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MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT

Jean Brittain Leslie Maxine Dalton Christopher Ernst Jennifer Deal

A Center for Creative Leadership Report

MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS

IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT

MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS

IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT

Jean Brittain Leslie Maxine Dalton

Chris Ernst Jennifer Deal

Center for Creative Leadership Greensboro, North Carolina

The Center for Creative Leadership is an international, nonprofit educational institution founded in 1970 to advance the understanding, practice, and development of leadership for the benefit of society worldwide. As a part of this mission, it publishes books and reports that aim to contribute to a general process of inquiry and understanding in which ideas related to leadership are raised, exchanged, and evaluated. The ideas presented in its publications are those of the author or authors.

The Center thanks you for supporting its work through the purchase of this volume. If you have comments, suggestions, or questions about any Center publication, please contact John R. Alexander, President, at the address given below.

Center for Creative Leadership Post Office Box 26300

Greensboro, North Carolina 27438-6300

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.

CCL No. 184

Director of Publications: Martin Wilcox; Editor: Peter Scisco; Copy Editor: Deborah G. Shoffner; Design and Layout: Joanne Ferguson; Editorial Assistants: Denise Craig and Marianne Moorhead

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Managerial effectiveness in a global context / Jean Brittain Leslie . . . [et al.]. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-882197-72-0 1. International business enterprises—Management. I. Leslie, Jean Brittain. II. Center for

Creative Leadership.

HD62.4.M363 2002 658’.049—dc21

2002067582

Table of Contents

List of Tables and Figures ................................................................................................................. vii Preface .................................................................................................................................................. ix Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1 Model ..................................................................................................................................................... 2 Methods ................................................................................................................................................. 4

Group Assignment ........................................................................................................................... 4 Sample Characteristics ..................................................................................................................... 5 Standardization of Data .................................................................................................................... 5 Measures .......................................................................................................................................... 6 Data Collection ................................................................................................................................ 8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 1: Managerial Roles—Similarities and Differences in Domestic and Global Work .......................................................................................................................................... 9

Background ...................................................................................................................................... 9 Hypotheses ..................................................................................................................................... 13 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 17

CHAPTER 2: Managerial Traits—Personality and Effectiveness in a Global Context .............. 20 Background .................................................................................................................................... 20 Hypotheses ..................................................................................................................................... 24 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 26

CHAPTER 3: Managerial Capabilities—Learning and Effectiveness as a Global Manager ..... 28 Background .................................................................................................................................... 29 Hypotheses ..................................................................................................................................... 30 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 37

CHAPTER 4: Experience—Cosmopolitanism and Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context .................................................................................................................................... 42

Background .................................................................................................................................... 42 Hypotheses ..................................................................................................................................... 45 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 47

CHAPTER 5: Experience—The Influence of Diversity on Managerial Effectiveness ................ 50 Background .................................................................................................................................... 51 Hypotheses ..................................................................................................................................... 52 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 57

CHAPTER 6: General Discussion and Conclusions ....................................................................... 61 What Do Global Managers Do? ..................................................................................................... 62 What Does It Take for a Manager to Be Effective When the Work Is Global in Scope? ............. 63 How Can Organizations Best Select and Develop Effective Global Managers? ........................... 64 Limitations ..................................................................................................................................... 65

References ........................................................................................................................................... 67 Appendix A: Participant Background Form ................................................................................... 77 Appendix B: Scales and Alphas ......................................................................................................... 81 Appendix C: Alphas and Intercorrelations Among FFM, International Experience, Role

Behaviors, and Performance Variables (Boss Global) ............................................................. 85

vi Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Appendix D: Alphas and Intercorrelations Among FFM, International Experience, Role Behaviors, and Performance Variables (Boss Local) ............................................................... 86

Appendix E: Alphas and Intercorrelations Among FFM, International Experience, Role Behaviors, and Performance Variables (Direct Report Global) ............................................. 87

Appendix F: Alphas and Intercorrelations Among FFM, International Experience, Role Behaviors, and Performance Variables (Direct Report Local) ............................................... 88

Appendix G: Hypotheses Organized by Questions of Interest ....................................................... 89

vii

Tables and Figures

Table 1.1 Importance Ratings for High- and Low-Global-Complexity Jobs ................................... 18 Table 1.2 Role-Behavior Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers in Low

and High Global Contexts ................................................................................................. 19 Table 2.1 The Five-Factor Model as Measured by the NEO PI-R ................................................... 22 Table 2.2 Personality Scale Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers in Low

and High Global Contexts ................................................................................................. 27 Table 2.3 Personality Scale Correlations with Roles for Managers in Low and High Global

Contexts ............................................................................................................................ 28 Table 3.1 Learning Behavior Scale Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers

in Low and High Global Contexts .................................................................................... 38 Table 3.2 Learning Behavior Scale Correlations with Personality Scales for Managers in

Low and High Global Contexts ........................................................................................ 38 Table 3.3 Knowledge Scale Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers in Low

and High Global Contexts ................................................................................................. 39 Table 3.4 Knowledge Scale Correlations with Personality Scales for Managers in Low and

High Global Contexts ....................................................................................................... 40 Table 3.5 Resilience Scale Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers in Low

and High Global Contexts ................................................................................................. 41 Table 3.6 Resilience Scale Correlations with Personality Scales for Managers in Low and

High Global Contexts ....................................................................................................... 41 Table 3.7 Capabilities Importance Ratings for High- and Low-Global-Complexity Jobs ............... 42 Table 4.1 Early Life and Adult Life Experience Correlations with Boss Effectiveness Ratings

for Managers in Low and High Global Contexts .............................................................. 48 Table 4.2 Early Life and Adult Life Experience Correlations with Personality Scales for

Managers in Low and High Global Contexts ................................................................... 49 Table 4.3 Early life and Adult Life Experience Correlations with Selected Capabilities for

Managers in Low and High Global Contexts ................................................................... 50 Table 5.1 Heterogeneity of Group in Most Recent Domestic Job Correlated with Effectiveness

Ratings for Managers in Low and High Global Contexts ................................................. 58 Table 5.2 Correlations Between Organizational Demographic Variables and Managerial

Effectiveness for Company A ........................................................................................... 59 Table 5.3 Correlations Between Organizational Demographic Variables and Managerial

Effectiveness for Company B ........................................................................................... 60 Table 5.4 Correlations Between Organizational Demographic Variables and Managerial

Effectiveness for Company C ........................................................................................... 60 Table 5.5 Correlations Between Organizational Demographic Variables and Managerial

Effectiveness for Company D ........................................................................................... 61

Figure 1 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context ....... 3 Figure 2 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

(Managerial Roles) ............................................................................................................ 10 Figure 3 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

(Personality) ...................................................................................................................... 21

viii Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Figure 4 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context (Managerial Capabilities) .................................................................................................. 29

Figure 5 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context (Experience) ...................................................................................................................... 43

Figure 6 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context (Revised) ........................................................................................................................... 62

Preface

In 1998 the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) embarked on a research study designed

to understand the capacities of individuals who are effective in global roles. It was created to examine the relationship between measures of effectiveness and the individual’s background, personality, learning skills, knowledge of the job, and the enactment of role behaviors. Seen from

a larger perspective, the study worked within the scope of more than a decade of reports, books, articles, and other work devoted to answering the questions of what individuals need to be effective managing and leading global organizations. CCL has been part of that work (see, for

example, London & Sessa, 1999; Sessa, Hansen, Prestridge, & Kossler, 1999; Wilson & Dalton, 1998).

Despite all of this activity, CCL believed that there had not been a well-designed empirical

study that tested the theories and investigated whether the skills and capacities that are critical to effectiveness in the global role differ from those skills and capacities critical to managerial effectiveness in a domestic role. Furthermore, if global and domestic leadership and management

skills do differ, CCL wanted to determine if there were ways to develop those different skill sets in aspiring international executives. CCL took that approach partly to assist human resource professionals in multinational organizations who have been scrambling to work out staffing

strategies (policies, programs, and procedures) to recruit, develop, select, and reward individuals capable of assuming responsibility for business functions across multiple country and cultural borders.

Those goals shaped the design, development, and implementation of this study, and they provide a backdrop for this documentary report.

Introduction

In the past decade an increasing number of international managers from multinational

organizations have participated in development programs at the Center for Creative Leadership. These managers work across the borders of multiple countries simultaneously. Some of them are expatriates. Most are not. And although many of these managers are not wrestling with the issues

of relocating and adjusting to living in a different culture, they all find themselves dealing with cultural issues—defined in the broadest context—every time they pick up the phone, log onto their e-mail, or disembark from an airplane.

Working with these managers led us to ask fundamental questions about our current under- standing of managerial effectiveness and whether or not it applied to managers who work in an increasingly complex global world. We asked ourselves: What do these managers do? Is it

different from the work they did when they managed in their own countries, and if it is different, how so? What does it take for them to be effective when they manage across so many countries simultaneously? What do these managers need to know in order to be effective? What do organi-

zations need to know and do in order to select and develop people who will manage and lead effectively in the global economy? This report is our attempt to address those questions. Al- though it is written for scholars, the practical implications of our work have been developed and

published elsewhere (Dalton, Ernst, Deal, & Leslie, 2002). Other researchers have explored the characteristics or competencies of global managers.

