapter focuses on groups and the communication processes involved in managing them, although

team‐building represents an important aspect of group management and leadership.

De ine group and team. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal. Teams

become distinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and

shared effort.

Harley‐Davidson should be considered one of the more iconic U.S. companies. Many things

stand out, including the product itself (motorcycles), the customers who buy the products

(individualist riders), and the organization's marketing program. The Harley‐Davidson

brand remains strong with intense customer loyalty. The HOG (Harley Owners Group)

program serves those who purchase products.

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Even though Harley‐Davidson produces

highly individualistic products, the

company operates using teams and

groups, from the production loor to the

executive suites.

The company's management program may be

lesser known. Harley‐Davidson's management

team focuses on a strong company culture, built

on open communications among all levels of

employees and a commitment to teaching all

workers about the organization's operations, and

utilizing teams and groups to complete

numerous company activities. Top management

developed a shared vision of the company's

values that permeates all group activities. Among

these values are:

Tell the truth.

Be fair.

Keep your promises.

Respect the individual.

Encourage intellectual curiosity.

Management sought to earn and keep the respect and trust of employees through these

principles (Infotechdesign.net, 2008). Imperato (1997) describes the management

program this way: "Beneath the image of a hard‐riding, tough‐as‐nails Harley‐Davidson

bike is a company that thrives on the 'soft' side of management, emphasizing

participation, inclusion, learning, and cooperation."

At the core of the management program, self‐managed teams operate at both the

manufacturing and executive levels. At the production level, semi‐autonomous work

groups include members who are cross‐trained and set their own work schedules. To

support the program, management created the Harley‐Davidson Learning Center, a facility

dedicated to lifelong learning with the primary role of helping employees to keep their

skills current. In some cases, this means remedial training in basic skills, but the Learning

Center deals mainly with requests for speci ic job‐training courses.

At the executive level, the organization chart became three overlapping circles

representing various groups: a Create Demand Circle, a Produce Products Circle, a Support

Circle, and in the center where the three circles intersect, a Leadership and Strategy

Council. The Create Demand Circle is responsible for sales and marketing issues; the

Produce Products Circle handles engineering and manufacturing; and the Support Circle

takes care of legal, inancial, human‐resources, and communications concerns. The

Leadership and Strategy Council coordinates the efforts of the three circles without the

use of a standard chain of command, instead relying on interactive group communication.

The idea is to apply the concept of self‐directed, factory work teams to the executive level.

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An important link was established between the union and management through the

employee involvement program, which established the goal of overall company long‐term

success to be achieved through continuing cooperation among all members. Following the

reorganization at both levels, Harley‐Davidson's sales and pro itability began to soar. The

company has been able to withstand economic hard times and expand to an international

base of satis ied hog owners.

Do you think the internal culture of Harley‐Davidson matches external perceptions of

the company?

What types of communication skills would be needed to work in a self‐managed

production team?

What types of communication skills would be needed for an executive to work in a

self‐managed team?

When an organization's leaders establish a formal group, the purpose is to achieve company goals

and objectives. Formal groups are established through a notation in an organization chart or by a

management directive. Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees and

boards, and project teams.

Communication in a work group or department consists of the standard chain of command, as a

supervisor directs the activities of members who also interact with one another. The same will be

true for a committee or board directed by an elected or appointed leader, although many times such

groups also keep formal minutes to record their activities and elements of discussions. A project

team, which is led by a team leader, will interact in many of the same ways as work groups. Project

teams often are asked to ile progress reports as stages of the project or task are completed.

De ine formal group and name the three most common types.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

When an organization's leaders establish a formal group through a notation in an

organizational chart or by a management directive, the purpose will be to achieve company

goals and objective. Three of the most common types of formal groups are work groups,

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The gatekeeper determines who will be

included in or excluded from the group.

committees and boards, and project teams.

An informal group, or a friendship group, emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship.

Such groups form without the endorsement of organizational leaders and do not have a designated

structure (Shirky, 2004). People make friends on the job for various reasons. Three items tend to

bring informal groups together: activities, shared values or sentiments, and interactions.

Communication patterns in informal groups involve networks such as gossip and rumors via various

media, and in‐person conversations. Many employees depend on informal groups for social support

and a sense of belonging, as well as an outlet to discuss company actions, decisions, and policies.

The distinction between formal and informal groups has become blurred. New forms of of ice

design, coupled with the emergence of social media, lead to sets of individuals simultaneously

engaging in formal and informal interactions and activities. Employees increasingly rely on social

media to stay in contact with the home of ice but also with friends and peers inside and outside the

organization. The use of Twitter and instant messages or texts to contact a manager to notify her

that an employee is sick results in a follow‐up to check on the person and offer assistance, but also

results in another immediate message to other employees to cover for the employee who is ill. The

same media allow employees to make social contacts with each other on and off the job.

Four types of group members make up formal and

informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members

in good standing, and the gatekeeper. The leader

directs group activities. Formal leaders are assigned by

the organization. Informal leaders emerge based on

the group's choice over time. Members who are most

closely aligned with the leader become opinion

leaders. These individuals are most willing to express

group values. Members in good standing are those

included in the group who do not share its leadership.

The gatekeeper determines who will be in the group

and who will be excluded. The gatekeeper will be one

of the irst three, a member, opinion leader, or leader.

At times, the entire group serves in the role, which is then known as the gate‐keeping function. An

employee who agrees to chair a committee, on the condition that a certain co‐worker not be

included in the group, is acting as a gatekeeper; when several employees form a bowling team and

deliberately exclude one person, the group has performed the gate‐keeping function.

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What are the four types of group members found in formal and informal groups?

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Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion

leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. The leader directs group activities.

Members who are most closely aligned with the leader become opinion leaders and are the

most willing to express group values. Members in good standing are those in the group who

do not share its leadership. The gatekeeper determines who will and who will not be

included in the group.

Styles of Group Behavior

Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior in

groups—con lict, conformity, or consensus (Phipps, 2007; Tubbs, 1995). Con lict can occur as a

natural consequence of social interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of

the majority or leader in order to move on. Pressures for conformity or premature consensus can

lead to less‐than‐ideal decisions or decisions without true agreement, as the side with the greatest

authority or willingness to defend a point of view wins as the other side concedes. Consensus occurs

when genuine agreement among members emerges.

Several tactics help in avoiding con licts, and achieving conformity and consensus. Various problem‐

solving techniques (as will be noted later in this chapter) are open communication, goal clari ication,

and the creation of superordinate goals that all members agree can be used to facilitate group

interactions.

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What are the three styles of behavior present in groups?

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Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior

—con lict, conformity, or consensus. Con lict can occur as a natural consequence of social

interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of the majority or leader

in order to move on. Consensus occurs when genuine agreement emerges among members.

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Tuckman and Jensen (1997) developed an often‐cited explanation of how groups evolve. The model

suggests a sequence in which individuals gradually surrender a sense of independence in favor of

greater interdependence. The sequence is not as precise as the one depicted in Figure 9.1, but it

does provide a general sense of how groups tend to operate. Table 9.1 identi ies the communication

issues in each stage.

Figure 9.1 The stages of group development

Communication issues are present at each stage of group development.

Table 9.1: Communication issues in group stages

Stage Communication Challenge

Forming Resolving feelings of uncertainty

Acquainting members with one another

Seeking to become a leader

Testing behaviors to see if they are acceptable to the group (feedback)

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Storming Reduce and resolve con licts

Overcome resistance to group standards

Norming Inform members about norms

Provide feedback to someone who violates or ignores a norm

Explain the consequences of not following norms

Offer encouragement and assistance to new and ongoing members

Performing Support team members

Coordinate activities

Quickly resolve disputes

Adjourning Provide closure formally or informally

Ceremonial skills

What are the ive stages of group development? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

Initially, new members of a group are less likely to trust one another to some extent and to

experience feelings of uncertainty. Two behaviors appear in the forming stage. The irst is to try out

actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable. The second is tentative

action by a designated leader, or by those who seek the role when a leader has not been appointed.

The forming stage ends when suf icient compliance suggests that members see themselves as part of

the larger group.

Communication skills can give you an advantage in the forming stage. The ability to make others feel

comfortable, remembering names and individual idiosyncrasies, and building cooperation can help

you attain a leadership role. Those wishing to be effective team players also rely on communication

skills to coordinate and work with others.

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Although members now view themselves as part of something, they sometimes disagree with the

constraints imposed by the group or simply test to see what the limits are. In the storming stage, the

leader faces resistance as individuals seek to discover their place in the group's structure (Tuckman,

1965). If the leader cannot manage the group successfully, the possibility of subgroups, member

procrastination, con licts between members, and open rebellion emerges. Group survival may be at

risk.

Con lict resolution skills and the ability to reduce potential new con licts, as Chapter 7 notes, are the

key communication skills required in the storming stage. They include having the ability to listen

and ind common ground among disputing parties, and seeking or encouraging the willingness to

make tradeoffs as part of the con lict resolution process. A leader and group members who cannot

effectively communicate run the risk of a dysfunctional group. Leaders who are able to de ine limits

and ind common ground among members help navigate the group through the storming stage.

The close of the storming stage occurs when a leader has been established, often through the efforts

of another member who challenges the group to come together. Closer relationships build between

members, and discussions of power become less emotional and more matter of fact. The norming

stage is complete when members share a common set of expectations about behaviors and

contributions to the group. The communication approach used by the leader and group members

de ines the way a group works, such as by integrating new members into the group, offering advice

and encouragement to all members, and coordinating group activities.

Also in this stage, group norms develop. Norms are rules governing behaviors in the group. As

shown in Table 9.2, norms apply to three main areas in both formal and informal groups. Many

times, norms overlap between the two. When a member violates a norm, group members will

express disapproval, formally or informally.

Table 9.2: Types of norms

Effort/Productivity Units of production

Time on the job and working overtime

Department‐speci ic activities (e.g., sales calls, sales totals, follow‐ups

with customers)

Work Behaviors Clothes worn, jewelry, hairstyle, other features of appearance

Use of language, cursing, formality

Following or ignoring work rules and procedures

Punctuality versus tardiness

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Norms apply to a variety of workplace

behaviors, from the level of effort given on

the job to starting of ice romances.

Social Behaviors Fraternization between management and labor

Of ice romances

Norms summarize group in luence processes, including

the rules for joining and maintaining membership

(Hackman, 2003). Norms apply to workplace behaviors

rather than off‐work circumstances. They often

develop slowly but then become dif icult to change.

Norms also apply to behaviors rather than private

feelings and thoughts. Some group members may "go

along" with norms they think are foolish or

insigni icant. High‐status members may choose to

ignore some norms, because they do not fear losing

membership. In the norming stage, these rules of

behavior clarify the group or organization's key values

and convey a sense of identity. Enforcing norms assists

an individual in meeting behavioral expectations and

in avoiding making behavioral mistakes (Feldman, 1984).

Communication informs members of the presence of norms, violations of norms, and the potential

consequences of ignoring or violating a norm. Formal and informal messages convey such

information. For example, someone who is chronically late might receive a memo (formal) regarding

the behavior or may be taken aside by group members who informally remind the individual that

the norm is to be on time.

Name three types of norms present in formal and informal groups.

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Norms regarding effort or productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors.

The performing stage has opened when the group reaches the point at which the primary activities

revolve around solving problems. Clear lines of communication connect members, and members

support one another and cooperate. Disputes in the performing stage are handled quickly and

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constructively (Mason & Grif in, 2005). At this point, interdependence reaches its peak and

independence has been surrendered as much as it will be. Ongoing work groups and committees

that reach the performing stage remain there unless drastic events interfere. The performing stage

often involves moving from a formal group to a successful team. Then, project teams and informal

groups with an end point (such as when a task is complete or the bowling season ends) move to the

inal stage, adjourning.

Groups that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration. These take the

form of parties, of icial statements of appreciation by company leaders, and even graduations and

mock funerals. Individuals resume a stronger sense of independence as the group disbands. In the

adjourning stage, a leader can summarize group accomplishments and express gratitude for good

work, providing a role model for future group efforts. Adjourning can provide closure to group

members and let every member know what the next assignment is.

The group development models proposed by Tubbs, Fisher, Tuckman, and Jensen combine the

elements of con lict, conformity, and consensus with individual willingness to subsume personal

agendas to larger group goals and activities. Positive outcomes occur only when communication

skills are effectively utilized.

Two forms of leadership appear in groups as they develop. Formal group leadership occurs when

an individual has been selected or designated by the organization to ful ill the role. A person who

has been assigned to manage a task force or serve as a chair of a committee is a formal group

leader. Informal leaders, or emergent leaders, evolve into the role and are selected by the group.

Poole (1983) suggests that groups move back and forth between three "tracks." Effective leaders

work to understand the natures of and interrelationships between the task track, topic track, and

relation track. The task track represents the process by which a group seeks to accomplish goals. A

group can complete tasks by individuals working separately and then coming together at a key

moment or it can subdivide into sets of individuals working on different parts of a project. The task

track affects communication patterns within the group as it functions. The topic track is the speci ic

topic a group discusses when it meets. The relation track focuses on the role and state of

relationships in the group as they affect functioning.

When a group meets, the leader will experience "breakpoints" at which the group switches from one

track to another. Shifts in the conversation, postponing discussion of topics, and seeking to adjourn

are examples of breakpoints. As groups operate over time, leaders coordinate activities while

seeking to ensure that the group functions ef iciently.

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The term "tight knit" applies to groups

exhibiting higher levels of cohesion.

One key aspect of leading effective groups involves building cohesion and encouragement of effort

by group members. At times, group members tend to give less effort to a group than they would if

working individually or alone, a problem known as social loa ing. At times, a member may decide

to take a free ride and contribute nearly nothing. Effective group leadership includes inding ways to

persuade a social loafer to at least get involved and show an effort. One method is to assign the

individual speci ic tasks and require progress reports to be made in front of the group. The leader

can encourage the social loafer to offer opinions during meetings, thereby increasing the person's

involvement with the group (Liden & Erdogan, 2003).

De ine social loa ing. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The problem known as social loa ing occurs at times when group members give less effort to

a group than they would if working individually or alone.

Building Cohesion

Group cohesiveness re lects the degree of goal

commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group

control over members. The term "tight knit" applies to

groups exhibiting higher levels of cohesion. A link

exists between the level of cohesion in a group and

subsequent performance, most notably when the group

focuses more on the task (the task track) than on mere

interpersonal relationships (the relation track) or

group pride (Mullen & Copper, 1994). Leaders have

vested interests in developing and maintaining

cohesive groups (Litterer, 1973; Seashore, 1954). A

cohesive work group often experiences lower levels of

member turnover and con lict. Cohesive committees use time more ef iciently and engage in fewer

counterproductive arguments. Cohesive task force groups focus on inalizing the job and work

together more ef iciently.

A group with too little cohesion often suffers from the lack of productivity. The problems associated

with low cohesion begin with goal disagreement rather than agreement. Members do not conform to

any potential group norms. They fail to cooperate, and group sanctions do not affect them. A

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dysfunctional group can result, one that demonstrates (Lencioni, 2002):

lack of trust

fear of con lict

little or no commitment to the group

avoidance of accountability

inattention to results

In contrast, groups with desirable levels of cohesion tend to enjoy the highest levels of success.

Among the bene its of a cohesive, functional group are:

Members achieve high productivity.

Members help those experiencing problems.

Members extend extra effort during a crisis.

Members work without supervision.

Members share a positive social atmosphere.

A leader can build cohesion among group members through the tactics in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3: How to build group cohesiveness

Keep the group size from four to seven members

Provide opportunities for members to interact frequently

Create common goals for all members (superordinate

goals)

Communicate expectations for individual members and

the overall group

Source: G. C. Homans (1950). The human group. New York, NY: Harcourt

Brace Jovanovich.

Effective leaders help build cohesion; ineffective ones drive wedges between members (Homans,

1950).

Group leaders should also understand that cohesion might grow to a point at which problems begin

to emerge. Overly cohesive groups are more likely to set norms to reduce output or lower levels of

effort. They may be inclined to view other groups as rivals and create unnecessary con licts. At

times, the formal leader in the group becomes unable to function because of the in luence of the

informal leader.

The most substantial problem with overly cohesive groups is labeled groupthink, which results

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when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or

unpopular views (Janis, 1991). At the extreme, groupthink becomes a process by which the group

develops a sense of invulnerability, believing it can function without outside in luence or sanction.

The group self‐censors information, and it fails to perform effectively within organizational con ines

(Von Bergen & Kirk, 1978). Some observers suggest that, under the leadership of Kenneth Lay, the

executive team at Enron engaged in groupthink by failing to challenge instances of fraud and

corruption. These instances involved the use of accounting loopholes, special purpose entities, and

poor inancial reporting, which were used to hide billions in debt from failed deals and projects,

along with coercion directed at the Arthur Andersen accounting irm that audited Enron's books

(Healy & Krishna, 2003).

To combat groupthink, leaders can introduce new members (at least two) who have divergent

opinions. Members may be isolated from each other in order to reduce interactions that reinforce

groupthink opinions. Also, members may be assigned to new groups to encourage involvement in

other parts of the organization. A group leader combating groupthink (if not a part of the

groupthink process) needs to ind ways to introduce divergent opinions and attitudes into the group.

During interactions, differences in points of view should be encouraged. The leader or highest‐

ranking person should not be irst to express an opinion. A second group can be established to

examine the indings of the original group. The use of a devil's advocate to challenge ideas can be

helpful (Janis, 1982).

In summary, effective communication skills facilitate every stage of a group's development. Further,

an effective leader inds ways to establish the most productive level of group cohesion. This includes

dealing with problem members, such as social loafers. Communication skills assist in managing a

team's efforts and social relationships. These skills include decision‐making, persuasion, and

coordination.

De ine group cohesiveness and groupthink, and explain the relationship between

the two concepts. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Group cohesiveness re lects the degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and

group control over members. Groupthink results when group pressures for conformity

become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Groupthink

emerges when groups experience levels of cohesion that are too high.

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Digital Vision

Effective group leadership requires successful

coordination of meetings.

Effective group leadership requires successful

coordination of meetings. Unfortunately, attending

meetings can be one of the more universally despised

aspects of organizational life. People easily become

bored, frustrated, and even gloomy. At the same time,

tasks assigned to teams and groups often require going

to meetings (Dvorak, 2006). Effective managerial

communications programs use meeting time wisely

and lead to productive results. Ineffective systems

cause people to waste time and become annoyed

(Armour, 1997).

Meetings take place for a variety of reasons. They can

be called at the unit or departmental level to discuss issues pertaining to that group. A task force or

project team may meet frequently to coordinate activities. Meetings held at the companywide level

often transmit information that applies to every employee. To facilitate the success of any type of

meeting, follow these steps:

stating the motivation for holding a meeting

preparing for the meeting

managing the meeting session

following up on the meeting

The technologies that create virtual meetings present new challenges to leading meetings. Leaders

will still need to tend to these steps, but face additional challenges. Time differences must be

accounted for when scheduling meetings with those in other locations. The manager will need to be

able to overcome the problems associated with a less‐rich information channel in which members

cannot see all nonverbal and paraverbal cues. Additional information about virtual teams is provided

later in this chapter.

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What four steps are involved in holding meetings? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

When seeking to hold meetings the steps to be followed include stating the motivation for

holding a meeting, preparing for the meeting, managing the meeting session, and following

up on the meeting.

Meetings take time and cost the organization money in terms of the payroll devoted to attendees.

For example, a meeting with six attendees, each averaging $25 per hour in wages, costs $150 per

hour. Therefore, a manager should determine that the bene its of holding the meeting exceed those

costs. Table 9.4 identi ies legitimate reasons for conducting meetings.

Table 9.4: Reasons for calling meetings

Reason Activity

Initiate a new activity Planning and goal setting sessions

Invigorate a stagnant activity Brainstorming or creativity technique; progress report

Information session Present indings of a report or analysis

Discussion session Evaluate pros and cons of a proposal, plan, or product

Performance session Update on progress of an activity

Motivate employees Pep talk, set goals and rewards

Educate employees Updates on events or outcomes of events

Networking Panel or breakout sessions with other professionals

Reward high‐performers Public recognition with prize, trophy, certi icate

Recreation Team‐building exercises off‐site

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Adapted from: J. S. O'Rourke, IV (2010). Management Communication: A case analysis approach. (4th ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Managers should not call meetings when a key person will not be available. They should not hold

meetings unless attendees have suf icient time to prepare. And, managers should avoid scheduling

meetings that they know will lead to con licts rather than positive results. The next phase begins

when the manager has become convinced that holding a meeting will be worthwhile.

The irst assignment in meeting preparation is to decide who should attend. This includes the

number of people, the organizational elements they will represent, what function(s) each might

serve, and potential compatibility with others at the meeting. As discussed earlier, a more limited

group of ive to seven employees will be the most effective in many situations (Filley, House, & Kerr,

1976; Levine & Moreland, 1990).

When you are assigned to lead a meeting, the level of preparation put into the process will

determine whether it will succeed. Following these steps helps to create a systematic, organized

meeting:

Obtain clearance for the meeting place or location.1.

Make sure the meeting location has all needed equipment.2.

Send out advance notice to participants that a meeting will take place, and con irm their

attendance at the meeting.

Create a detailed agenda for the meeting, including any ground rules.4.

Distribute the agenda to all the con irmed attendees, allowing enough time for them to read it

thoroughly (Stoneman & Dickinson, 1989; Hynes, 2008).

A detailed agenda, as shown in Figure 9.2, contains four elements: logistics, purpose, agenda items,

and attachments.

Figure 9.2 : A meeting agenda

A meeting agenda for a workplace safety committee is shown.

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Agenda for Workplace Safety Committee Meeting

Prepared on: June 27, 2011

By: Jennifer Jones, human resource department

Attendees: Jennifer Jones, Fred White, Susan Ward, Roger Smith, Marvin Johnson,

Yen‐Wen Kuo

Date and Meeting Time: July 2, 2:00 p.m.

Location: South Conference Room, 2nd loor

Subject: Recent Fire in Storage Facility

Agenda items:

Call to Order1.

Reports (time allotment: 20‐30 minutes)

Fire Department assessment of the cause ‐‐ Fred Whitea.

Injuries to personnel ‐‐ Jennifer Jonesb.

Insurance claim iling ‐‐ Yen‐Wen Kuoc.

Contacts and counseling of families of the injured ‐‐ Marvin Johnsond.

Company liability and legal concerns ‐‐ Susan Warde.

Resolution of current crisis (time allotment: 20‐30 minutes)

Recommendationsa.

Discussionb.

Avoidance of similar accidents in the future (time allotment: 20‐30 minutes)

Recommendationsa.

Discussionb.

Set goals and deadlinesc.

Adjournment5.

Attachments:

Fire Department of icial report

Injury roster

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Even the seating arrangement of the meeting deserves attention. A meeting held at a circular table

reduces the in luence of the leader, because the person does not sit in a dominant position, but the

arrangement increases communication among members. A rectangular table with a chair at one end

establishes greater dominance but may limit interaction and communication. The leader should

consider power dynamics and the intent of the meeting when setting up a seating arrangement

(Hackman & Morris, 1975). After establishing the meeting time and place, and distributing the

agenda, the next phase will be conducting the actual event.

Effective participation in meetings becomes the responsibility of every person involved. The leader

plays the pivotal role, but other individuals can contribute in ways that are helpful or detrimental.

Part of career success involves the perception by others that you can participate in a team or group

setting without being the source of problems. As a leader, conduct the meeting in four stages:

introduce and restate the meeting's purpose, provide a brief review of the agenda, tend to all

matters stated in the agenda, and summarize and present conclusions to establish closure. The inal

stage often includes assigning various tasks to speci ic group members and following with an email

or memo that lists these responsibilities. The leader can then ask for follow‐up reports about

completion of the assigned tasks.

As a meeting begins, four roles can be assigned to participants. First, the leader normally will be the

person who called the meeting and formulated the agenda. This person holds primary authority

during the course of the meeting. Second, a recorder takes notes that will later be used as meeting

minutes or a meeting summary. Third, a timekeeper makes sure the agenda stays on a reasonable

schedule without running too long. Fourth, participants are those who actively engage in the

discussion and agenda.

Formal meetings that will include votes often employ mechanisms such as Robert's Rules of Order,

which spells out protocols for enumerating agenda items, entertaining motions, seconding of

motions, discussion of motions, and how to conduct the actual vote, including the vote to adjourn

the meeting. These instruments help maintain order and make it easier to record decisions, votes,

and outcomes, including passed motions, rejected motions, and tabled motions. Less‐formal

meetings still need order. Table 9.5 lists three other styles of meeting formats.

Table 9.5: Meeting formats

Format Explanation

Staff Conference Each team member reports to the leader, answers any questions, and

makes recommendations with little input from other team members

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John Howard/Corbis

When emotions run high, meeting leaders can

use communication tactics such as "time out"

periods in which the group disbands to take a

break.

Congressional

System Leader is in charge; members raise hands to participate or contribute

House of

Commons Style

Leader delegates conduct of the meeting to another member; all

members speak freely

Source: New York Times. Chairing a meeting: To keep order, be true to form, September 22, 1999 p. C25.

The primary problems that meeting leaders encounter

include topic drift, running over time, and con licts

rather than conversations. Unexpected topics can cause

the discussion to drift away from the intended agenda.

For example, in the meeting agenda shown in Figure

9.2, the group convened speci ically to discuss a ire in

the facility. Drifting into discussions about the union

protecting the person who accidentally caused the ire

quickly becomes counterproductive (Matson, 1996).

A meeting that runs over often results when people

dominate discussions with personal opinions and

observations. Everyone has experienced a meeting in

which one participant loves "the sound of his own

voice." Effective meeting management seeks to contain

these individuals with comments such as, "Let's move

on to the next agenda item," or, "We only have about ive minutes left, so let's inish this up."