Gregersen, Morrison, and Black (1998), for example, conducted interviews and gathered survey

data from international managers in identifying five characteristics of successful global leaders: (1) context specific knowledge and skills, (2) inquisitiveness, (3) personal character (connection and integrity), (4) duality (the capacity for managing uncertainty and the ability to balance

tensions), and (5) savvy (business savvy and organizational savvy). Associates of the Hay-McBer Group conducted critical incident interviews with 55 CEOs from a variety of industries located in 15 countries to determine the critical factors predicting global managerial effectiveness (Martin,

1997). They named competencies they believed are universal regardless of context (four compe- tencies under each of three headings labeled Sharpening the Focus, Building Commitment, and Driving for Success) and identified three kinds of competencies that vary as a function of a given

cultural context (business relationships, the role of action, and the style of authority). These two major studies reach similar conclusions regarding a proposed taxonomy of

effective global managers. Our aim in this report is not to offer yet another taxonomy. Our goal is

to integrate a number of theories of leadership and managerial effectiveness as they relate to management in the global role, to test the utility of these theories, and to explore the dynamics that lie beneath their taxonomies. Using a more theoretical, integrative, and quantitative method-

ology, we want to better understand and link some of the precursors of global managerial effec- tiveness.

This study investigated a large number of variables from a variety of perspectives—far too

many for a single research article and in far too much detail to be of great interest to practitioners.

2 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

The purpose of this report is to provide a comprehensive review of all of the hypotheses and analyses conducted as part of our investigation—those that proved fruitful and those that did not.

Because of the complexity of this report, we offer the following road map. Following this

introduction, we present and discuss our conceptual model, which we designed to help identify, appreciate, and explain the relationships among the skills, capacities, traits, and experiences managers need to be effective when their work is global in scope. The methods section relates to

all subsequent chapters. We have organized the chapters following the methodology to match with our conceptual model. Each chapter presents background information on specific variables by reviewing key and relevant literature and by subsequently offering hypotheses regarding those

variables, and concludes with results and a brief discussion. Chapter 1 sets the stage by introducing the work of global managers—what they do and

how it is different from managerial work in a domestic context. Chapter 2 investigates the rela-

tionship of personality to effectiveness in a global role and considers personality as a precursor to the presence of the skills and capacities necessary for effectiveness. Chapter 3 explores the relationship between learning capabilities (self-development, perspective taking, and cultural

adaptability) and managerial effectiveness. Chapter 4 explores how being a cosmopolitan—an individual who has lived and worked in many countries and speaks a number of languages—may increase the likelihood for effectiveness in a global role. Chapter 5 focuses on the influence of

workgroup heterogeneity and homogeneity on effectiveness—does experience in managing a diverse workgroup in a domestic role increase the likelihood that an individual will be effective in a global role? The final chapter concludes with a discussion of what global managers do, what

it takes for a manager to be effective when the work is global in scope, and how global managers can be selected and developed.

This report is written for our academic colleagues and for research-oriented practitioners. It

is our hope that other researchers will find our conceptual model useful and intriguing enough to continue the exploration.

Model

To create our model we turned to the literature and identified those variables that have demonstrated links to managerial and leadership effectiveness, including: role behaviors (Mintzberg, 1973), coping with pressure and adversity, integrity (Kaplan, 1997), knowledge of

the job (Kotter, 1988), and personality (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Salgado, 1997). We added other variables to our model that the literature and our experience led us to

suppose might be particularly salient for international jobs. These included learning capacities

(Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney, 1997) and three additional experience-based variables. One, cosmopolitanism, depicts an individual’s exposure to other languages and cultures during child- hood and adolescence; the other two variables we called cultural heterogeneity and organizational

cohort homogeneity. We defined cultural heterogeneity as an individual’s experience with man-

aging diverse groups while managing within his or her own country. Organizational cohort homogeneity explores the influence of workgroup similarity on perceptions of effectiveness. In other words, we explored the effects of managers’ demographic similarity (for example, number

of years with company, national culture) to their cohort on how effective they were perceived to be.

Our model (Figure 1) is conceptual, not statistical. Personality stands for an individual’s enduring traits that might help explain the kinds of experiences to which he or she is drawn and

the kinds of capabilities and role behaviors he or she is most likely to have acquired. Experience refers to those experiences and demographic variables that individuals bring

with them to the job. Experience may be critical in understanding why one manager is comfort-

able with the unfamiliar factors inherent in global work but another manager is not. Experience may also influence the skills and capacities a manager has acquired over time.

Managerial capabilities includes three major categories of skills: learning behaviors,

resilience, and business knowledge. Learning behaviors include the motivation and skill to work and learn across cultural differences, the willingness to take the perspective of others, and the capacity to learn from workplace experiences. These variables have held a tacitly strong position

in the management-development literature and some of the global-management literature. Resil- ience refers to the ability to manage time and stress, factors that might be more salient when the management task is global in scope. The third skill group, business knowledge, represents knowl-

edge of the business and business practices. We did not write specific chapters about business

Figure 1 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Managerial Roles

Global Complexity

Personality

Experience

Managerial Capabilities

Managerial Effectiveness

▼

▼ ▼

▼

Model

▼

4 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

knowledge and resilience. Also not discussed here in any detail is the variable cognitive ability. We believe cognitive ability to be important to global managerial effectiveness, but because of the plethora of existing literature on the subject, and because of the difficulty in measuring the

construct in a survey design, we excluded it from this paper. Managerial roles stands for those behaviors that managers employ to carry out the basic

functions of their work: managing relationships, managing information, and managing action.

Current thought suggests that although all of the roles are important, the need for a manager to enact a particular role shifts as a function of context. Managerial work in an international busi- ness represents a particular type of context.

Global complexity represents the context of interest. We maintain that when the manager’s work is global in scope, the relationships of these variables to measures of effectiveness and to one another will be different from what they would be if the manager’s work were local in scope.

We have operationalized global complexity as the additive function of having to manage across distance, country, and culture. The greater the time and geographical distances and the more countries that fall under a manager’s scope of responsibility, the greater the global complexity of

the work. Thus, temporal, geographical, and cultural complexity separate low global complexity (domestic work) from high global complexity (global work).

Methods

The methodology described in this section pertains to all following chapters, which address specific parts of the conceptual model. Two hundred eleven managers from four organizations participated in our study. All managers included were approximately at the same organizational

level. Ninety-eight of the managers were from a Swiss pharmaceutical company. Twenty-five worked for a U.S. high-tech manufacturing firm. Forty-eight worked for a Swiss hospitality and service organization, and 40 worked for a Swedish truck-manufacturing organization.

Group Assignment We used two items from our biographical measure to classify managers into either a low- or

high-global-complexity group. The first item (“In how many countries are you a manager?”) allowed the following responses: (a) one country—I am not an expatriate, (b) one country—I am an expatriate, (c) more than one country on the same continent, and (d) more than one country on

different continents. The second item (“In how many time zones do you work?”) allowed six responses: (a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4, (e) 5, and (f) 6 or more. In tandem, these two items formed a proxy measure we used to assess the level of global complexity inherent in a manager’s role.

To form the low- and high-global-complexity groups, we took the following steps. First, we put both items on the same 4-point metric to give them equal weight in an additive function. Specifically, the item addressing number of time zones was collapsed from 6 to 4 points. Re-

sponses (a) and (f) were kept as unique categories (representing the low and high extremes of the value, respectively), and responses (b) and (c) and (d) and (e) were collapsed to form two middle-

range values. Second, the two items were summed (range = 2–8). Third, the median for the sample was calculated (median = 3). This procedure resulted in the formulation of two groups, a low-global-complexity group with values from 2 to 3 (n = 110) and a high-global-complexity

group with values from 4 to 8 (n = 101).

Sample Characteristics Both samples were predominantly comprised of well-educated white males with a mean

age of 44 in the low-global-complexity group and 45 in the high-global-complexity group. The majority of managers in each group were educated in only one country. Members of the high-

global-complexity group had been in their current jobs for less than a year. Managers in the high- global-complexity group were also more likely to have been expatriates in the past than were those in the low-global-complexity group. Although 41 countries were represented in the total

sample, 43% of the group were Northern European by birth (German, Swedish, Swiss) and 18% were U.S. citizens by birth. Those percentages were reflective of the corporate headquarters’ locations of the four participating organizations. Participants lived in 30 countries at the time of

the study, with 66.9% living in Switzerland, Germany, Sweden, or the United States. Considering the split between low and high global complexity, individuals in the high-global-complexity sample were proportionately more likely than the low-global-complexity sample to speak English

(39%) or French (10%) as their native language. The individuals in the low-global-complexity sample were proportionately more likely than those in the high-global-complexity group to speak German (33%) or Swedish (18%) as their native language.

Standardization of Data We investigated the influence of native country of target manager (culture) and organiza-

tion type on the criterion measures to determine the need to standardize the data from the four organizations before merging it.

Using the native culture of participants, we created a measure to represent cultural regions

(Ronen & Shenkar, 1985). The regions included Anglo (n = 63), Germanic (n = 68), and Nordic (n = 37). This accounted for 167 of the participants. Other regions—Arab (n = 3), Far East (n = 5), Latin European (n = 9), Latin American Spanish (n = 6), Near Eastern (n = 2), and Indepen-

dent (n = 9)—were not used due to the small sample size. We then conducted a one-way ANOVA between groups to compare means of the three regions on the managerial effectiveness ratings. No differences were found in criterion scores as a result of the cultural region of the target

manager. We repeated this analysis to assess the impact of organizational type on ratings (location of

headquarters was partly confounded with organizational type because the pharmaceutical and

service industry companies had corporate headquarters in the same country). Organizational type included pharmaceutical (Switzerland), high-tech manufacturing (United States), service (Switzerland), and truck manufacturing (Sweden). Again, we found no differences from the

boss’s perspective. Nonetheless, these data were standardized within the four organizations

Methods

6 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

before merging the four data sets. Standardizing the data within organizations helped to control

for variation due to organizational culture, business and economic context, and industry type.

Measures Independent variables. Personality measure. The NEO PI-R was used to represent the personality conceptualized

as the five-factor model (FFM), which groups personality traits into five domains (Costa &

McCrae, 1992). Each domain is made up of six facets or subscales and these six facets define each of the factor domains. The NEO PI-R was chosen because of its psychometric integrity and because extensive research has demonstrated that these five factors do appear to be universal, if

not all-inclusive, across cultures (McCrae & Costa, 1997). (See Chapter 5 for further details. Alphas for the five factors are provided in Appendix B.)

Demographics. Each manager filled out a biographical form indicating gender, age, native language, country of birth, and race or ethnic origin.

Experiences. Each manager filled out a biographical form indicating tenure, years in current role, expatriate experience, languages spoken in the course of doing work, languages

spoken before age 13, number of countries lived in, country currently living in, years of formal education, number of countries educated in, and major field of study. Managers were also asked to indicate for their most recent domestic job the relationship, sex, race or ethnic origin, age,

native country, country of current residence, and functional area for ten members of their workgroup.

Roles. We used a measure of 75 items to represent role behavior. We derived these items from an existing instrument, SKILLSCOPE (Kaplan, 1997), and from our review of the litera- ture. Of the 75 items, 9 were dropped during preliminary analyses due to poor item-total correla- tions. For data reduction purposes, the remaining 66 items were subjected to a principal compo-

nent analysis (principal axis method, with orthogonal rotation). When requesting a 7-factor structure, 50 items loaded cleanly on their expected factor. We used inferences taken from the data and our conceptual understanding of the items on the remaining 16 items to incorporate an

additional 6 items into the 7 scales. The remaining 10 items were dropped from subsequent analyses. (See Chapter 1 for a complete discussion of role importance and effectiveness.)

Capabilities. Capabilities comprised three sets of scales: learning, knowledge, and resil- ience. We used 37 items to represent the learning constructs. We derived these items from exist- ing instruments (SKILLSCOPE: Kaplan, 1997; Prospector: McCall, Spreitzer, & Mahoney, 1997) and our review of the literature. Following the same analytic strategy previously described for

roles, a request for a 3-factor solution resulted in 28 items loading on their expected factor. The remaining 9 items, which did not load in a meaningful way on any given factor, were dropped. A further investigation of the items representing the intercorrelations of the learning scales cultural

adaptability and perspective taking, and the knowledge scale international business knowledge, suggested that further data reduction might be appropriate. A factor analysis of the scales for perspective taking, cultural adaptability, and international business knowledge produced a more

conceptually satisfying and parsimonious solution. In the final analysis we used 10 items to

represent the construct international business knowledge. We used 5 items to represent the

construct cultural adaptability. Four items were used to represent the construct perspective taking. The remaining items were dropped from further analysis.

Eight items were used to represent the knowledge construct. Four items were used to

represent the insightful construct. These items were derived from an existing instrument (Prospector: McCall, Spreitzer, & Mahoney, 1997) and our review of the literature.

Four items were used to represent the resilience construct coping. Seven items were used to

represent time management and three items were used to represent integrity. We derived these items from SKILLSCOPE (Kaplan, 1997) and our review of the literature. (Scales, items, and alphas can be found in Appendix B.)

Dependent variables. Managerial effectiveness as depicted in our model (Figure 1) repre- sents the observable things that people do related to stated goals. Additionally, job effectiveness is held to be multidimensional. A criterion taxonomy—a listing of the multiple facets of effec-

tiveness—is a more precise means of organizing links between the specific predictors and spe- cific effectiveness criteria rather than between predictors and overall effectiveness (Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sage, 1993). To represent managerial effectiveness, 27 items were gathered

from the literature, then supplemented and revised in consultation with one of the companies that sponsored the research project. The 27 items were written to address three dimensions of mana- gerial effectiveness: business practices and outcomes, managerial and leadership qualities, and

relationships. Further analysis and discussion by the research team suggested that these dimensions were

better represented as five factors rather than three. We derived the final five dimensions of

managerial effectiveness using three steps: 1. We conducted a principal components analysis at the individual-rater level with boss

and direct report ratings combined (747 observations). Fifteen items loaded cleanly on

one of five factors. 2. After a series of discussions related to the data and/or our conceptual understanding, we

incorporated from the remaining 12 items an additional 9 items into the 5 scales. Three

items were dropped. 3. The five derived scales and corresponding items were e-mailed to a group of CCL

faculty members, who were asked to provide a name for each scale.

These steps resulted in the final five dimensions of managerial effectiveness. The first scale was called managing and leading. It represented the traditional leadership behaviors of setting direction, inspiring, and motivating. It also included items that reference an internal focus and

traditional manager-to-direct report activities, such as selection, development, coaching, and managing conflict. The second scale was called interpersonal relationships. This scale repre- sented relationships with peers and senior managers inside the organization. The third scale was

called knowledge and initiative. These items combined the characteristics of broad knowledge and professional competence with the personal attributes of confidence, independence, and initiative. The fourth scale was called success orientation. This scale represented an orientation

toward goal achievement and attainment of desired organizational outcomes. It also included an

Methods

8 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

item related to the potential to reach the most senior job in the company. The fifth scale, contex- tually adept, had an external focus and included items related to the ability to manage external relationships. (Scales and alphas can be seen in Appendix B.)

Data Collection Participating managers completed the 240-item personality measure (NEO PI-R), the

biographical form, and the measure of role skills and capabilities. The surveys were all in English. Managers were assured that their individual results would be available only to the research team. On the personality measure managers rated themselves on a 5-point scale ranging

from strongly disagree to strongly agree. On the measure of role skills and capabilities managers first rated each item on a 3-point

scale ranging from (1) this is not important to my current job to (3) this is extremely important to

my current job. They then returned to the items and rated their own skill at performing each of the behaviors on a 5-point scale ranging from (5) this skill or perspective is one of my greatest strengths to (1) this skill or perspective is something I am not able to do.

Bosses responded to the 27-item effectiveness statements on a 5-point scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. A not applicable response category was provided. This measure was in English. Responses were returned directly to CCL. Respondents were assured

that their individual responses would remain confidential to the research team. Although boss and direct report ratings were obtained, direct report ratings are not dis-

cussed in this report. Early examination of the direct report ratings in the high-global-complexity

condition offered little to enhance our understanding because, like most multiperspective ratings, these respondents see things differently. Our focus turned to the perspective of the boss because it provided the best position for commenting on effectiveness under different conditions. The direct

report ratings were dropped from the remaining report; however, the correlation matrices can be found in Appendices E and F. (See Appendices C–F for alphas and intercorrelations of all the measures by rater source.)

Conclusion The methodology discussed in this section relates to the results and discussion that make up

the remainder of this publication (excluding appendices). As described earlier, Chapter 1 intro- duces the work of global managers—what they do and how it is different from managerial work in a domestic context. Chapter 2 focuses on the relationship of personality to effectiveness in a

global role. Chapter 3 explores the relationship between learning capabilities (self-development, perspective taking, and cultural adaptability) and managerial effectiveness. Chapters 4 and 5 introduce the variables of experience into the model—life experiences related to the number of

countries in which a manager has lived or worked, the number of languages a manager speaks or reads, and work experiences such as the influence of diversity on a global manager’s effective- ness. Chapter 6 offers a general discussion of the findings as they relate to the conceptual models,

and draws some conclusions about what those findings have to say about managerial effective- ness in a global context.

CHAPTER 1 Managerial Roles—Similarities and Differences in Domestic and Global Work

The evolution of managerial models over the course of the twentieth century reveals that the manager’s reality has increased in complexity. During the first quarter of the century, Taylor (1911) and Fayol (1949) appropriately described the nature of work during the Industrial Revolu-

tion and portrayed the manager as one who plans, organizes, commands, coordinates, and con- trols. The next 25 years brought greater recognition to the social context of work and the intro- duction of human-relations models (Barnard, 1938; Mayo, 1933). These approaches stressed that

managerial responsibility went beyond productivity and efficiency to include the need for atten- tion to human relationships.