The most dif icult issue involves communicating during meeting con licts. Tempers can lare when

emotions run high and people hold strongly different positions on an issue. Meeting leaders can use

communication tactics such as "time out" periods in which the group disbands to take a break, and

other con lict management techniques, to hold emotions in check. Angry participants can be

separated. All members can be reminded of the group's purpose, and the leader can acknowledge

that some might have intense opinions or feeling about an issue. Humor often diffuses charged

con lict situations, but the leader must be aware of the parties involved before making jests during a

strong disagreement. Even a phrase such as, "Let's all take a deep breath here," might help.

Summary statements are used to record con licting positions (Mann, 2006).

One pitfall of trying to avoid confrontation is that a manager might seek to balance levels of con lict

by arriving at a consensus too early, before the ideal course of action has been identi ied. To avoid

this pitfall, one discussion technique, dialectical inquiry, involves inspiring genuine debate on an

issue. The approach requires that all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated until a

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resolution is decided. Dialectic inquiry stands in contrast to the consensus method, in which the

goal becomes to reach consensus rather than to conduct a genuine debate of the issue. Research

suggests that dialectic inquiry achieves better results than the consensus method in the areas of

inal group consensus, individual member acceptance of the decision, and member satisfaction with

the group (Priem, Harrison, & Muir, 1995; Schweiger, Sandberg, & Rechner, 1989).

In certain situations, a devil's advocacy approach to con lict resolution provides the needed

discussion and debate. The "devil's advocate" is the person in the group (leader or otherwise) who

willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to

defend their positions. Devil's advocacy appears to share the advantages of dialectic inquiry over the

consensus approach (Murrell, Stewart, & Engel, 2011).

Group decision‐making represents a key element in achieving goals. Successful analysis of

alternatives and choosing the appropriate course of action involves the efforts of the members and

the leader working cooperatively. Communication skills, including listening, con lict resolution, and

the ability move the group forward by summarizing positions, can assist in reaching the desired

decision.

Explain dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and the devil's advocacy approach

to group decision‐making processes. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Dialectic inquiry involves inspiring genuine debate on an issue. The approach requires that

all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is decided. Dialectic

inquiry stands in contrast to the consensus method in which the goal becomes to reach

consensus rather than conduct a genuine debate of the issue. The devil's advocacy approach

to con lict resolution provides the needed discussion and debate in which the "devil's

advocate" willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals

and subgroups to defend their positions.

Responsibilities of Attendees

Those attending the meeting also have responsibilities. Punctuality means the meeting will not be

disturbed by late arrivals. Other forms of considerate behavior, coupled with effective listening skills,

are in order. Participants may take notes to help remember key points or to raise questions at

appropriate times. Disagreements that remain civil stand the best chance of resolution. Participants

should remain aware of and sensitive to the verbal and nonverbal messages they transmit while in

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Nick White/Thinkstock

Disruptions of meetings take many forms.

attendance.

Disruptive Members

At times, communication and decision‐making

processes suffer from the disruptions of a single

member. An individual may have strong objections to

some aspect of the meeting or may have a hidden

agenda to pursue. Tactics used by disrupters are:

attempting to change the subject

making accusations against other members or

the leader

dominating and interrupting

clowning and joking to interrupt the low of

discussion

A leader can seek out a potential disrupter prior to a meeting and ask for cooperation. The leader

can attempt to settle the disrupter's agenda before going to the meeting. At times, the leader can

assign the disruptor a role, such as taking notes or summarizing the viewpoints of others. To

confront the disrupter, the leader may pre‐arrange allies to deal with the behavior. The disrupter can

be told in advance that his or her actions may lead to negative consequences from other members of

the group.

During a meeting, the leader should make sure that emotional issues do not get out of hand.

Summarizing viewpoints allows time to prepare more reasoned responses. Asking questions may

help prevent the disruptor from dominating the agenda (Jones, 1980).

After a meeting, completing follow‐up documents begins. Formal meetings normally require

minutes, which are a summary record of what transpired during the meeting. Minutes are recorded

by one of the group members and will be iled at a key location. Meeting summaries or minutes may

be sent to participants via email or a memo following less‐formal meetings. One purpose is to make

sure that events and decisions during the meeting are accurately recorded. A second purpose will be

to remind participants of any activities they have volunteered to take care of as well as

commitments made to future activities.

Meetings continue to offer the possibility of coordinating activities, making better decisions,

gathering expertise for discussion and negotiation, and even serving as a place to train managers,

who can conduct meetings in order to practice taking charge in a structured setting. Meetings also

offer the potential of wasting time and money, leading to con licts, and allowing members to

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disengage and take a free ride. The quality of the leader or manager determines the outcome.

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Two levels of communication take place when a group operates. The irst involves communication

among members as the group completes its assignment, as has been described in this chapter. The

second occurs when the group seeks to send a message or messages to others, among them

managers at higher ranks, other groups, sets of employees, and outside publics such as the

government. Group communications such as these appear in written and oral forms.

Formal groups are often asked to prepare formal written documents. Three of the more common are

of icial letters, reports, and proposals, although other variations may be prepared, such as a

manifesto or mission statement, a revision to the mission statement, a statement of corporate vision

(including those pertaining to ethics and sustainability), a planning document, and even smaller

items such as memos.

Communicating in an authoritative voice that represents the viewpoints of all group members

—including the voices of consensus and dissent—constitutes the primary challenge for formal team

writing projects. The inal product should speak with one voice, as if the document had been

prepared by a single individual, even though more than one person has been involved. Three options

for preparing a team's writing project are single writer, co‐authorship, and multiple authors. Each

exhibits distinct advantages and disadvantages.

What three methods can be used when preparing group and team and writing

projects? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Three options for preparing a team's writing project include a single writer, co‐authorship,

and multiple authors.

Single Writer

Most of you have probably experienced a situation, at work or in class, in which one individual

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Creatas Images/Thinkstock

Co‐authorships can also foster communication

among team or group members.

clearly has superior writing skills. Oftentimes the group, individually or collectively, will ask that

person to write the report or proposal. This should not mean others in the group abdicate

responsibility. Instead, single authorship allows the document to be prepared in a consistent voice,

including the level of formality or informality as well as the preciseness of language with regard to

both technical terminology and not‐so‐technical aspects of the message.

The other members of the group assist the process by collecting materials for the irst draft and

offering suggestions for revision. Group members might provide feedback that a point should be

added, omitted, or expanded upon. The more concrete the suggestions, the better the odds that the

document will communicate exactly as it should.

Two potential disadvantages of employing a single author are con licts and social loa ing. Members

may genuinely disagree about what the document should say and not say. Some may decide not to

participate, either because they believe their opinions will be ignored or because they wish to attend

to other matters (Ede & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a single‐author situation will be to make sure everyone contributes

his or her fair share, that con licts about content are resolved in a professional and ef icient manner,

and that the process stays on schedule. An effective leader expresses appreciation to both the single

writer and to those in the group who continue to participate in preparing the inal document.

Co‐authorship

Several forms of co‐authorship can be used when preparing formal documents. It may be that two

individuals are assigned the responsibility. In other circumstances, nearly every member of the

group writes a part of the document and then it is compiled and inalized by one or more members.

The advantages of co‐authorship include the ability to

break the document down into areas of interest or

specialization, which can then be assigned to the

individuals best suited to each one (Allen et al., 1987).

Doing so may allow each part of the report to receive

greater scrutiny by the person with the greatest level

of expertise. Collecting materials moves more quickly,

as each part is prepared separately during the same

time period. Collaborative writing helps group

members socialize with one another, including

allowing more senior members to assist and counsel

newer employees. Co‐authorships can also foster

communication among members. In some instances,

the process of collaboration improves the writing skills of team members (Gebhardt, 1980).

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Co‐authorship also creates challenges. Writing in one voice becomes considerably more dif icult.

Making transitions from one part of the document to the next also requires attention. Those who

complete individual sections may be more prone to be defensive if the segment is challenged or if

other members of the group request revisions.

The role of the group leader in co‐authorship begins with making sure the project does not break

down into "turf wars," with each section of writers and/or individual person defending their work.

The leader assumes larger coordination responsibilities, making sure that each part arrives on

schedule and that the whole document can be completed on time. The leader ensures

communication between all members so that the whole report works toward a consistent voice in

content and writing style. The leader may need to adjudicate the decision to select a inal person to

polish and edit the completed document before submission.

Multiple Authors, Single Editor

Similar to co‐authorship, the multiple‐authors‐single‐editor approach involves individuals and sets of

employees that are assigned to segments of work. The difference is that one individual is placed in

charge of each draft and the inal document at the outset. Each segment will be submitted to the

editor for revision individually. Then, the editor prepares the inal document for consideration by the

overall group.

The multiple‐authors‐single‐editor approach takes advantage of one person's writing skills and

ability to view the project from a micro and macro perspective. Many times, this talent can be hard

to ind. When a person is available, the inal document stands a better chance of being written in a

clear voice and with a consistent style. At the same time, multiple authorship often allows for

greater specialization, making it possible for each part of the report to be detailed and clari ied by

someone with speci ic knowledge about that area.

The primary disadvantages of the multiple‐authors‐single‐editor approach continue to be the

potential for turf‐building and con lict over content. Someone, or a few people who have invested

considerable effort into a section, may have such a sense of ownership that they do not take

criticism or suggestions for revision well. Con licts among these authors can arise as well as con licts

between the authors and the editor (Ede & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a multiple‐authors‐single‐editor context remains basically the same.

The leader continues to be responsible for deadlines, coordination, and con lict resolution (Bacon,

1990).

The role of a member in all three of these writing circumstances should be to contribute as a

responsible team player. Doing so involves communicating concerns in a nonconfrontational manner,

offering assistance when needed, meeting deadlines, and seeking to help successfully achieve the

group's objectives. Effective team players are also good listeners. They respect differences, value

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IT Stock/Thinkstock

Group verbal presentations require

preparation and practice.

diversity, and are willing to use the resources provided

by others (Harper & Harper, 1993)

A group may be asked to make a verbal presentation

of indings or group activities. Many of the principles,

as discussed in previous chapters, that apply to

individual verbal communications also pertain to a

group presentation. It is important to understand the

target audience, including its size and composition, in

order to construct an effective message. The group

should seek to predict the audience's probable reaction

to the presentation—positive, neutral, or negative—in order to be able to respond. The presentation

should put forth a key idea or limited set of ideas, and the message should be tailored to those

ideas. At that point, the group can collectively decide whether a single‐speaker or multiplepresenter

approach will be most effective.

What two methods can be used when making group or team presentations?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The group can collectively decide whether a single‐speaker or multiple‐presenter approach

will be most effective.

Single Speaker

A single speaker may be chosen for the same reason as a single author. One group member may

possess superior public‐speaking skills, and the group wishes to take advantage of that talent.

Members of the group may be seated in the audience together or separately to reinforce the speaker

and provide additional support.

The primary advantage of a single speaker, especially one who is gifted, will be the ability to control

the tone and pace of the presentation. Other members of the group can assist by running any

audiovisual equipment or other features incorporated into the event. The net result can be a more

seamless presentation that concentrates on the key points in the message.

A single speaker typically begins a presentation by acknowledging the other members of the group.

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The presenter often also thanks other members both for their contributions and for attending the

presentation. Then the actual content can be delivered. Following the presentation, the other group

members may be called on to respond to questions and objectives.

A potential disadvantage is that a single speaker may give a more mundane presentation, should the

individual not be as talented as the group had hoped. Audience members may wonder why only one

person is talking. If there is a cohesive team that worked to create the presentation, allowing several

presenters can create a greater awareness of this and could allow for a better impact overall.

Multiple Presenters

When more than one speaker will be presenting, several potential advantages emerge. The switch

from one person to the next can enliven the audience, and differing styles of speaking may prove

interesting. The address can be framed in such a way that a person with expertise speaks about his

or her part of the operation or analysis, adding credibility. Multiple speakers may also re lect

valuable professionalism, even gravitas, suggesting the topic is indeed important.

Ordinarily, one individual serves as moderator or coordinator when multiple presenters appear. This

individual will have the most polished speaking skills. It will be his or her role to open the session

with a welcoming statement, introduce the speakers or panel members, and possibly outline what

will be said. As the presentation unfolds, the coordinator directs the audience to the next speaker

while providing a transition.

Multiple‐presenter arrangements can become distracting. Differences in presentation style may

cause the audience to need to adjust, and some may be focused on the previous speaker rather than

the new one. When transitions are abrupt and not well coordinated, the presentation does not

appear as professional. Movements by and facial expressions of those not speaking can attract the

attention of the audience, moving it away from the person talking.

Effective multiple‐presenter events are practiced and well coordinated. The moderator moves the

low of information as smoothly as is possible. Those not speaking remain focused on the message

provided by the one in front. Transitions between speakers happen quickly. The individuals with the

most direct experience or expertise handle questions. The moderator then provides closure as the

presentation ends. The key goal of a presentation will be to provide the appearance of competent

professionalism.