Managerial models shifted once again during the quarter century following World War II.

In an attempt to explain a managerial environment characterized by increasingly unpredictable and unstable environments, writers such as Katz and Kahn (1978) and Lawrence and Lorsch (1967) developed an “open systems” approach to evaluate organizational dynamics. These

frameworks were consistent with the growing movements toward contingency theories and lent credence to the importance of context in understanding managerial behavior (Quinn, 1990).

As the last quarter of the century drew to a close a new managerial reality emerged: the

global manager. In addition to all that came before, temporal, geographical, and cultural com- plexity were added to the core of a manager’s work. These historical shifts have challenged scholars to reconsider their understanding of the nature of managerial work. Theoretical models

have become inadequate, failing to address the heightened complexity of increasingly global business contexts. A conceptual framework has become necessary for designing appropriate selection or training systems for developing global managerial talent. The current challenge to

understand these changes is captured in two questions: 1. What do global managers do? 2. Is it any different from what domestic managers do?

Background In addressing the question “What do global managers do?” we place our conceptualization

of global complexity within the established literature on managerial roles (see Figure 2, p. 10). We begin by considering the recent literature’s portrayal of managerial roles. We follow with a model based on the work of Mintzberg (1973, 1994), which we use to evaluate managerial

behavioral roles. We then suggest why this framework is useful for studying work that is globally complex. Finally, we consider how the context of global complexity can affect the extent to which certain behavioral roles are perceived as being relatively more or less important for mana-

gerial effectiveness. It is our belief that while some roles may be perceived equally regardless of the level of global complexity, other roles will be seen as increasingly important as the demands of work shift from a domestic to a global context.

10 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Considerable debate exists over the question of what domestic and global managers do. Some global theorists have argued that there is little difference. Others have suggested that

noticeable differences exist both in scale (the global manager does more) and in quality (the global manager performs at a higher level). Recent writings have characterized global managers as “cultural synergizers” (Adler & Bartholomew, 1992), “true planetary citizens” (Roddick,

1991), “cross fertilizers” (Bartlett, Doz, & Hedlund, 1990), and “perpetual motion executives” (Malone, 1994). These colorful descriptions further suggest distinct roles and job content for global managers.

Other research suggests that global work is the same as other types of managerial work, but that its level of difficulty is substantially greater (see, for example, Adler & Bartholomew, 1992). In 1994 Bartlett and Ghoshal suggested that the nature of global work is so complex that there is

no such thing as a universal global manager. They recommended that an organization create three groups of global specialists—business managers, country managers, and functional managers—to lead the organization toward achieving its global strategy. Alternatively, Kanter (1995) wrote

about a few but increasing number of global cosmopolitans who develop “world class” compe- tence over crucial globalization processes.

A model of managerial roles. In 1973 Mintzberg delved into an important but rarely investigated question: “What does a manager do?” He conducted an ethnographic study of managers in five organizations. His observations led him to a framework for management that differs radically from those of many past and present leadership theorists. It described managerial

Figure 2 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

(Managerial Roles)

Managerial Roles monitor

spokesperson leader liaison

decision maker innovator negotiator

Global Complexity

Personality

Experience

Managerial Capabilities

Managerial Effectiveness

▼

▼ ▼

▼

activities as being fast paced, brief, varied, and discontinuous. In this framework managers have little time for reflection, and their work gravitates toward action and simply getting things done.

Mintzberg (1973) further described work activities as contained within a set of ten behav- ioral roles. He organized his ten roles into three groups: informational roles (monitor, dissemina- tor, spokesman) that require a manager to monitor, communicate, and manage information;

interpersonal roles (figurehead, leader, liaison) that require a manager to act with and through others to get things done; and action roles (entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator) that require a manager to negotiate and make decisions. These roles were not discrete

or mutually exclusive but integrated parts of a whole. Mintzberg argued that effective managers often combine and perform several roles simultaneously.

In a follow-up investigation Mintzberg (1994) kept the three overarching groups (informa-

tional, interpersonal, and action), but collapsed the ten roles into six. Based on our analyses of the data in our study (and incorporating Mintzberg’s 1973 and 1994 work), we incorporated seven roles into our research:

Informational Roles 1. Monitor: scan environments, monitor units, probe and seek information, act as corpo-

rate nerve center of incoming information. 2. Spokesperson: communicate and disseminate information with multiple levels of the

internal and extra-organizational system, advocate and represent the organization.

Interpersonal Roles 3. Leader: motivate, coach, build teams, maintain corporate climate and culture, and

supervise the work of others.

4. Liaison: network, coordinate, link entities, and span organizational boundaries.

Action Roles 5. Decision maker: take action, troubleshoot, make decisions, and use power to get

things done. 6. Innovator: try new approaches, seize opportunities, generate new ideas, and promote

a vision.

7. Negotiator: make deals, translate strategy into action, negotiate contracts, manage conflict, and confront others.

Other leadership and management scholars have also defined managerial roles (House & Mitchell, 1974; Luthans & Lockwood, 1984; Morse & Wagner, 1978). Quinn (1990) specified eight interconnected roles that effective managers perform: director, producer, monitor, coordina-

tor, facilitator, mentor, innovator, and broker. Yukl (1989) integrated several decades of managerial-role research into a taxonomy of managerial behavior. A role-based framework is consistent with Katz and Kahn’s open systems approach (1978), in which roles are determined by

inputs from the environment as well as variations in style as determined by the individual. They

Chapter 1: Managerial Roles—Similarities and Differences in Domestic and Global Work

12 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

defined behavioral roles as the “recurring actions of an individual, appropriately interrelated with the repetitive activities of others so as to yield a predictable outcome” (p. 125). We have defined a role as a set of behaviors that belong to an identifiable position, believing that roles identify a

limited and connected set of behaviors. But does the construct of roles hold when managerial responsibility transcends temporal, geographical, and cultural distance?

The universality of managerial roles. While acknowledging that some researchers argue against a universal theory of management (Dorfman & Howell, 1988; Hofstede, 1980), we contend that the construct of roles has universal value. We agree that managerial work is vastly different in many parts of the world and that on a global scale there is no one best way of doing

anything. Yet we also feel that role-based theories of managerial work are successful in describ- ing managerial work in a diverse, pluralistic world.

Behavioral roles describe what a manager does. In our investigation of managerial roles we

have focused on what managers do, rather than the why or how behind the activities that com- prise the complete set of managerial roles. Although we believe that the latter issues are signifi- cantly affected by variations in cultural beliefs, values, and norms, we feel that the issue of what

managers do more directly reflects the content of managerial work. We recognize that, beyond societal culture, the organizational climate and culture affects

managerial roles, as does variations in managerial style. We expect these differences to influence

the extent to which certain role behaviors are more or less descriptive of managerial effective- ness. We also argue that in a globally complex environment managers are challenged to perform more roles and devise new roles not captured by our current role-behavior models.

Akin to Bass’s (1997) position concerning the possible universality of transformational leadership, we believe managerial roles demonstrate “not a constancy of means, variances, and correlations across all situations, but rather an explanatory construct good for all situations” (p.

130). We submit that to conceive management as a series of unfolding roles is good for all situations. With this understanding we now consider how the context of global complexity may impact the roles that a manager plays.

Similarities and differences in global and domestic work. Mintzberg (1994) argued that although all managers perform a series of roles, that does not suggest that all managers perform the same roles in the same manner. Specifically, he suggested that aspects of the work varied

depending upon four sets of variables: environment (differences in milieu, the industry, and the organization), job (differences in job level, such as middle or top management, and function, such as marketing or sales), person (differences in personality and style characteristics of the man-

ager), and situational (differences in temporal and contextual features—seasonal variations or temporary crises, for example).

Each of these four variables is expected to influence the degree and extent to which manag-

ers exhibit the various roles. Because of differences in job functions, line managers, for instance, are expected to spend more time in the action roles (negotiator, decision maker), whereas human resource specialists are expected to pay greater attention to the informational roles (monitor,

disseminator). Likewise, a team manager will tend to emphasize relational roles (leader, liaison).

These examples illustrate how the four variables impose greater or lesser attention to various aspects of the work. This framework has provided a rich backdrop from which organizational researchers have investigated differences in managerial roles.

Mintzberg’s job variables have dominated the attention of researchers and have been studied both in terms of hierarchical level (Lau & Pavett, 1980; Pavett & Lau, 1983; Sen & Das, 1990) and functional area (McCall & Segrist, 1980; Paolillo, 1987). Pavett and Lau (1983) found

significant differences between top- and lower-level managers on eight of the ten Mintzberg roles and differences between middle- and lower-level managers on six of the ten roles. Other studies have considered the person variables in terms of gender differences (Smith & Schellenberger,

1991) as well as age, tenure, and educational level (Beggs & Doolittle, 1988). Less research has been conducted regarding the situational and environmental variables,

but there is one study of direct interest to the work documented in this report. Gibbs (1994)

organized Mintzberg’s environmental variables in terms of two constructs: complexity (the number of elements in which managerial interaction is required) and dynamism (the rate of change between these elements). Combinations of these variables produced a 2 x 2 matrix

(stable-simple, stable-complex, dynamic-simple, dynamic-complex) that allowed Gibbs to test for both direct and indirect effects. The overall pattern that emerged from the two organizations sampled suggested that (a) complexity increases the frequency of informational roles, (b) com-

plexity and dynamism increase the frequency of action roles, and (c) dynamism increases the frequency of relational roles; however, this relationship is moderated by complexity such that relational roles are more frequent in complex environments as opposed to simple environments.

Gibbs concluded that current “trends toward the computerization of the technical core, the globalization of many businesses, and the increase in education of the workforce . . . implies that the environment and technology will increasingly be better predictors of managerial-role activity

than previous hypotheses of functional area, level in hierarchy, or other internal structural dimen- sions” (p. 601).

We agree with Gibbs’s conclusion and feel confident that in today’s business environment,

variations in situation and environment are as compelling in explaining managerial work as are differences in job and person. Global complexity, defined in terms of temporal, geographical, and cultural distance, clearly implies environmental and situational difference. Consistent with

Mintzberg, we would expect that although the requisite behaviors are generally the same, the importance of these behaviors may shift according to variations in global complexity.

Hypotheses Informational roles. Informational roles require managers to monitor information both

inside and outside the organization, and then disseminate this information as a spokesperson for

the organization. In such roles managers are not working directly with people or with actions but instead are using information as an indirect way to make things happen. Given the tremendous information flows of the global business environment, we expect global managers to attribute

more importance to the roles of monitor and spokesperson.

Chapter 1: Managerial Roles—Similarities and Differences in Domestic and Global Work

14 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

The periphery of the global organization is marked by continual change in technology, competitors, customers, suppliers, and products. These movements push to create new business advantages and new growth markets. In this fast-paced and competitive environment, global

managers are required to process, integrate, and communicate based on significant amounts of disparate information.

Bartlett, Doz, and Hedlund (1990) have stated that within interdependent and geographi-

cally dispersed global organizations, global managers serve as “cross-fertilizers” who create the glue that melds a shared vision, strategy, and norms. Global managers cannot just articulate the corporate vision, but must also encourage the flow of local, tacit information throughout the

organization. Global managers have also been described as “cross-pollinators,” “global scan- ners,” and “cultural synergizers” (Adler & Bartholomew, 1992). Bartlett and Ghoshal (1994) identified one type of global manager, the functional manager, who scans across the organization

to cross-pollinate ideas and champion innovation. The context of global complexity suggests increased attention to the roles of monitor and spokesperson as global managers seek to act as the organizational gatekeepers. As for the informational roles, we predict

HYPOTHESIS 1.1: Managers in contexts of high global complexity will attribute more impor- tance to the roles of monitor and spokesperson than will managers in contexts of low global

complexity.

Relational roles. Relational roles require managers to coach, motivate, and supervise the work of others, and to network, coordinate, and span organizational boundaries. “To manage through people, instead of by information, is to move one step closer to action, but still remain removed from it,” Mintzberg has stated. “That is because here the focus of managerial attention

becomes affect instead of effect” (1994, p. 18). Several organizational researchers, such as Gregersen, Morrison, and Black (1998), have suggested that a global manager’s savvy concern- ing interpersonal or relational skills can spell the difference between success and failure in the

global environment. We believe that although the role of leader will not differentiate between domestic and global work, the role of liaison will become increasingly important in global settings.

In focusing on the importance of role behaviors, we are considering the actual nature or content of the work rather than the level of skill required to effectively do the work. We agree that interpersonal competence is a hallmark of effective global leadership, and we have included

several relational-based variables in our research—for example, the learning capability of cul- tural adaptability, the personality characteristic of agreeableness, the experiential variable of cosmopolitanism—that we believe will be important indicators of effectiveness when managers

are working globally. However, we do not believe that behaviors descriptive of the leader role— such as coaching and mentoring, inspiring and delegating, and building teams and supervising others—become differentially more important when work responsibility moves from a domestic

to a global context.

Malone (1994) used personal accounts to describe how global “perpetual motion execu- tives” work and manage the work of others from long distance. He described typical norms such as handling 40–75 e-mail messages daily, having face-to-face contact with direct reports once

every six weeks, and working in airplanes and from airports. These norms unquestionably put added stress on the traditional supervisor-direct report relationship. Maintaining strong working relationships is critical to both domestic and global managers, and it’s made more difficult for

global managers who must find ways to maintain these relationships across distance, countries, and cultures.

In contrast, we see the relational role of liaison as more important in globally complex

work. During the 1990s multinational firms gained access to more than a billion new customers in remote and emerging economies (Prahalad & Oosterveld, 1999). Strategy theorists have stressed the extent and speed with which global organizations must consummate relationships

leading to mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, alliances, and licensing arrangements. Kanter (1995) has said that world-class executives and organizations are defined by the

presence of concepts (the best and latest knowledge and ideas), competence (the ability to per-

form according to best-in-world standards), and connections (a set of relationships providing access to global resources). To form connections, global managers forge relationships that span companies and countries to bring collaborative advantage to the organization. Ohmae (1990)

wrote about the power of joint ventures and consortiums to develop insider status within North America, Western Europe, and Asia. Perlmutter and Heenan (1994) suggested that global coop- eration between firms is best achieved through global strategic partnerships. These business

imperatives suggest that the role of liaison will take on heightened importance for the work of the global manager. For the relational roles, we predict

HYPOTHESIS 1.2: Managers in contexts of high global complexity will attribute more impor- tance to the role of liaison than will managers in contexts of low global complexity, but managers in both contexts will perceive the role of leader equally.

Action roles. In the action roles—decision maker, innovator, and negotiator—managers are required to make decisions, resolve crises, seize opportunities, negotiate contracts, and manage

conflict. As Mintzberg stated, “if managers manage passively by information and affectively through people, then they also manage instrumentally by their own direct involvement in action” (1994, p. 20). We believe that, counter to the previous sets of roles (managing information and

managing relationships), the action roles will not differentiate in importance between managers in contexts of low and high global complexity.

In a study within several major global organizations, Yeung and Ready (1995) identified six

qualities that organizations value in global managers: (1) to be a catalyst/manager of strategic change, (2) to be a catalyst/manager of cultural change, (3) to articulate a tangible vision, values, and strategies, (4) to exhibit a strong customer orientation, (5) to empower others to do their best,

and (6) to get results. A close reading of these characteristics suggests a type of management

Chapter 1: Managerial Roles—Similarities and Differences in Domestic and Global Work

16 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

responsibility that is noticeably removed from the day-to-day action of the organization. Rather than managing actively through direct involvement, the demands of global work may move to isolate the global manager, at least in part, from the daily operations of the organization.

As an organization’s strategies and systems globalize, its key organizational characteristic is to operate across national boundaries, simultaneously achieving global integration while retaining local differentiation. In a strategy of global integration, successful multinationals seek

the advantages of local differentiation (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989). This requires strong and empowered local managers who understand local needs and interests. As suggested by Quelch and Bloom, overemphasizing global integration leads to management that lacks the “geographic

knowledge, political know-how, flexibility, and cultural sensitivity to assess the evolving envi- ronment and take appropriate action” (1996, p. 32).

The strategy of global integration and local differentiation suggests that significant

decision-making and negotiating responsibility should be held at the level of the local market. Ohmae (1990) has written that firms only achieve insider position when they entrust local man- agers who are familiar with and responsive to local conditions. Certainly, the work of the global

manager requires significant attention to such behaviors as making decisions, negotiating con- tracts, generating new ideas, and managing conflict. Yet, from the standpoint of what managers do, we believe that the responsibility of the global manager does not require differentially more

attention to the action roles of decision maker, innovator, and negotiator. For the action roles, we predict

HYPOTHESIS 1.3: Managers in contexts of high and low global complexity will perceive the roles of decision maker, innovator, and negotiator equally.

Role skill and managerial effectiveness. In addition to focusing on what global managers do (role importance), we also want to better understand the skill that managers bring to those roles in settings of low and high global complexity and how those role skills relate to managerial

effectiveness. As Figure 1 illustrates, we intend to examine both the independent and shared relationships between managerial role skill and the other variables in the model. Under this line of investigation, our question of interest is not “What do global managers do?” but rather “How

is what global managers do related to perceptions of their effectiveness?” Although Mintzberg’s (1973) model is descriptive (describing what managers do) rather

than prescriptive (predicting determinants of managerial effectiveness), it is clear from his

framework that effectiveness centers upon the ability to perform multiple roles. That is also our position. We are interested in determining whether a specific role, or group of roles, is critical for effectiveness in global managerial settings. We are also interested in determining whether these

relationships are the same or different compared to managers working in a context of low global complexity. Based on the pattern of results presented below for role importance, we propose the following hypotheses:

HYPOTHESIS 1.4: The role of monitor will be related to the effectiveness criterion contextu- ally adept for managers in contexts of low and high global complexity.