Virtual Groups

Today's technologies allow for the use of virtual groups or sets of individuals who employ

technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the nonvirtual

realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Virtual teams and groups are formed for short‐ and long‐term projects, including group writing

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Christopher Robbins

Virtual groups allow communication and

collaboration over great distances.

assignments, as well as deliberations on long‐range, ongoing issues (Ante, 2003). Virtual groups

allow individuals and companies to reduce travel costs and permit people from remote locations to

participate. A meeting can be arranged as quickly as if members are simply down the hall, not

across the country or ocean (Naughton, 2003).

The leader's role in a virtual group is to schedule

meetings, keep the conversation and dialog lowing,

and to summarize at the end. A leader should follow

up virtual meetings to ensure that agreement occurred,

that individuals know their tasks and assignments, and

that members are aware of upcoming deadlines and

meetings.

Virtual groups do have limitations. If group meetings

have no visual aspects, such as those in a

videoconference, then paraverbal and nonverbal cues,

such as voice tone, in lection, eye contact, distance,

gestures, and facial expression, cannot as easily be

transmitted. This limits the richness of communications between members. Socialization can become

less likely, or paradoxically, more likely in virtual groups. The typical boundaries between colleagues

working and living in the same place do not exist between colleagues of virtual groups. There is

both more (for example, connecting with a colleague via Facebook or over email outside of work

hours) and less freedom to communicate (for example, the lack of spontaneous of ice socialization

that occurs with colleagues in a centralized work environment) about topics outside work. The

boundaries of what is and what is not appropriate still apply, but the routines of virtual groups

typically take on a life of their own and relate back to the business culture and leader of the

company or industry, and the speci ic task at hand. Scheduling virtual meetings can also prove a

challenge or be quite easy, depending on the colleagues' locations.

In spite of the obstacles, the use of virtual groups can be expected to increase. The ability to see the

other party through various new technologies increases the usefulness of virtual groups, which can

have great value for national and international companies.

Describe a virtual group. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Virtual groups are sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common

goals as those groups functioning in the non‐virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing

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information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

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Management communication plays a critical role in operating groups and teams effectively. A group

consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal (Schein, 1980). Teams

become distinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared

effort. An organization's leaders establish a formal group to achieve company goals and objectives.

Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees, and project teams. An informal

group, or a friendship group, emerges without the endorsement of organizational leaders and does

not have a designated structure or work toward organizational goals other than socialization and

friendship. Three items tend to bring informal groups together: activities, shared values and

sentiments, and interactions. The distinction between formal and informal groups has been blurred

by new of ice designs and virtual communication technologies.

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders,

members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. Individual members of groups and larger sets of

people adopt one of three styles of behavior in groups—con lict, conformity, or consensus. Formal

groups require consensus to operate effectively.

Five stages of group development are forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

During forming, new members of a group are likely to distrust one another and experience feelings

of uncertainty. Some members try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them

as acceptable. There may be tentative actions of a leader, if one has been designated, or by those

seeking to lead.

In the storming stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to push boundaries and

discover their place in the group's structure. Con lict resolution skills and the ability to reduce

potential new con licts are vital. The norming stage will be complete when members share a

common set of expectations about behaviors and contributions to the group. Norms or rules

governing group behaviors begin to form. The performing stage occurs when the group reaches the

point at which the primary activities revolve around solving task problems. Clear lines of

communication connect members. In the adjourning stage, groups that successfully complete tasks

often end with a ceremony or celebration. In this stage, a leader can summarize group

accomplishments and express gratitude for good work. Leadership of groups requires attention to

social loa ing and levels of group cohesiveness, especially when groupthink emerges.

Leading meetings involves stating the motivation for the meeting, preparation, managing the actual

event, and following up. Leaders obtain clearance for the meeting place, arrange equipment, send

out notices, and then create and distribute the agenda, con irming those who will attend. Group

decision‐making processes during meetings can include dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, or a

devil's advocacy approach. Attendees should be responsible and professional, and the leader should

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work to prevent disrupters from interrupting or sidetracking the meeting.

Formal group business communications include writing projects and presentations by groups and

teams. Group writing projects, such as letters, formal reports, formal proposals, and other

documents can be prepared by a single writer, through co‐authorship, or by multiple writers with a

single editor. Group speaking projects may be handled by a single spokesperson or with a carefully

rehearsed and choreographed multiple‐presenter format. Virtual groups employ technologies to

achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non‐virtual realms, such as

collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

consensus method (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A group decision‐making process in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than a

genuine debate of the issue.

devil's advocacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A group decision‐making process in which a person in the group (leader or otherwise) willingly

challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend

their positions.

dialectical inquiry (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A group decision‐making process that involves inspiring genuine debate that allows for all points of

view to be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is reached.

dysfunctional group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A group with low cohesion and goal disagreement in which members ignore any potential norms.

formal group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

A group established by an organization's leaders as part of the managerial process.

formal group leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

What occurs when an individual has been selected or designated by the organization to ful ill the

leadership role.

functional group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A group exhibiting desirable levels of cohesion and the highest levels of success.

group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal.

group cohesiveness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members.

groupthink (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

What occurs when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual,

minority, or unpopular views.

informal group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Or a friendship group, a group that emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship without

the endorsement of organizational leaders and that does not have a designated structure.

informal leaders (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Or emergent leaders, are individuals who evolve into the leadership role and are selected by the

group.

minutes (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

A summary record of what transpired during a meeting as recorded by one of the group members.

norms (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Rules governing behaviors in a group.

social loa ing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

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/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

When group members give less effort to the group than they would working individually or alone.

teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Sets of individuals with synergies that emerge from greater interdependence and share effort.

virtual groups (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups

functioning in the nonvirtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems,

and scheduling activities.

Newer of ice designs and technologies have blurred the distinction between formal and informal

groups. Explain how the use of Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn might be used by group members

for formal group functioning, informal interactions, and linking the group to persons outside the

organization.

A disruptor interrupts communication and disturbs group functioning by attempting to change the

subject, making accusations against other members or the leader, dominating and interrupting, or

by clowning and joking to interrupt the low of discussion. Describe how a disruptor would

in luence the following:

con licta.

conformityb.

consensusc.

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gate‐keeping activitiesd.

Explain which speci ic tools of formal and informal, and verbal and written communications, along

with nonverbal communications, a group leader can use in the stages of forming, storming,

norming, performing, and adjourning.

How would group norms regarding effort/productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors be

different or the same in the following circumstances? And, how could a leader communicate

regarding the appropriateness or inappropriateness of each norm to group members, from the

company's perspective?

a set of bank tellers who are friendsa.

a road construction crew that also plays slow‐pitch softball together on weekendsb.

information technology employees who enjoy playing video games togetherc.

friends working together at McDonald'sd.

How would social loa ing and groupthink affect the following?

the task tracka.

the topic trackb.

the relation trackc.

Explain the value of dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and a devil's advocacy approach in

the following group decisions:

medical staff considering a highly risky but more‐effective medical treatment for a patienta.

sales team trying to agree on the best method to approach a new, lucrative clientb.

management team deciding whether or not to close a plant and outsource a product's

manufacture

Choose a form of group writing (single authorship, co‐authorship, multiple authors/single editor)

for the following circumstances and select the type of written message to be used in the following

circumstances.

human resources department conducting a fact‐ inding mission to identify prevailing bene it

plans in a metropolitan area

product development team describing how the item it created is superior to the competitor's

product to the marketing department

accounting department explaining how a new tax code will affect company operationsc.

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A research team in London examines the dynamics in the

boardroom that explain the success of gender diverse teams.

Success of Diverse Gender Teams

From Title: A Woman's Place Is in the Boardroom: Profiting...

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=41341)

0:00 / 1:05 1x

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Gender Dynamics

From Title: A Woman's Place Is in the Boardroom: Profiting...

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=41341)

Why are diverse teams more likely to be effective than

homogenous teams?

How can this help managers create effective work groups?2.

Terri Kelly, CEO of W.L. Gore & Associates, operates from the

principle that every associate contributes to the bottom line. She

explains how she encourages teamwork in this clip.

0:00 / 1:50 1x

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W. L. Gore & Associates

From Title: Human Resources: People and Partnerships (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47306)

Collaborate for Success

From Title: Human Resources: People and Partnerships (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47306)

0:00 / 2:31 1x

0:00 / 0:36 1x

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Leading in a Collaborative Culture

From Title: Human Resources: People and Partnerships (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47306)

How do leaders at W.L. Gore create a collaborative

environment that leads to innovation?

What barriers to communication take place at W.L. Gore?2.

Henry Fong faced the biggest challenge of his career. He had been with his company for

ive years, selling leets of American‐made cars to other businesses. Currently, Henry had

been given the charge to oversee a new major sales project by his employer. He was to

head a sales group assigned to market a leet of midsized trucks to a local delivery service.

A normal order would be 20 trucks, plus a maintenance agreement, which generated a

sizable amount of revenue for his company.

Until this year, the task would have been given to a single member of the company's sales

force, Blake Mercer. Blake had been with the company for 10 years and earned a

substantial amount of money in commissions during that time. Recently, however, he had

failed to capture three major accounts that had been continuous customers. Each time, a

Japanese company had obtained the contract by emphasizing fuel ef iciency and reliability

of its trucks.

Company executives at Henry and Blake's U.S. irm had decided to try a sales team

approach, rather than relying on interpersonal relationships, as Blake had done in the

0:00 / 2:31 1x

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past. Blake was assigned to the team, based on his knowledge of the product and the

market. This was to be the irst sales call under the new system.

Henry called a meeting of his ive‐person team. As the group met in a conference room,

Henry opened. "Thank you all for coming. I think this is an exciting new project, and I'm

certain we'll do a great job. Now irst of all, I believe we need to ind a way to counter this

Japanese company's claims about better gas mileage and reliability. What do you all

think?"

A member of the team replied, "Well, it seems to me our advantage is that our trucks are

much easier to load and unload, which saves time and money during deliveries, plus I

think we can challenge them on the idea of low maintenance."

"Great," Henry responded, "do you all agree?" Everyone in the room except Blake nodded

"yes."

"I also think," Henry continued, "that we can point out all of the high tech we offer, the

same as those guys—on‐board computers and GPS. So, what I'm hoping is that we can

break this down into a really professional sales pitch, with visuals and maybe a couple of

different presenters."

At that point Blake interrupted sharply, "You know folks, this whole thing is designed to

get rid of our commissions. They igure that, if this team thing works, they can cut back on

how much each of us gets paid."

Henry answered, "Well, I'm sure we'll end up dividing the commission, but I haven't heard

anything about a straight salary system."

"You're a trusting little soul," Blake replied.

"Well, I really don't think this is the time for that discussion," Henry responded. He quickly

moved on, "So, what I'm hoping is that Sally and Gene will think about maybe putting

together some visuals. Don and Erin can work on the main message and coordinate with

them. And I'm hoping Blake can give us all insights about the company and how we can

tailor our pitch to them."

"I've got a lot on my plate right now," Blake sneered. "We'll see."

"How about the rest of you?" Henry asked, "Can we put something good together?"

The rest of the group, while tense, nodded in agreement

"Good. And think about how many presenters we want, and who they should be," Henry

continued. "Well, listen, I don't really believe in long meetings, so maybe we can just get

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some email going back and forth about this. All right? Okay, good. Thanks for coming."

While the rest of the group lingered to visit, Blake quickly left the room. Two of his

colleagues were waiting outside. As he moved out of sight, Henry was certain that he

heard Blake continuing to complain about the new system. Henry felt his ist clench. He

resisted the urge to follow Blake and confront him directly. "Be calm; be professional," he

thought. Henry knew he faced two issues; making the sale and dealing with Blake.

Review Questions

What type of sales presentation should Henry's team put together?1.

Were the company executives at Henry's irm wise in putting Blake on the sales team?2.

How should Henry deal with Blake in the future?3.

Murphy Manufacturing suffered a terrible tragedy. For the irst time in the company's

history, a worker died while on the job. The employee, Luis Morales, apparently had

ignored a warning whistle that signals when a forklift is moving in reverse. He was brie ly

pinned against a wall, causing internal injuries that led to his death.

Luis had worked for Murphy Manufacturing for over three years. He had gone through

safety training and had never received a warning for violating safety protocols. In fact, his

supervisor had called him a "model employee" on his last performance evaluation, partly

based on Luis' willingness to carefully follow directions.

Top management formed a task force to prepare a report and response. Speci ically, four

areas required investigation. First, the group was to investigate the cause of the accident

to see if somehow it could have been prevented. Second, employee training was to be

reviewed to make sure all employees had been made aware of safety protocols. Third, the

inancial response was to be formulated. The company wanted to make sure Luis' family

received fair inancial compensation from insurance and all other sources, including a

company‐sponsored fund‐raiser. Fourth was the human response. Company executives

wanted to make sure emotional support was being provided to the family of Luis but also

to the employee who was operating the forklift at the time of the accident.

The task force included an executive in the area of inance, two members of the human

resource department, two entry‐level production workers, and a quality‐control employee.

An attorney was retained to work with the task force regarding all legal issues.

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Beyond the internal report to be prepared, the task force was also directed to respond to

all media inquiries. The company's CEO made it clear that he wanted the investigation and

response to be "transparent and humane." He asked for a direct, sincere apology to all

concerned, if the company had failed in some way.