HYPOTHESIS 1.5: The role of spokesperson will be related to the effectiveness criterion contextually adept for managers in contexts of high global complexity.

HYPOTHESIS 1.6: The role of leader will be related to the effectiveness criterion managing and leading for managers in contexts of low global complexity.

HYPOTHESIS 1.7: The role of liaison will be related to the effectiveness criteria contextually adept and interpersonal relationships for managers in high-global-complexity jobs.

HYPOTHESIS 1.8: The role of decision maker will be related to the effectiveness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation for managers in low- and high-global- complexity jobs.

HYPOTHESIS 1.9: The role of innovator will be related to the effectiveness criterion knowl- edge and initiative for managers in low- and high-global-complexity jobs.

HYPOTHESIS 1.10: The role of negotiator will be related to all effectiveness criteria for managers in low- and high-global-complexity jobs.

Results and Discussion Role importance. Both independent sample t-tests and nonparametric Mann–Whitney U

analyses were conducted to test for mean differences reported by managers in contexts of low and high global complexity on the level of importance attributed to the seven managerial roles.

The nonparametric tests were conducted out of concern that the response anchors for the role importance data are not interval level. However, because the findings from the nonparametric tests are parallel to the findings from the t-tests, only the t-test results will be discussed.

The results are presented in Table 1.1. Hypothesis 1.1 was partially supported; differences were found for the spokesperson role, but not for the monitor role. Hypothesis 1.2 was partially supported. The liaison role, as expected, was perceived as being significantly more important to

job effectiveness by managers in high-global-complexity jobs. Counter to expectation, managers in low-global-complexity jobs attributed more importance to the role of leader. Finally, Hypoth- esis 1.3 was supported; no differences were found between the two groups of managers on the

three action roles. These findings indicate that what global managers do is largely the same as what domestic

managers do, but with important differences in emphasis. Managers in high- and low-global-

complexity jobs did not differentiate in the level of importance attributed to the roles of monitor,

Chapter 1: Managerial Roles—Similarities and Differences in Domestic and Global Work

18 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

decision maker, innovator, and negotiator. Yet, the findings also highlight an interesting shift in the degree of emphasis attributed to several of the roles as work responsibilities move from low to high global complexity. Global managers emphasize less the more internal-oriented role of

leader, and emphasize more the external-oriented roles of spokesperson and liaison. These findings suggest that as managerial responsibilities grow more global in scope, managers are increasingly called upon to disseminate information to a host of diverse constituents along the

organizational periphery.

Table 1.1 Importance Ratings for High- and Low-Global-Complexity Jobs

Managerial roles Monitor NS Spokesperson T = –2.84 p <.01 low = –.20, high = .17 Leader T = 1.91 p < .05 low = .11, high = –.15 Liaison T = –2.35 p < .05 low = –.15, high = .16 Decision maker NS Negotiator NS Innovator NS

Role effectiveness. Zero-order correlations were conducted between the seven role behav- iors and the five effectiveness measures as rated by the boss for global and domestic managers. The hypotheses were based on the pattern of results found for ratings of role importance. The

results for boss ratings are provided in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Role-Behavior Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers in

Low and High Global Contexts

Low global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 101 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Monitor .15 .006 .19 .18 .18 Spokesperson .33 .19 .26 .26 .26 Leader .23a .14 .18 .19 .26 Liaison .13 .16 .15 .21 .13 Decision maker .21 .01 .21a .21a .27 Innovator .006 –.04 .16a .05 .15 Negotiator –.05a –.02a .13a .07a .11a

High global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 80 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Monitor .11 .001 .14 .15 .04 Spokesperson .12 –.03 .19 .01 .07a Leader .18 .03 .27 .06 .14 Liaison –.03 .07a .17 .13 .08a Decision maker .17 –.002 .38a .25a .17 Innovator .09 .02 .24a .10 .07 Negotiator .22a .16a .38a .26a .17a

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Hypothesis 1.4 was not supported; the monitor role was not related to any of the effective-

ness measures for managers in either the low- or high-global-complexity condition. Hypothesis 1.5 was not supported; counter to expectation, the spokesperson role was a differentiator of effectiveness for managers in low-global-complexity conditions rather than managers in high-

global-complexity conditions. Hypothesis 1.6 was supported. Hypothesis 1.7 was not supported; the liaison role was not related to any of the effectiveness measures for managers in the high- global-complexity condition. Hypothesis 1.8 was supported. Hypothesis 1.9 was partially sup-

ported; the innovator role was related to the knowledge and initiative measure but only for managers in settings of high global complexity. Finally, Hypothesis 1.10 was partially supported; the negotiator role was related to multiple effectiveness measures for managers in high-global-

complexity conditions but not managers in low-global-complexity conditions. These results indicate that what managers in low- and high-global-complexity conditions

think is important in their jobs does not correspond with what differentiates effectiveness. In

hindsight this finding is not surprising given past 360-degree feedback research that demonstrates that importance and effectiveness are two separate constructs. This is perhaps especially true in the present research because managers themselves indicated importance levels while the effec-

Chapter 1: Managerial Roles—Similarities and Differences in Domestic and Global Work

20 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

tiveness ratings were provided by the managers’ bosses. For example, the spokesperson role differentiated effectiveness for managers in the low-global-complexity condition even though the spokesperson role was endorsed by managers in the high-global-complexity condition as being

relatively more important to their jobs. Interestingly, and again counter to the findings for impor- tance, it was the action roles that served as the strongest differentiators of effectiveness for global managers. For example, the innovator and negotiator roles were uniquely related to effectiveness

for managers working in contexts of high global complexity. This illustrates that new information emerges when managerial roles are viewed through the eyes of the managers’ bosses.

CHAPTER 2 Managerial Traits—Personality and Effectiveness in a Global Context

This chapter of the report examines that part of the model that illustrates the relationship between personality and managerial effectiveness. It defines personality, explains why this

construct belongs in the model, describes the theory of personality used in this work, and then presents the instrument used to operationalize this theoretical perspective. Included is a brief discussion about the limitations of that instrument, the theory it represents, and some potential

problems in using it with a population of individuals from many countries. Further, an overview of how personality has been directly linked to effectiveness for North American and European managers in domestic roles provides a basis for hypotheses about how these relationships might

change when managerial work is global in scope. Finally, a discussion of the relationship of personality factors to other variables in the model gives rise to hypotheses about how personality may be indirectly linked to effectiveness; in other words, whether individuals with a particular

personality predisposition are more likely to demonstrate a particular set of leadership skills.

Background Hall and Lindzey have described personality “as the most outstanding or salient impression

that an individual creates in others” (1978, p. 7). An individual’s personality is couched in terms that suggest attributes or qualities consistently characteristic of that person over time. Personality

does not refer to a single trait or attribute but is a clustering of traits combined in limitless pos- sible ways and permutations.

Although the academic literature continues to debate the relative power of personality in

predicting behavior, the lay person understands personality as a set of attributes that accurately characterize a person in many (but not every) contexts over time. One describes other people based on the consistent impression they make on others and often in ways that are consistent with

how those people describe themselves: “She’s friendly,” for example, or “He’s a worrywart.” If a person behaves out of character, one is likely to say, “That’s not like him” or “That does not sound like her.”

Why we have included personality in our model. The debate over the role of personality in predicting human behavior (and a subset of that behavior, managerial and leadership effective- ness) has continued for 40 years (see, for example, Guion & Gottier, 1965; Mischel, 1977;

Raymark, Schmit, & Guion, 1997; Stogdill, 1974). To a great extent this debate has been an artifact of the state of the art of statistical and measurement capabilities within the field. The advent of meta-analytic statistical strategies and more precise and fine-grained measurement

tools has provided a better understanding of the role that personality plays in predicting manage- rial and leadership effectiveness. Personality does indeed account for some, but not all, of the effectiveness variance in a variety of organizational roles.

Given that understanding, we include personality in our model for a number of reasons. For one, a growing literature points to the relationship of certain personality variables to managerial work. We wanted to understand if this holds true when the work is global in scope and when the

incumbents are from a variety of countries and working across the world. We also wanted to understand the extent to which effectiveness in a global managerial role is related to stable and universal individual difference characteristics as this will have implications for selection proce-

dures in international organizations. Additionally, we sought to understand the extent to which personality traits share variance with skills and perspectives related to effectiveness as this has implications for the developmental strategies of organizations. Finally, we wanted to be able to

compare and contrast the relative contribution of experience and personality to effectiveness.

Chapter 2: Managerial Traits—Personality and Effectiveness in a Global Context

Figure 3 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

(Personality)

Managerial Roles

Global Complexity

Personality conscientiousness

extraversion openness

agreeableness neuroticism

Experience

Managerial Capabilities

Managerial Effectiveness

▼

▼ ▼

▼

22 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Theory and measurement of personality. For our model, we chose the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality as representing a comprehensive attempt to describe and measure the structure of personality from a universal perspective. The FFM presumes that a listing and

grouping of the adjectives that people use to describe themselves and others will reveal the full spectrum of personality traits and attributes of a people.

Using increasingly sophisticated statistical techniques, 50 years of research based on this

lexical tradition has yielded five major factors, or domains, that many theoreticians believe represent the full spectrum of emotional, interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal, and motivational traits for describing personality (Cattell, 1946; Digman, 1990; John, 1989; McCrae & Costa,

1990; Norman, 1963). An instrument developed to represent and measure the FFM is the NEO PI-R (Costa &

McCrae, 1992). The NEO PI-R presents personality traits grouped into five major factors or

domains. Each factor is made up of six facets or subscales and these six facets define each of the factor domains (see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 The Five-Factor Model as Measured by the NEO PI-R

Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO Five- Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) Professional Manual. Odessa, FL: PAR, pp. 14–18.

Factor

(N) Neuroticism

(E) Extraversion

(O) Openness

(A) Agreeableness

Definition

anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsive- ness, vulnerability

warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excite- ment seeking, positive emotions

fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, values

trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, tender-mindedness

competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self- discipline, deliberation

Description

This personality type has a general tendency to experience negative affects such as fear, sadness, embarrassment, anger, guilt, and disgust. People with high N scores tend to be less able to control their impulses and cope poorly with stress.

Extraverts are sociable. They like people, prefer large gatherings, and are assertive, active, and talkative. They like excitement and stimulation and tend to be energetic and optimistic.

People with high O scores have an active imagina- tion, aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety, intellectual curiosity, and independence of judgment. They are willing to entertain novel ideas and unconven- tional values and they experience emotions more keenly than closed individuals.

The agreeable person is altruistic, sympathetic to others and eager to help them, and trusting and cooperative rather than competitive.

The person with a high C score is purposeful, strong-willed and determined, achievement oriented, scrupulous, punctual, and reliable.

Some psychometricians and cross-cultural researchers have argued that the FFM is not a comprehensive taxonomy of personality structure. For example, one U.S. theoretician (Hogan, 1983) wrote that extraversion is really two factors—sociability and ambition. Hough and

Schneider (1996) argued that there are nine factors—the six listed by Hogan plus achievement, masculinity, and locus of control. After reviewing these arguments, we believed that the FFM was sufficiently robust as an explanatory device for our work and that the NEO PI-R, as a repre-

sentation of the FFM, addressed the comprehensiveness debate by breaking each domain or factor into six facet scales, allowing for both a broad and more detailed look at the phenomena.

The universality of the FFM. The concerns of cross-cultural psychologists as to the universality of the FFM were more critical to our work because global managers, as we defined them, are from many countries and work in many countries. It could be that a particular personal- ity factor might manifest itself in one way with a manager from an individualistic culture and in

another way with a manager from a collectivist culture (Cross, 1995). This would be particularly true if the manager’s behavior were being evaluated by direct reports because cultural differences are believed to be more manifest the farther down one goes in an organization (Peterson & Hunt,

1997). Determining how to measure a given construct when the research subjects come from a

number of different countries/cultures is both controversial and difficult (see Church & Lonner,

1998; Segall, Lonner, & Berry, 1998). There are problems related to comprehensiveness and structure. There are issues related to the meaning and value attributed to the same traits across cultures. There are problems related to the scale equivalence and full-score comparability of the

measurement tools across cultures. Despite these obstacles, strong support for the universal applicability of translated versions

of the FFM exists (McCrae & Costa, 1997; McCrae, Costa, del Pilar, Rolland, & Parker, 1998;

Piedmont & Chae, 1997). Studies examining the structure of comprehensive collections of indigenous-trait terms have also reported good results from the use of the FFM (Church & Lonner, 1998). DeRaad, Perugini, and Szirmak (1997) identified the FFM as the best working

hypothesis of an omnipresent trait structure. But our model was not about cross-cultural comparisons. Our population of interest was

made up of managers from multiple countries who manage work and people in multiple countries

in international organizations. The scope of the global managers’ work requires them to manage across borders in a world that has defined the language of business as English. The scope of domestic managers’ work is in-country but is still part of an international organization. Our

question of interest was not about cross-cultural differences but about managing across cultures. Arguments for the cross-cultural comprehensiveness of the FFM’s constructs and structure only tangentially support or detract from our decision to use this theory as represented by the NEO

PI-R. We chose the English language version of the NEO PI-R as our tool for representing the

construct of personality, with a respectful understanding of the drawbacks (Berry, 1990). Our

choice was based on the premise that the traits represented by the NEO PI-R will predict manage-

Chapter 2: Managerial Traits—Personality and Effectiveness in a Global Context

24 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

rial effectiveness in organizations regardless of the manager’s cultural influences or country of origin. Granted, there may be indigenous traits that would predict effectiveness for domestic managers working in homogeneous groups in their own country. But we decided that the FFM

will make meaningful predictions of effectiveness for English-speaking managers regardless of their country of origin or the country in which they might be working.

The relationship of personality to job effectiveness and managerial effectiveness in a domestic context. In studies conducted in North America and Europe, researchers have demon- strated that the FFM has related to some important aspects of managerial effectiveness and job effectiveness. In a meta-analytic review of 117 criterion-related validity studies encompassing a

sample of 23,994 subjects, Barrick and Mount (1991) reported that conscientiousness and extra- version were valid predictors of job proficiency for U.S. and Canadian managers. Openness, neuroticism, and agreeableness were not found to be valid predictors of effectiveness for manag-

ers in North America. Salgado (1997) replicated this work through meta-analysis using a sample of 36 studies

conducted in the European community. He also found that conscientiousness was a valid predic-

tor of job proficiency for managers. Additionally, neuroticism was a valid predictor of job profi- ciency for managers in this European sample, and extraversion and agreeableness were related to managerial effectiveness when the work required major interpersonal contact.

In summary, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism have been found to be related to managerial effectiveness for managers in the United States, Canada, and Europe, with conscientiousness having the most consistent effect across the two meta-analytic

studies.

Hypotheses One of the arguments personality theorists make against the use of the Five-Factor Model is

that it is atheoretical. In other words, it describes but does not explain. We developed our hypoth- eses relating a particular factor or facet of personality to managerial effectiveness by tying our

reasoning to the construct of psychological fit: the fit between the preferences and predisposition of an individual and the demands of the work. It should be noted that this is not a reference to the literature on organizational culture and fit; rather, it focuses on the fit between an individual’s

disposition and the demands of that individual’s work. In this regard it is closer to the career- development and career-choice literature (see, for example, Holland, 1985; Super, 1957). In other words, it builds on the idea that individuals seek out situations that match well with their person-

alities (Diener, Larsen, & Emmons, 1984; Emmons, Diener, & Larsen, 1986; Kristof, 1996). If personality is a clustering of traits that predisposes individuals to behave in a certain way,

then it is reasonable to suggest that people with a particular personality are more likely to be

effective in a context where that behavior is considered to be appropriate, productive, and valued. This further suggests that there is a press within the context of managerial work that pulls for particular traits. Our thinking was also influenced by Murray’s thesis (1938) regarding person-

environment fit.

Along these lines, Andrews (1967) reported an interaction between the needs of managers and their organization’s values regarding achievement and power. Pritchard and Karasick (1973) reported a connection between the need for order and highly structured work environments.

Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994) found that the relationship between personality and manage- rial effectiveness was stronger when effectiveness was separated into task and contextual dimen- sions, suggesting that there are overall contextual aspects of managerial work that are similar

across organizations and jobs. By definition some aspects of managerial work differ in terms of the work’s nature because jobs and functions within corporations can have unique aspects.

Holding with this line of thought, for each of the five factors in this report we state our

hypotheses and describe how the relationship of a personality trait to the criterion measures might shift or remain the same as the work becomes more global in scope.

Conscientiousness. Conscientiousness has two themes: one of volition, the will to do well; and one of dependability, the predisposition to plan and be dependable. Ones and Viswesvaran (1997) have argued for a general theory of conscientiousness and managerial work and we concur. The dependable individual who desires to do well is more likely to be effective in the

managerial role—regardless of the scope of the role—than the individual who is not so predisposed.

HYPOTHESIS 2.1: Regardless of how globally complex the context is in which the

manager works, conscientiousness will be positively associated with the effective- ness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation.

Extraversion. Extraversion, as defined by the NEO PI-R, represents both sociability and dominance needs. It represents one’s own personal needs to be with others and to be in charge when with others. Extraversion has been linked to managerial effectiveness when the job has a strong interpersonal component (Salgado, 1997). Because the population of interest in our study

was collapsed across functions, the influence of function was masked. However, because the global manager works across cultures, often electronically or by telephone, we still expected the facets representing the sociable aspects of extraversion to be related to the leadership and inter-

personal criteria as the manager’s work becomes more globally complex.

HYPOTHESIS 2.2: Extraversion will be positively associated with the managerial effectiveness criteria managing and leading and interpersonal relationships when

the work is more globally complex.