Review Questions

What written documents should the task force prepare?1.

Should the task force prepare written documents using a single author, co‐authorship,

or multiple authors with a single editor?

What presentations will be necessary in this case? Who should give them?3.

Should a single speaker or multiple presenters make the presentations?4.

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Comstock/Thinkstock

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Adapt to various audiences when preparing a public speech or presentation.1.

Create a public presentation tailored to a speci ic audience.2.

Take the necessary steps to prepare and present an effective speech.3.

Deliver effective public presentations.4.

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Public speaking presents one of the greatest opportunities you will have to make a positive

impression on others. An effective and memorable public speech can launch a career or lead it to

greater heights. For example, an unknown U.S. senator, when asked to make a speech at the

Democratic National Convention in 2004, suddenly became so well known that four years later he

was elected president of the United States. And, even though you may never make a speech that

leads to such a high of ice, you may very well impress members of top management with your

potential to lead and assume a position of greater authority, based on a well‐delivered public

presentation.

The public communication process involves one communicating with many (Wiseman & Barker,

1967). Public speeches take place in a vast number of ways and places, from standing on a street

corner to the annual State of the Union address. The audiences are as varied as the number of

forums. Two public communication formats are in‐house speeches and presentations, and

presentations to the general public.

What is public communication? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The public communication process involves one communicating with many.

She played cricket and performed in a rock band in college in India, and then worked the

third shift as a dorm receptionist while obtaining her master's degree in business

administration at Yale. Clearly a woman of great energy and passion, Indra Nooyi became

the CEO of PepsiCo, directing more than 185,000 employees in over 200 countries.

Nooyi has achieved fame and acclaim in the business world for her dress, demeanor,

vision, and public presentation skills. She often comes to work dressed in the traditional

Indian sari. For many years, she was accompanied by one of her two young daughters.

Nooyi is well known for her caring, compassionate approach to employee relations. She is

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The ability to provide a powerful vision,

while relating to both internal and

external audiences, is one of Indra

Nooyi's key skills.

"a deeply caring person who can relate to people

from the boardroom to the front line," as dean of

the business school at Wake Forest University

and former Pepsi CEO Steven S. Reinemund has

said (Useem, 2008).

Indra Nooyi's vision included key strategic

corporate moves in the 1990s, among them the

divestment of KFC, Pizza Hut, and Taco Bell while

acquiring Tropicana and Quaker Oats, the

producer of Gatorade. These pro itable moves

also took the company in a new direction

—toward providing healthier products while

conserving water and energy. By 2010, half of

the company's products were from healthier

foods. The company began an anti‐obesity

campaign at the same time.

Nooyi often engages in public presentations. To stress the importance of her vision, she

created the phrase, "Performance with purpose." "It doesn't mean subtracting from the

bottom line," she said, but rather "that we bring together what is good for business with

what is good for the world." To further emphasize this point, she noted in the same

speech, "People these days are bringing their principles to their purchasing. We, in return,

are bringing a purpose to our performance" (Useem, 2008).

The ability to provide a powerful vision while relating to both internal and external

audiences is one of Nooyi's key skills. She speaks often at company functions and is

willing to engage in musical performances at company events as well.

As a result, Fortune and Forbes magazines have named Nooyi as one of the world's 100

most powerful women. U.S. News & World Report has named her as one of America's best

leaders. These awards, along with several honorary doctorates, note her tenacity in tying

personal values into a corporate vision, assisted by effective public speaking skills.

What types of audiences would Nooyi address when emphasizing sustainability and

healthy eating?

How does public speaking relate to articulating a vision to the world?2.

How does the willingness to perform music at company events relate to public speaking

and relationships with employees?

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In‐house presentations take the forms of downward, upward, and lateral communications. A

downward presentation means the company's CEO or another higher‐ranking manager creates a

message for those at lower ranks. An upward presentation occurs when an individual makes a pitch

for a special project, such as a when an employee proposes to renovate the interior of a store to

integrate social media or when a logistics expert makes a proposal designed to cut a company's

shipping costs. Another upward presentation takes place when a candidate stands before an

individual or panel as part of the interview process for a promotion. Lateral presentations travel

between managers of the same rank.

In‐house messages normally focus on speci ic issues related to the organization or business. The

audience consists of fellow employees. Even with those parameters, in‐house speeches reach diverse

audience members with differing opinions and viewpoints. Audience familiarity might lead to

spontaneous interruptions or leaps in judgments by members. The same degree of preparation

(including the steps described in this chapter) will be required as with any other public presentation

to a more general audience.

What types of communications are involved in in‐house speeches and presentations?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

In‐house presentations take the forms of downward, upward, and lateral communications.

Company of icials are asked to make presentations to the public on a variety of subjects. Some

speeches relate speci ically to their businesses; others address more general issues and concerns.

Local company owners may be asked to comment on a new local tax code or zoning decision. Many

national company CEOs move about the country, promoting their organizations but also providing

motivational speeches to conventions and other gatherings of people.

At the height of his tenure as CEO of Southwest Airlines, Herb Kelleher was such a popular speaker

that he was booked for speeches as far as two years in advance. Many times, he was asked to relay

information about the birth and growth of the airline. At others, speech topics included customer

service, teamwork, and how to create a fun‐loving organizational culture.

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iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Company of icials are asked to make

presentations to the public on a variety of

subjects.

Four main types of audiences listen to speeches by

members of organizations. First, business‐related

organizations, including conventions, will request a

speech from an expert or executive from a company.

These speeches focus on various topics such as a

speci ic industry or profession as well as on more

general subjects, such as the political climate. Second,

groups of consumers may invite speakers to talk about

their issues, such as environmental protection,

governmental regulations, fair dealings with

employees, and the ethical treatment of animals. Third,

company speakers address employees of other

companies. Fourth, presentations to the general public

can include special occasions, such as high school or

college graduation ceremonies.

The purpose of this chapter is to assist you in becoming a more effective public speaker. In addition

to the basic advice contained here, other organizations can help you develop your ability to make a

public presentation. For example, the Toastmasters (www.toastmasters.org) sponsor many local

organizations with the express purpose of helping individuals become more effective speakers.

Taking the time to prepare is key to being a successful public speaker. The steps of public speaking,

from preparation to the speech itself, are outlined in Table 10.1. This section presents the irst step,

setting a strategy. The upcoming sections will explore the other steps.

Table 10.1: The steps of public speaking

Set a Strategy

Identify the Audience

Evaluate Potential Barriers to Communication

Prepare the Message

Prepare for Questions

Practice the Presentation

Make the Presentation

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According to Aristotle, the three basic reasons for public speaking are to inform, persuade, and

inspire (Cooper, 1961). Another goal of public speaking can be to collaborate. Making sure an

audience understands an issue or process is the primary goal of an informative presentation.

Persuasion involves the attempt to change peoples' minds, or at least to get them to see a different

perspective. In both cases, time at the end may be reserved for various questions, comments, issues,

and challenges to the message. Inspirational speeches seek to move an audience from a concept to

an action. Employees may be inspired to provide better customer service. A larger audience may be

inspired to vote in an election or contact governmental of icials about an issue. Inspirational

speeches often allow for little audience participation beyond cheering and encouragement.

Collaborations seek to collect information and to engage in mutual dialog to reach a resolution on an

issue. Fuller audience participation takes place when the speaker plays a more collaborative,

facilitating role. In that case, the speaker guides the discussion and inclusion of ideas. Collaborations

often take the tone of a meeting rather than a presentation.

Further, public relations speeches may have the objective of offering an apology or defending a

company from unfair or unwarranted attacks. Other public speeches attempt to build a company's

image in a positive manner. Image building is creating a positive public identity for an organization

that matches the goals of the organization's leaders (Clow & Baack, 2012; Goldhaber, 1993).

No matter the objective, the strategic approach to public speaking requires that the speaker de ine a

clear message. Then, all other elements of the preparation process can be aligned with that message.

Failing to do so may lead to a confused or less‐effective speech.

What is image building? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Image building is creating a positive public identity for an organization that matches the

goals of the organization's leaders.

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The previous section outlined the steps of public speaking. Following the process of setting a

strategy, the next two elements are to identify the audience and evaluate potential barriers to

communication. These important steps help you structure a speech or presentation that will have

the best chance of being well received by the target audience.

Aristotle also told his students to consider three elements when making a speech. The audience, the

purpose, and the occasion should combine to direct the preparation of the message. While the

elements are mostly described independently in this chapter, in reality, all three should be

considered simultaneously.

In an in‐house presentation, the audience will be determined by the direction the information lows.

Downward‐ lowing messages have audiences consisting of lower‐level managers and irst‐level

employees. Upward‐ lowing messages target higher‐ranking managers. The audience establishes the

tone and style of message presentation. Top managers making downward presentations often irst

seek to reduce audience anxiety (that something bad is about to happen) or try to create a sense of

partnership with employees. Lower‐ranking members making presentations are likely to create more

structured, formal messages designed to establish credibility.

For external speaking engagements, an audience pro ile, or analysis of the audience, assists in

matching the strategy of the speech with a method of delivery. Table 10.2 identi ies the key elements

of an audience pro ile.

Table 10.2: Elements of an audience pro ile

Is this a single, homogenous group with major similarities, or a heterogeneous (diverse)

group?

For a Heterogeneous Group

What are the characteristics of the majority?

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What are the characteristics of the minorities?

General Audience Characteristics

What is the level of audience knowledge about the topic?

What is the level of audience emotion or feeling about the topic?

What will be the desired response from the audience?

Speaker Relationship to the Audience

Am I similar to or different from the majority?

Will the audience agree or disagree with my message?

Will the audience consider me to be credible, even if its members disagree?

When speaking to an outside group, the irst point to examine will be audience demographics,

including socioeconomic characteristics; attitudes, values, and beliefs; and the level of education and

understanding of the audience with regard to the subject of the presentation. While at least some

diversity will be present in nearly every audience, the speaker can seek to understand the

characteristics of the majority.

What elements are parts of an audience pro ile? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An audience pro ile, or analysis of the audience, assists in matching the strategy of the

speech with a method of delivery. It consists of discovery of whether it is a single,

homogenous group with major similarities or a heterogeneous (diverse) group, general

audience characteristics, and the speaker's relationship to the audience.

Demographics

At the most basic level, the speaker should identify the demographics, or population characteristics

of the audience. The speaker can examine the age, gender, and the race or ethnic origin of the

majority. Consider a speech by a company leader to a group of high school students visiting the

company, as compared with a group of senior citizens at a local community center. Dramatic frame‐

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Digital Vision/Thinkstock

of‐reference differences should direct the development of the content and the tone of the message.

In any public speaking situation, consider the preponderance of hand‐held recording devices. A wise

course of action is to review the appropriateness of your speech. Any language that may be

considered offensive in any way can lead to greater repercussions, especially with the ease with

which a speech can be recorded and shared over the Internet.

Socioeconomic Characteristics

Socioeconomic characteristics include the background, income, level of education and occupation,

and often the city, region, or neighborhood in which people live. A speaker preparing to address a

group with lower levels of education or income should be aware that such an audience will be less

likely to know about international travel and luxury items, such as designer clothes and expensive

wines, or possibly even about home ownership. Conversely, when composed of wealthy "angel"

investors, the audience will expect a sophisticated approach with ineries as well as business plans

and inancial forecasts. At the same time, be careful to avoid stereotyping audiences and do not

make overly general assumptions about them.

Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs

Attempting to know your audience becomes even more complicated when considering their

attitudes, beliefs, and values. Most audiences will consist of a mix of political and religious beliefs. A

topic such as gun ownership, free speech, or the role of government in private enterprise may spur

deep feelings before the speech even begins. The key, in this instance, will be to make sure to

understand the link between the subject of the speech and any potential "hot buttons" it might press

in the audience, if not handled properly. In a business speech, taking a point of view or side on such

an issue might distract the audience from the intent of the overall message. Most of the time,

businesspeople tend to remain as neutral as possible on controversial matters during public

speeches.

Knowledge of the Subject

To whatever degree possible, the speaker should

ascertain the knowledge level of the audience. An

accountant making a speech to a local accounting

association assumes a great deal of knowledge.

Explaining fundamentals may come close to insulting

the audience. At the other extreme, when a speaker

begins "over the heads" of an audience, members will

lose interest quickly. Knowing the audience's level of

background knowledge will help the presenter decide

what to say and how to say it, as well as what not to

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Knowing the audience's level of background

knowledge will help the presenter decide

what to say and how to say it, as well as what

not to say.

say. A speaker may attempt to gauge an audience's

knowledge of a subject early in the talk by asking

questions or seeking feedback through nods of

understanding or confused expressions.

Part of identifying an audience goes beyond examining its characteristics. As Chapter 2 notes, a

series of situational factors can disrupt interpersonal communication. Each becomes germane to a

speaking engagement as well. The emotions of anger, sadness, envy, and jealousy, the setting, and

distractions can disrupt what might have otherwise been an effective speech. Further, transmission

problems affect the quality of a speech. The use of language that does not match the audience,

inappropriate slang, over‐reliance on technical terminology, and disabilities might hinder the quality

of a presentation. Also, a speaker can contradict his or her own message through nonverbal and

paraverbal cues.

Further, the level of audience interest or the mindset of those involved can become a barrier to

communication when making a speech. Table 10.3 describes a series of potential mindsets.

Table 10.3: Potential audience mindsets

Audience mindset How speaker can address

Supportive of message

and speaker Speaker can reinforce or add to support for an idea

Interested, neutral Speaker can seek to gain agreement with a position or idea

Interested, mild

disagreement

Speaker can change misconceptions, clarify positions, seek to

persuade

Uninterested Speaker seeks to spark interest, tie concept to personal values of

audience members

Concerned Speaker can attempt to allay fears or help the audience

overcome those fears, when concerns are genuine

Hostile toward speaker Speaker copes with anger, tries to connect with members

Hostile toward message Speaker looks for common group, explains position in detail in

unemotional terms

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Outlining the strategy, understanding audience characteristics, including any bias that might exist

toward the speaker or the intent of the speech, and identifying potential barriers to communication

form the foundation for creating the body of the speech. Various constructions of speech format are

possible. The speaker matches them with the objective and audience in mind.

Identify the primary barriers to communication in a public speaking setting.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

The emotions of anger, sadness, envy, and jealousy, settings, and distractions can disrupt

what might have otherwise been an effective speech. Further, transmission problems affect

the quality of a speech. The use of language that does not match the audience, inappropriate

slang, overreliance on technical terminology, and disabilities might hinder the quality of a

presentation. Also, a speaker can contradict his or her own message through nonverbal and

paraverbal cues.

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The classic truism "success results when preparation meets opportunity" directly applies to making

a quality speech. A rule of thumb used by many college professors indicates that a one‐hour lecture

demands at least three hours of preparation. For speeches, the ratio may be even higher. The

presentation includes selecting a design, conducting quality research, and carefully choosing words

or phrases.

The speech should be customized to it the situation. A speech in December probably contains a

holiday theme; one made in November may express thanks; one in July might stress independence

or patriotism. The speaker references one of these or other themes, such as commencement as a

beginning, retirement as a new journey, or introducing a new product as an adventure, as part of the

introduction or as a connecting theme throughout the presentation.

Even the length of the talk merits deliberation. A presentation that is too short will leave out key

details or persuasive arguments. One that is too long will cause the audience to drift away.

As noted in Chapter 5, a standard, partitioned presentation may be used, often for informative

speeches. The format consists of forecasting what will be presented, making the presentation, and

then reminding the audience of the key points. Persuasive presentations often utilize the unfolding

format. The format moves from one point or argument to the next in a more seamless fashion. Table

10.1 suggested the elements of designing an effective speech. The middle elements in that table are:

Prepare the message.

Prepare for questions.

This section concentrates on those two activities.

With the audience, message type, and communication goal in mind, the message can be constructed.

The key message point should serve as the organizational framework for the entire speech and drive

the preparation of the message. The key message constitutes the primary idea to be conveyed with

the goal of causing the audience to think, feel, and respond in a desired manner. Consequently,

considerable attention should be paid to the preparation of the message. The development of the

message incorporates four processes:

Prepare the introduction.1.

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With the audience, message type, and

communication goal in mind, the message can

be constructed.

Prepare the message body.2.

Prepare the conclusion.3.

Prepare other details.4.

A well‐designed speech incorporates each of these

activities into a well‐crafted presentation.

Prepare the Introduction

The introduction serves several key purposes. First

and foremost, the opening statement should be

designed to capture attention. Table 10.4 provides

examples of attention‐getting opening‐statement

approaches.

Table 10.4: Attention‐getting introduction methods

Method Example

Personal

anecdote

My father worked for this company for 40 years. He retired believing that

the next generation of employees would enjoy a great future. We now

face circumstances that could change that outcome.

Shocking

statement

Did you know that if we raised the price of every item in each of our

stores by just 1 percent, we could fully fund an affordable company

health insurance plan for our employees?

Rhetorical

question

What will happen if gas prices rise to $7 per gallon, as some forecasters

believe will happen by 2020? How will we keep our prices affordable?

Company crisis As you know, this most recent cyber attack on our system threatens the

well‐being of our company and the con idence that our customers have in

our ability to protect their private information. I have a plan to restore

that con idence.

Famous

quotation

President Franklin Roosevelt once famously said, "The only thing we have

to fear is fear itself." I see too much fear in our employees' eyes.

Historical trend

or event

Isn't it interesting that, only about 10 years ago, a tweet was just a sound

made by a bird? Friends, the social media boom is not only changing the

world—it is changing how we must do business.

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Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Source: Adapted from G. E. Hynes (2011). Managerial communication: Strategies and applications. (5th ed.). New

York, NY: McGraw‐Hill, and J. S. O'Rourke (2010). Managerial communication: A case‐analysis approach. (4th ed.).

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Beyond capturing an audience's attention, the other key elements of an introduction are to state the

objective of the presentation, ind ways to keep the audience listening, and preview the key points

about to be made. Previewing key points will be especially important in a standard presentation

format. In some circumstances, two other parts of an introduction can include a statement about

whether interruptions from the audience are welcomed or discouraged, along with some evidence

regarding the speaker's credibility. The latter point becomes more likely when the presentation

lows upward.

During the introduction, the speaker should avoid starting with an apology, such as, "I'm not very

good in front of an audience." The speaker should not provide the audience with an excuse to

disengage, such as, "I know you probably have more important things to do." An effective

introduction draws people in; it should not push them away.

Name the techniques that can be used to capture attention as part of the

introduction of a speech. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The techniques include a personal anecdote, shocking statement, rhetorical question,

company crisis claim, famous quotation, and recall of a historical trend or event.

Prepare the Message Body: Persuasion

The body of the presentation often dictates a

presentation's success. It takes time and thought to

develop a presentation that will continuously engage

an audience. The body of the presentation contains

two key parts: content and process. The content of the

presentation covers the actual material. Effective

content contains three main elements:

It states main points clearly. The audience should

be able to easily follow along.

It limits main points to a manageable set,

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When making a persuasive argument, key

points to remember are balancing emotion

and logic, and creating the low that leads to

the conclusion you seek.

normally about three.

It provides transitions and informs the audience

when a new main point will be presented.

Transitions can move both backward and forward. A

forward transition moves on to the next point, as in the statement, "We are losing too many IT

(information technology) specialists due to salary and bene its issues. Let me tell you how we can

keep this from happening in the future."

A backward transition restates the previous point or points, and then moves forward, for example,

"Now that we know two new competitors are entering the market and that they have substantial

funding to advertise and promote their products, we can turn our attention to how we intend to

respond."

When making a persuasive argument, key points to remember include balancing emotion and logic

and creating the low that leads to the conclusion you seek. An important element in persuasion is

to provide credible evidence; persuasion based solely on emotion and personal opinion normally

will not achieve the same result. Four methods assist in making effective persuasive speeches or

presentations:

the AIDA model

psychological progression approach

problem‐solving method

state the case and prove it

To create the low you seek, one method with great appeal is the AIDA model, as described in

Chapter 5 (St. Elmo Lewis, 1925; Bennett, Cunningham, & Dees, 2006). As noted, the AIDA method

involves four processes:

Attention: Capture attention and draw the audience into the idea.

Interest: Maintain interest by making sure members of the audience see the bene it to them.

Desire: Help audience members understand how change also bene its the company and respond

to questions and concerns.

Action: Lead the audience to the desired response or behavior.

The AIDA model creates a low that should be easy to follow and builds to the desired conclusion.

A second form of persuasive presentations, the psychological progressive pattern approach,

involves a set of steps leading to the desired change in attitude (Howell & Bormann, 1971). The

steps in this method include:

arouse

dissatisfy

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gratify

visualize

act

Arousal relates to capturing attention. The speaker adapts the opening to the speci ic issue to be

addressed and can even forecast the resolution as part of his or her irst remarks. Tactics to

dissatisfy the audience demonstrate an issue or concern. Grati ication shows how the resolution will

take care of the dissatisfying factor. Visualization helps the audience see the potential outcome. They

can then be more readily moved to act.

When making a case for a back‐up generator for a retail location, the manager could employ the

psychological approach. Arouse—"Remember when the power went out last winter and it got so cold

in here that our pipes froze?" Dissatisfy—"We all lost several days of pay waiting for everything to

be repaired, and we probably lost some customers during that time as well." Gratify—"If we would

have been able to turn on a back‐up generator, the store could have stayed open and we wouldn't

have had that big repair bill." Visualize—"Just think how much better it would be, when the power

goes off, to have our lights come back on in a matter of seconds." Act—"We need to buy a generator

and have it installed before the next big winter storm." Such a presentation could be made by a

lower‐ranking supervisor to top management, or a store manager to corporate of icers.

Other methods of persuasion in public speaking involve a simpler approach. The problem‐solving

method works effectively with an audience not familiar with the problem. Using an unfolding

format, the speaker outlines the problem and then goes step‐by‐step leading to the solution. The

steps are

De ine the problem.

Explain the problem, including causes and effects.

Outline and evaluate potential solutions.

Prescribe the most ideal solution.

The inal method, state the case and prove it, relies on the development of a central thesis and

supporting arguments. Each supporting argument should irst be presented in a basic form and then

facts, logic, and any emotional justi ications follow. The conclusion restates the case and its potential

solution.

Balancing emotion and logic means irst developing the logical components of the presentation.

Three methods used to make your points are analogy, induction, and deduction. An analogy draws a

comparison to a similar event or circumstance. For example, a cyber attack can be compared to a

war in which strategies and tactics are required to respond.

Induction takes speci ic information and builds to a more general conclusion. For instance, increased

turnover, a reported number of on‐site con licts, and more people calling in sick in a department

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that recently changed its pay policy can all be presented as symptoms of the larger problem—that

employees do not feel adequately compensated.

Deduction involves eliminating alternative explanations for an outcome. For example, when sales

have declined, if a manager can demonstrate that the product has wide consumer acceptance, that

the price remains comparable to the one offered by the competition, and that advertising is effective,

the conclusion can be drawn that something in the delivery system, such as an outdated retail

facility or the lack of an e‐commerce program, is the cause of the problem.

Following the development of the logical argument, the emotional component can be added. This

includes vocal tone, the addition of both emotive and informative visuals, and other elements such

as music. Emotions that run too strong are often counterproductive when making persuasive

presentations.

What methods can be used to develop persuasive arguments in a speech or

presentation? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The four methods that assist in making effective persuasive speeches or presentations are the

AIDA model, the psychological progression approach, the problem‐solving method, and state

the case and prove it.

Prepare the Message Body: Informational Presentations

Informational presentations often rely on a standard, partitioned presentational approach. The

speaker notes the main points to be made, makes the points, and then summarizes them.

Informational presentations can be made for:

noncontroversial changes or plans

background information about an upcoming decision, including advantages and disadvantages

of various options

background on the company and its history

explanation of an event that has taken place

preparation for a future event

Visuals often assist in providing information through bar graphs, pie charts, and tables. The

audience does not need to be persuaded; however, the speech succeeds only if they remain

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The conclusion of a presentation should leave

the audience with a feeling of closure.

interested and absorb the information for future use (Borden, 1971).

What types of informational presentations are prepared by business speakers?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Informational presentations can be made for non‐controversial changes or plans;

background information about an upcoming decision, including advantages and

disadvantages of various options; background on the company and its history; explanation of

an event that has taken place; and preparation for a future event.

Prepare the Conclusion

The type of conclusion will depend on the nature of

the presentation. A conclusion to an informative

presentation summarizes the key points made, to

remind the audience members of what they have

learned. The conclusion to a persuasive presentation

should include a call to action that helps the audience

internalize the message given and take any further

steps. Many conclusions refer back to the introduction,

to signal to the audience that the presentation has

come to a close.

Effective speakers let the audience know that the

conclusion is coming. Changes in vocal tone and

posture indicate the speech has reached an end point. Sometimes a speaker can use a phrase to

indicate that the conclusion is coming, such as "I'll close with this." The conclusion should leave the

audience with a feeling of closure. The members should also be able to easily carry away the

primary intent of the message, which should be re‐emphasized in the concluding remarks.

Prepare Other Details: A Pre‐Speech Checklist

Beyond the actual content of the speech, part of preparation involves accounting for additional

elements and activities. Making an effective presentation is similar to preparing a play or a musical

performance; a well‐orchestrated performance achieves a better effect. Three ingredients involved in

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inalizing speech details are preparing a pre‐speech checklist, preparing a method of delivery, and

preparing technological support.

An organized and systematic pre‐speech preparation checklist can prevent many problems before

they occur. Table 10.5 provides a pre‐speech checklist designed to ensure the event runs smoothly.

As you can see, a visit to the site where the presentation will be made may be useful. If that is not

practical, the speaker can obtain information from the individual who scheduled the speech or from

the venue itself, such as a hotel or conference center.

Table 10.5: A pre‐speech checklist

Date, time, location

Layout of the room (including height of the podium

relative to the audience)

Sound system

Room acoustics

Internet access (if needed)

Accommodation of visuals

Entry point (off stage, from the loor, from a panel on

stage)

Time allotted

Room to move around (or not)

Lighting

Failing to check on these details can lead to awkward moments, such as when you expected to be

able to show PowerPoints but no projector is available, or when you planned to speak with a

hands‐free microphone and the site does not have the technology to accommodate that approach.

Many speakers provide their own technologies to prevent such occurrences. Others prepare back‐up

plans in case something goes wrong.

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What are the elements of a pre‐speech checklist? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The elements include the date, time, location, layout of the room (including height of the

podium relative to the audience), sound system, room acoustics, Internet access (if needed),

accommodation of visuals, entry point (off stage, from the loor, from a panel on stage), time

allotted, room to move around (or not), and lighting.

Prepare Other Details: Method of Delivery

Several methods of delivery are possible. The goal will be to use the method that best assists in

making a smooth, inviting, and interesting presentation. Four potential methods of delivery are

manuscript

memorized

note‐assisted

impromptu

Reading from a manuscript probably will result in a stilted, boring presentation. The only time a

manuscripted speech becomes necessary may be when an executive or of icial needs to make a

presentation in precise, exacting language. A teleprompter may be used to assist in making the

presentation more palatable.

Committing a speech to memory takes a great deal of time and effort for most people. Normally, it

eliminates some of the spontaneity of and energy in a presentation. While you want to be strongly

familiar with what you are about to say, memorization may not be necessary or useful.

Note‐assisted speeches are commonplace. Until the past decade, notes would normally be written on

a 3 × 5 card that easily its in the palm of a person's hand. Some of the newer hand‐held

technologies allow for electronic notes, as does most presentation software. Each note serves as a

memory jog for the more important points in the speech, spells out exact quotations, and includes

any exact or speci ic information, such as statistics, that will be delivered as part of the speech.

Note‐assisted speeches make it easier to maintain eye contact with the audience, with the

reassurance of knowing what to say next (Morgan, 2000).

Impromptu speeches are made without preparation. When someone is asked to "make a few

remarks," the idea will be to keep them short and make one or two quick key points. When such a

situation arises, the speaker may refer back to the content of the previous speaker or toward the

nature of the event. Normally, audience expectations are relatively low, which should help you relax

as you talk.

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Jack Hollingsworth/Thinkstock

What methods of delivery can be used when presenting a speech?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Four potential methods of delivery include manuscript, memorized, note‐assisted, and

impromptu.

Prepare Other Details: Technological Support

Technology provides a powerful number of resources that can add to the effectiveness of a formal

presentation. The PowerPoint method can now be enhanced with streaming video, Internet

references, and real‐time connections to remote locations. The secret to selecting additional media

will be to keep the technology from overwhelming the message or distracting the audience.

Additional visuals should:

Identify the speaker and the topic in the opening.

Highlight and summarize key points during the body.

Add additional information or emotional imagery.

Provide inal thoughts in the conclusion.

Effective visuals are colorful and informative. Words should be printed in a large enough font to be

easy to read. Graphs should be easy to see and follow. Diagrams must be simple enough to digest

without having to study them in great detail. Photos and other images, such as a picture of an

accident or an angry customer with a salesperson, make memorable points. Too many slides or too

many words per slide will be distracting and eventually overwhelming. A good standard is to include

no more than one idea per slide.

An effective presentation software slide has "stand

alone" qualities. In other words, the audience can

interpret the meaning as the speech is being given

without the speaker needing to explain it. Effective

visuals create interest by posing an intriguing question

or presenting an incongruity. A slide that asks, "Can

you afford to retire?" draws the audience in to a

presentation about saving and retirement planning. A

slide that states, "50 percent of all people ages 50–60

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Technology provides a powerful number of

resources that can add to the effectiveness of

a formal presentation.

have less than $100,000 in retirement savings,"

achieves the same objective. During a speech, the main

focus should be on the speaker, not on the slides. Long

blocks of text or complicated slides will distract from

the speaker's message. Visuals on slides should reinforce key points. Additional information on

effective visuals may be found at www.presentationzen.com (http://www.presentationzen.com/) .

Video clips and ilm clips, when carefully introduced, make a presentation more interesting. The

speaker will need to attend to issues such as lighting and sound before the speech, so that they low

smoothly with the presentation.

In some instances, a speaker may provide background music. Beyond being appropriate, the music

must not distract the audience by being too loud or containing words that interfere while the

speaker talks. One standard use of music involves having it play as the speaker moves into the

conclusion of the speech, building to a crescendo at the end.

Remember that the effective use of technology complements and supplements a presentation.

Ineffective audiovisual cues become distractions. Effective speakers and presenters practice with

them before making the actual presentation. A speaker should pause to allow the audience to digest

slide material before moving on with the presentation, as it helps keep the audience engaged in the

message.

Many times, an in‐house presentation will be followed by a question‐and‐answer period. Remember

that the questioners can have several motives, including agreeing, disagreeing, changing the subject

to his or her pet topic, or simply stating an opinion. As a inal step of speech preparation, try to

anticipate the types of questions you will receive. Knowledge of the audience and of any past

objections to your topic can assist in making sure you are ready for most queries. Remember, some

people will ask questions just to draw attention. Graciously handling these attempts helps get the

audience on your side.

When the elements of a speech are in place, the introduction, message body, conclusion, and

additional details are complete. After anticipating any types of post‐speech questions, it is time to

move on and practice the speech before presenting.

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As is the case with many other activities in life, practice can go a long way toward helping you to

achieve success. The idea is to be con ident, relaxed, and comfortable with the material when

making the actual presentation. The inal four steps of the public speaking process are

Practice the presentation.

Make the presentation.

Deal with responses and answer questions.

Follow up.

Many people are nervous about public speaking. To overcome anxiety, a speaker can practice the

presentation in front of a few key friends or colleagues. Even those with considerable experience

and comfort levels can bene it from running through in advance what they wish to say. During the

practice, the speaker can make sure that the visuals and other ingredients are carefully orchestrated

to work as intended, which is especially important if a second person will run the audiovisual part

of the presentation.

Practicing identi ies any potential problems. The speaker can make sure the presentation its in the

allotted time. The presenter can concentrate on the proper pace and tone, and ensure that his or her

notes are complete but not distracting. Practicing provides mental reassurance and comfort to

someone who is a little edgy about standing in front of an audience.

When making the presentation, attention to detail begins before the event. The presenter should be

sure visual equipment works, that the room temperature is adequate, and that nearby activities will

not disrupt the proceedings. Also, ensure that the audience seating arrangements are as planned. In

addition, the speaker should dress appropriately. Loud colors and large patterns distract the

audience. Large jewelry can also be a distraction, especially when it re lects light or makes noise.

The actual presentation should follow a process. The process involves setting and maintaining a tone

that leads to the desired outcome. Two key elements of the process are presenting a positive tone

and maintaining audience interest.

A positive tone results from treating the audience members with respect. Demeaning statements

injure credibility. A negative tone will appear to be pompous, stuffy, vague, disingenuous,

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patronizing, bored, or nervous. A positive tone consists of the following characteristics (Hamlin,

1989):

warm and friendly

excited and interested

con ident and organized

knowledgable and competent

honest and authentic

Even a speech that gets off to a slow start, for whatever reason, such as several late arrivals that

interrupt the low, can be successful.

The second part of the process, maintaining audience interest, includes a combination of elements.

Use of visuals helps keep an audience engaged. The speaking method also plays a key role. To

maintain interest, employ the techniques displayed in Table 10.6.

Table 10.6: How to maintain audience interest during a presentation

Technique Description

Maintain eye contact Move to different sections of the room at a relaxed pace.

Tell stories Make sure the moral of the story is a point you wish to

present.

Variety Use clear, vivid language that avoids repetition of words.

Effective language Use understandable, clear words.

Use audience member

names

Include people of all organizational ranks, know whether to

use Mr./Mrs. or irst names.

Logical order Make the presentation easy to follow.

Crescendo and decrescendo Use natural rises and reductions of energy.

Keep connected Relate the message to audience member needs.

Ask rhetorical questions Expect that someone may answer and how you will respond

if they do.

Assist memory Present in such a way that the message is easily understood

and easy to retain.

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Solicit feedback after the

presentation

Let them know you want to hear what they think.

Remember that you are not married to the podium. Some speakers prefer to stand directly in front

of the audience (Bailey, 1992). If you do not like that method, make sure your hands stay free to

make gestures, and allow for some body movement.

While speaking, remain aware of audience cues. Stick to the designated timetable. When using a

whiteboard or some of the newer screen‐based technologies, make sure your writing is legible and

covers key points.

The secret to making an effective speech includes inding the level of intensity that maintains

interest and engages the audience without boring or alienating people. Effective vocal presentation

styles are

use of tone, from low to high

vocal variety, including volume and rate of speech

clear pronunciations and articulations

effective use of pauses

avoidance of verbal hedges and crutches, such as "um," "uh," "ya know"

Public speaking coaches often emphasize the importance of breathing during a speech. Take the time

to draw an even breath, which allows for pacing and keeps you from hyperventilating. Pauses for

effect assist in making a speech more poignant. While you are speaking, the focus rests with the

message and the audience, not on you. Worrying about gestures and other elements can make you

appear to be nervous and uncertain. Engaging the audience exudes con idence.

Actors are aware that an audience forgets much of what it sees during a performance. The members

do tend to recall obvious errors. The same holds true in a speech. Do not bring attention to any gaffe

unless it is a misstatement of an important fact; otherwise simply move on.

The key moment in many speeches will be the conclusion. A strong inish erases some or all of the

misgivings an audience might have had about the speech. When the speech has concluded, leave

with an air of assurance and con idence. Then prepare for any questions or responses.

How can a speaker create a positive tone during a speech?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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Creatas/Thinkstock

After the speech, a question and answer, or Q

& A, session often follows.

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A positive tone consists of the following characteristics: warm and friendly, excited and

interested, con ident and organized, knowledgable and competent, and honest and authentic.

How can a speaker maintain audience interest throughout the presentation?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The speaker should maintain eye contact, tell stories, use variety, employ effective language,

use audience member names, provide a logical order, make use of crescendo and

decrescendo, keep connected, ask rhetorical questions, assist memory, and solicit feedback

after the presentation.

After the speech, a question and answer, or Q & A,

session often follows. Queries range from asking for

more information, to using the question to show

appreciation to the speaker, to creating a more hostile

response. Some preparation for this session should

have taken place as the speech was being prepared,

noting that there is always room for surprises.

Some basic guidelines can help you effectively answer

questions. First, as the questioner speaks, try to avoid

nodding in a "yes" motion, as this may signal

agreement when that is not your intention. Look

directly at the questioner as he or she speaks, and

repeat the question if you believe the audience did not hear. Carefully avoid getting off subject, and,

if the person merely states an opinion, acknowledge the comment and move on as gracefully as

possible. Make contact with more than just the questioner when responding—pull in the overall

audience. Take questions from all parts of the audience and avoid letting one person dominate with

questions. If you don't know the answer, simply acknowledge that you do not and move on (you can,

of course, offer to follow up with the person in a few days once you have the answer to their

question). Phrases such as, "Like I said earlier," may seem condescending, as does, "That's a good

question." Remain professional and courteous as you answer. Thank the audience members for their

questions.

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The most dif icult part of a question‐and‐answer period occurs when a hostile statement is made.

When this happens, do not respond in a hostile fashion, which likely will escalate the problem.

Instead, you can reframe the question in words that are less aggressive, by saying something such

as, "I think what you are asking is . . ." When you do not concur with the other person, point out

that, at times, people simply agree to disagree.

What techniques can be used to effectively deal with responses and answer

questions following a speech? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

As the questioner speaks, try to avoid nodding in a "yes" motion, as this may signal

agreement when that is not your intention. Look directly at the questioner as he or she

speaks and repeat the question if you believe the audience did not hear. Carefully avoid

getting off the subject, and, if the person merely states an opinion, acknowledge the comment

and move on as gracefully as possible. Make contact with more than just the questioner

when responding—pull in the overall audience. Take questions from all parts of the audience

and avoid letting one person dominate with questions. If you don't know the answer, simply

acknowledge that you do not and move on. Phrases such as, "Like I said earlier" may seem

condescending, as does "That's a good question." Remain professional and courteous as you

answer. When a hostile statement is made, do not respond in a hostile fashion. Instead,

reframe the question in words that are less aggressive. When you do not concur with the

other person, point out that, at times, people simply agree to disagree.

The inal ingredient in making a public appearance comes after the session has closed. Many times,

an audience member will approach to offer thanks, continue a conversation, or simply to say, "Hello."

This can be a time to build bonds with audience members and learn more about their opinions and

ideas. When setting aside time to make a speech, allow for audience interaction after the event,

whenever possible.

A well‐delivered speech can provide a great sense of personal satisfaction. In‐house and public

audiences who have been impressed are likely to comment on a person's managerial potential.

Effectively delivering speeches can become a key career asset.

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Digital Vision/Thinkstock

One special circumstance of public speaking

involves interviews by the media.

What role does follow‐up play in a public speaking engagement?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

This can be a time to build bonds with audience members and learn more about their

opinions and ideas.

Public speaking takes place in planned circumstances,

unplanned circumstances, and situations that are

somewhat in between. A speech to an audience that

allows for preparation and audience analysis, as well

as message design, is the primary focus of this chapter.

Other chapters in this book have dealt with unplanned

circumstances, such as chance meetings in a hallway or

in other venues, such as during a group project.

One special circumstance of public speaking involves

an element of planning as well as a degree of

spontaneity: interviews by the media. Members of the

media may interview company leaders and members

of the public relations department, individually or

collectively. At a press conference, one or a few speakers respond to questions by reporters. In other

circumstances, a single reporter interviews a single individual. In preparation, presenting

professionals undergo "media training" to prepare themselves for being on camera, in front of an

audience, and staying on message.

The primary issues associated with preparing for a news interview begin with carefully outlining the

message you wish to transmit. Then the subject of the interview can practice and re ine delivering

the message, including turning questions to his or her advantage. Third, the person to be

interviewed should con irm the details and ground rules, including where to meet, day, and time. It

will be important to ind out if the interview will be recorded and what will be done with the

recording (Telg, 2010). Table 10.7 presents guidelines to help effectively interact with a reporter.

Table 10.7: Keys to effective interviews

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Lead with your main point

Stay on message

Express key points from public's perspective

Speak clearly

Speak honestly

Remain calm

Do not argue

Rephrase the question

Remain cordial

Some reporters assume an adversarial stance at the outset. Others look for "gotcha" moments. A

third set believes in asking fair but irm questions. Knowing the interviewer's style in advance can

assist in preparation for the interaction (Wheeler, 2010). Also, preparation for many news interviews

will include careful consultation with the organization's legal team. Tension often exists between

what company attorneys advise as communication strategies and the wishes of the public relations

department. These issues should be explored and resolved before agreeing to any interview. An

additional part of the preparation involves coverage of any legal dictates regarding full disclosure. A

company's spokesperson must follow clear guidelines regarding any communication that could affect

and unfairly advantage or disadvantage company stockholders.

As this section indicates, the number and types of speaking engagements create challenges for those

expected to interact with internal and external publics. Understanding how to make a speech or

presentation effectively can become a valuable career asset and give your company an advantage in

dealing with the public.

How can a speaker prepare for a news interview? (http://content.thuzelearning.com

/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The primary issues associated with preparing for a news interview begin with carefully

outlining the message you wish to transmit. Then the subject of the interview can practice

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and re ine delivering the message, including turning questions to his or her advantage. Third,

the person to be interviewed should con irm the details and ground rules, including where to

meet, day, and time. Determine whether the interview will be recorded and what will be

done with the recording.

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Public communication involves one communicating with many. Speeches represent one aspect of

public communication. In‐house speeches and presentations are made to other members of the same

organization. Presentations to the general public reach a wide variety of audiences on any number

of topics. When making a speech or presentation, irst set a strategy. Typical objectives include

information, persuasion, inspiration, and collaboration. Next, identify the audience. An audience

pro ile assists in matching the strategy of the speech with a method of delivery. Audience

characteristics to be examined include demographics, socioeconomic conditions, attitudes, beliefs,

values and knowledge of the subject, plus any potential communication barriers that deserve

consideration.

A speech will be prepared using a standard, partitioned presentation or an unfolding format.

Preparing the message includes development of the introduction, message body, conclusion, and

additional details. Capturing attention will be a key part of the introduction. Persuasive message

bodies rely on the AIDA method, the psychological progressive pattern, the problem‐solving method,

or the "state the cause and prove it" approach. Informational presentations often use the standard,

partitioned presentational message‐body approach, combined with visuals. A strong conclusion will

help the audience recall the content. Then account for additional details, including preparing a

pre‐speech checklist, a method of delivery, and any technological support. At this point in the

process, the speaker also prepares for questions that might follow the speech.

Effective public speaking involves practicing the presentation. During the actual speech, the

presenter maintains a positive tone and audience interest. The speaker then deals with audience

responses and answers questions in a friendly, professional, nonconfrontational manner. The event

closes with a cordial follow‐up with members of the audience.

Preparing for news interviews begins with outlining the intended message. The person being

interviewed can practice the message, including using questions to his or her advantage. The person

should pay attention to details and ground rules.

AIDA model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2

/sections/fm#)

Using attention, interest, desire, and action in a persuasive argument or speech.

audience pro ile (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

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/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

An analysis of the audience that assists in matching the strategy of the speech with a method of

delivery.

demographics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The population characteristics of an audience.

image building (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Creating a positive public identity for an organization that matches the goals of the organization's

leaders.

problem‐solving method (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A persuasion technique that outlines the problem and then goes step‐by‐step to the solution.

psychological progressive pattern (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections

/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A persuasion technique using the steps of arouse, dissatisfy, gratify, visualize, and act.

public communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

One individual communicating with many.

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state the case and prove it (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books

/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A persuasion technique that relies on the development of a central thesis and supporting arguments.

What is the speaking strategy in the following situations?

convincing employees to pay more for their health insurance, or the company will need to lay

off workers

explaining how employees will be selected for international assignments when a company

enters a new country

convincing employees to give to the United Way, in part because it helps the company's imagec.

a company executive is trying get employees to help him win election to a local school boardd.

Use the attention‐getting techniques listed in Table 10.4 to prepare an introduction for the

following types of speeches to in‐house audiences.

announcement that a company will sell a new producta.

announcement that a company will stop selling a product lineb.

launch of a major sustainability effort within a companyc.

introduction of new CEO to company employeesd.

Which form of persuasion should be used in the following speeches and why? The forms of

persuasion are AIDA, psychological progressive pattern, problem‐solving, or state the case and

prove it.

convincing a public audience that a company does not pollutea.

convincing a public audience that a company pays its fair share in taxes, even though in this

particular year the amount was low

convincing the public that tax money should be used to build a stadium to attract a

professional football team to a city

convincing graduates of a small college with mostly minority students that they should apply

for jobs in your organization

In advertising, a source or spokesperson is a celebrity, company executive, or expert who endorses

and speaks for a product. Five key source characteristics are attractiveness, trustworthiness,

expertise, likability, and similarity. Attractiveness can be more than physical appearance; it can

also be a desirable personality. Trustworthiness results from people believing the person and the

message. Likability arises from liking the person in general terms or even from liking the character

an actor plays in a television program or movie. Similarity allows the audience to identify with the

speaker, because the members are the same in some way. Expertise comes from training, as with a

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physician, or practice, as with an auto mechanic who works on NASCAR vehicles. Which of these

characteristics would be useful in the following circumstances?

CEO making a persuasive speech to a hostile public audiencea.

CEO making a persuasive speech to employeesb.

Low‐ranking employee making a proposal to top managementc.

Public relations of icial making a public speech explaining why the company should not have

been faulted for a problem that occurred

The concept of "working the room" applies to individuals who are adept at conversing with people

in social settings, such as company gatherings. Explain how "working the room" can be part of

effectively delivering a speech or presentation.

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In this clip, Ronald Regan, Barack Obama, and John McCain's public

speaking techniques are analyzed and compared.

The Great Communicators

From Title: Secrets of Body Language (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=43109)

What methods do great communicators use to engage the

audience?

This clip emphasizes the importance of a strong opener when

making making a speech.

0:00 / 3:53 1x

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A Strong Opener

From Title: Speaking Essentials (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=40423)

How can you give a strong opener when giving a speech?1.

What types of openers are ineffective?2.

A support group called Toastmasters helps people overcome the

fear of public speaking. This clip shares the top ive tips from

Toastmasters.

0:00 / 3:59 1x

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Toastmasters

From Title: Just Say It! Exploring the Fear of Public Spea... (https://fod.infobase.com

/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=40666)

What tips do Toastmasters give for public speaking?1.

John Douglas was about to deliver the most dif icult speech of his life. As the CEO of a

major medical group that owned four for‐pro it hospitals in the city of Portland, Oregon,

he had been asked to speak many times on subjects as diverse and dif icult as childhood

obesity, end‐of‐life decisions by family members, a hospital's role in identifying and

assisting mentally ill patients who constitute a danger to society, and the role of

government in the health care system.

This speaking event, however, would be unique. Mercy Regional Hospital, a local

organization that had been supported by the Catholic Church, had run into trouble.

Dif icult economic times, plus other local circumstances, had made it nearly impossible for

the church to continue its role with the hospital. The decision had been made to sell

Mercy Regional, allowing a pro it‐seeking organization to assume control.

John's company, the Portland Medical Group, made an offer that the Catholic Church was

willing to accept. Dif icult issues had to be resolved. In the area of women's services,

Mercy Regional did not allow abortion services nor would it permit surgical birth control

methods on site. The same was true for men seeking vasectomies. John and his company

had strong philosophical disagreements with the church on these policies. Still, he agreed

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to a three‐year "moratorium" on the procedures, in order to move into those areas in an

orderly fashion.

The church also wished to maintain religious counseling and support of ices in the

hospital. This was to include regular weekly worship services (Mass) conducted by visiting

priests. John's team had agreed with the proviso that other denominations would be

welcome to use the facilities as well. Church leaders agreed. It would be the irst time,

however, that the sanctuary in the hospital would house Protestant worship services. Local

Jewish leaders stated no interest in conducting services on site, but would be welcome in

every other way. Islamic leaders took basically the same option, as did other local religious

leaders of smaller groups.

The Portland Medical Group was also to manage all hospital operations. The change would

displace numerous managers in Mercy Regional. Some would be offered positions at lower

ranks and salaries. Others would be let go. John's team offered help with placement for

those individuals.

The inal issue was the hospital's name and the organization's marketing program. Church

leaders had asked to keep the name as Mercy Regional Hospital and to continue to

promote the hospital as having ties with the Catholic Church. John expressed concerns

that doing so might suggest a greater tie than would actually exist. He had proposed a

three‐year period in which the name would continue, but would eventually change to

something more secular. Church of icials reluctantly agreed, knowing time was short to

close a deal that would keep the hospital alive in any form. Gradually, Catholic connection

in advertisements and publicity would be phased out.

John was to make his speech to Mercy Regional Hospital's current employees, including

physicians and nurses. News of the purchase had already reached the media, but John felt

that it was important to explain all of the details to an in‐house audience. He would give

the speech in an auditorium within the hospital, with careful monitoring to make sure that

only employees were admitted. He would then immediately proceed to a press conference

in which the same details would be explained to the larger public.

Review Questions

Explain the speech strategy John should use.1.

Conduct an audience analysis and explain the barriers to communication in this setting.2.

What type of message body should John prepare?3.

How should John conclude the speech?4.

Should John take questions and follow up with individual audience members? Why or

why not?

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Casey Williams knew she was being put to the test. The previous week she had been made

a inalist for the position of manager of the public relations department for the Tampiko

Tile Company. And now, a unique opportunity unfolded.

Tampiko Tile manufactured roo ing materials, mostly shingles, and sold them nationwide.

Over the years, the company had encountered charges and lawsuits about the amount of

pollution it created, along with the unpleasant smell that accompanied the manufacture of

its products. Company leaders had worked diligently to reduce any noxious fumes and to

become welcome members of the local community.

Unfortunately, just as the effects of negative publicity associated with pollution and smells

had begun to diminish, another event took place. Three years ago, Tampiko's previous

public relations manager had been asked to give the commencement address for the local

high school. This was a very big deal in a town of 60,000 people with one school. At the

time, Shawn MacDougal had "knocked it out of the park," to paraphrase Tampiko's

executives, when he gave a speech titled "The More Things Change, the More We Stay the

Same." A genuinely inspired audience gave the speech a standing ovation.

Shawn parlayed the positive buzz into a job as the local city inance director. The position

paid well and was a sure stepping‐stone to become the city manager at some future point.

Then, the trouble began. Shawn was, by nature, a gambler in both his private and public

life. When he became inance director, the city held $21 million in reserves for major

events, such as ice storm or tornado cleanup, plus a fund to cover any revenue shortfall

years. Shawn invested those funds in highly speculative markets, and quickly $21 million

was reduced to $8 million.

Naturally, the local city council and the community were outraged. They knew it would be

impossible to ask for any tax increases for years. The spillover would clearly affect the

school system, even though Shawn's job and inancial misconduct had nothing to do with

that organization. Local people were not going to vote for any bonds to support public

education after the inancial iasco. Shawn was terminated and moved to another city.

Casey had been asked to give the commencement address for the most recent graduating

class. The school board had decided that it might be possible to restore some faith in

public of icials if another member of Tampiko were to somehow calm the waters. The

executive team chose Casey and gave a similar public relations assignment to the other

inalist for the job of public relations manager. Casey knew this speech would go a long

way toward determining who would get the position but that the speech also had major

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rami ications for the city's government and school system.

Review Questions

What should be the strategy for Casey's speech?1.

Conduct an audience pro ile for the speech.2.

How can Casey make a presentation that its the primary audience (graduates) but also

the local community?

Should Casey use any visuals in her presentation? Why or why not?4.

Design a key phrase for Casey's speech that you believe can guide the entire

presentation.

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