Openness. Openness to experience was found to be related to training proficiency but not managerial effectiveness in the previously cited North American and European studies. Because

the global manager is working across cultures, we hypothesized that an individual who is imagi- native, fascinated by the novel, and open to the ideas and values of others would be more effec- tive in a global role. However, we did not expect openness to be directly related to the outcome

criteria.

Chapter 2: Managerial Traits—Personality and Effectiveness in a Global Context

26 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

We based our hypothesis for openness on the theory that a higher degree of effectiveness in a managerial role results from having mastered a variety of challenging experiences. In this case, we suggested that personality is one factor that predisposes some individuals to engage in

challenging and novel experiences, and that individuals who have successfully engaged in those experiences are prepared to be successful in particular managerial roles.

HYPOTHESIS 2.3: Openness will be positively associated with the role behavior innovator.

Agreeableness. The global manager role requires versatile interpersonal skill, an ability to demonstrate interest in and concern for others across geographical and cultural distances. Be- cause global managers deal not just with one culture but with multiple cultures simultaneously, it seems almost impossible that they could remain aware of all of the nuances of cultural meaning

and behavior. We suggest that individuals who are agreeable, as defined by the NEO PI-R, would be more effective because they would be more likely to be forgiven their cultural missteps.

Agreeableness has been found to be related to managerial effectiveness in European

samples when the work has a strong interpersonal component (Salgado, 1997). We suggest that all global managerial work, by its nature, has a strong interpersonal component.

HYPOTHESIS 2.4: Agreeableness will be positively associated with the managerial effectiveness indicators managing and leading and interpersonal relationships when the managerial work is more globally complex.

HYPOTHESIS 2.5: Agreeableness will be positively associated with the role behavior skills that are related to managing people: leader and liaison.

Neuroticism. Although Salgado (1997) found neuroticism to be related to effectiveness for managers working in the European community, Barrick and Mount (1991) did not obtain the

same results for managers in the United States and Canada. Because of the stress and uncertainty associated with global managerial work, we expected neuroticism to be a particularly important trait in explaining effectiveness outcomes.

HYPOTHESIS 2.6: Neuroticism will be significantly and negatively correlated with all of the effectiveness criteria when the managerial work is more globally complex.

Results and Discussion Zero-order correlations were conducted between the five factors on the NEO PI-R, the five

criterion measures, and predicted role behaviors for global and local managers. The results are presented in Tables 2.2 and 2.3.

Table 2.2 Personality Scale Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers in

Low and High Global Contexts

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Table 2.2 presents the results correlating managers’ personality scale ratings with bosses’ effectiveness ratings. Hypothesis 2.1 was supported for managers who work in a high global

context but not managers who work in a low global context. Hypotheses 2.2 and 2.4 were not supported. Hypothesis 2.6 was partially supported from the boss perspective, but neuroticism was also related to effectiveness criteria for local managers. In retrospect this was not surprising, as

emotional stability and conscientiousness were found to be general competencies related to effectiveness across jobs (Barrick, 2000).

Many of our hypotheses were not supported. We had reasoned that although global and

domestic managerial work are similar in their organizational and bureaucratic demands, they are different in their demands for interpersonal skill, openness to new experiences, and the ability to cope with stress and uncertainty. Because of this reasoning, we predicted that conscientiousness

will behave in a similar fashion whether the managerial work is global or domestic in scope, but that agreeableness, openness, neuroticism, and extraversion will be more strongly related to the criterion measures for managers in global jobs than for managers in domestic jobs. We also

believed that all five of the factors shared significant variance with other variables in the model that in turn would be more critical in explaining global managerial effectiveness than in explain- ing domestic managerial effectiveness.

Chapter 2: Managerial Traits—Personality and Effectiveness in a Global Context

Low global context n = 101

Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

High global context n = 80

Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Managing and leading

–.22 .19a –.06 –.10 .08

Managing and leading

–.01a –.03 –.04 .10a .12

Interpersonal relationships

–.12 .006a –.11 .007 .03

Interpersonal relationships

.0003a –.004 –.02 .18a –.001

Knowledge and initiative

–.17 .06 .04 –.11 .15a

Knowledge and initiative

–.23a .09 –.02 .02 .34a

Success orientation

–.23 .11 –.05 –.12 .17a

Success orientation

–.07a .04 –.01 .002 .30a

Contextually adept

–.06 .10 .11 –.05 –.03

Contextually adept

.008a –.08 –.02 –.06 .06

28 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Instead, neuroticism, not conscientiousness, was related to criterion ratings for managers in high- and low-global-complexity jobs. Conscientiousness was only related to criterion ratings for managers in the high-global-complexity condition.

The correlations of personality traits with role skills are presented in Table 2.3. Hypothesis 2.3 was supported. Openness is positively associated with the role behavior innovator. Hypoth- esis 2.5 was partially supported. Agreeableness was positively associated with skill in the role of

leader but not liaison.

Table 2.3

Personality Scale Correlations with Roles for Managers in Low and High Global Contexts

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

CHAPTER 3 Managerial Capabilities—Learning and Effectiveness as a Global Manager

In our conceptual model we explored learning and effectiveness in global roles from

several perspectives. These included the direct relationship of experiential learning to managerial effectiveness in the global role, specifically past experience managing diverse workgroups in one’s own country (cultural heterogeneity) and experience with other cultures through early

language training and by living in more than one country as a child and adolescent (cosmopoli- tanism). (These topics are addressed in Chapters 4 and 5.) In this chapter we explore the relation- ship of three specific learning behaviors to managerial effectiveness in jobs of high and low

global complexity (see Figure 4).

Innovator

–.11 .30 .25a –.07 .04

Innovator

–.17 .27 .25a –.01 .12

Negotiator

–.07 .13 .05 –.06 .29

Negotiator

–.37 .13 .00 .17 .42

Decision maker

–.23 .30 .06 –.06 .28

Decision maker

–.41 .25 .05 .11 .36

Liaison

–.07 .21 .04 –.02 .15

Liaison

–.28 .37 .16 .17a .21

Leader

–.11 .27 .08 .08 .26

Leader

–.27 .23 .05 .28a .25

Spokes- person

–.22 .30 –.01 –.24 .14

Spokes- person

–.22 .42 .21 .19 .25

Monitor

–.19 .08 .02 .01 .25

Monitor

–.41 .25 .09 .03 .24

Low global context n = 101

Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

High global context n = 80

Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Background In the United States over the past two decades, scholars have used the ability to learn from

workplace experiences as a major construct to explain career success (attaining a senior-level

organizational position) and managerial effectiveness. Researchers have argued that the opportu- nity and willingness to engage in a variety of work-based experiences and the ability and willing- ness to learn and adapt as a result are key factors in explaining managerial development and

subsequent effectiveness (Keys & Wolfe, 1988; McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988; McCauley, 1986; Morrison & Hock, 1986; Nicolson & West, 1988; Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney, 1997).

More recently, taxonomies of global leadership skills and capacities have suggested that learning is a key to success in the global role. For example, Kanter (1995) has described an individual able to “learn from and leverage the heterogeneity and chaos of the worldwide market

place.” Gregersen, Morrison, and Black (1998) have listed the characteristic of inquisitiveness as an essential trait of the effective international manager. Spreitzer, McCall, and Mahoney (1997) have identified those who search for opportunities to learn, seek and use feedback, remain open

to criticism, and are flexible and cross-culturally adventurous as more likely to be effective in an international executive role.

Chapter 3: Managerial Capabilities—Learning and Effectiveness as a Global Manager

Figure 4 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

(Managerial Capabilities)

Managerial Roles

Global Complexity

Personality

Experience

Managerial Capabilities

learning behaviors knowledge resilience

Managerial Effectiveness

▼

▼ ▼

▼

30 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Hypotheses Learning behaviors. The learning capabilities that we adopted for use in our model were

self-development, perspective taking, and cultural adaptability. In introducing learning capabili-

ties and skills into the model we wanted to understand if the learning behaviors associated with experiential or action learning would interact with global complexity to predict managerial effectiveness. To the extent that they did, we wanted to explore how people develop these learn-

ing skills. Were learning skills related to personality traits such as emotional stability (neuroti- cism) and openness to experience? Was the ability to learn related to personality, or did adult experiences of cultural heterogeneity and early life experiences with diverse cultures better

account for such an ability? Could managers acquire these learning behaviors? To the extent that learning skills proved to be associated with effectiveness in the global

role, and to the extent that learning skills could be understood as trait based or experience based,

we cast the process of developing individuals for global managerial responsibilities as either a selection issue, a development issue, or both.

Self-development. Self-development describes a set of behaviors people would exhibit were they to take responsibility for their own development. It is meant to exemplify a person who adopts an active rather than passive stance in regard to his or her own development. Behaviors that typify this kind of learning orientation include a demonstrated awareness of one’s own

strengths and weaknesses, openness to feedback about one’s actions, and eagerness to engage in new experiences.

In the U.S. practitioner-oriented literature (for example, Dalton & Hollenbeck, 1996;

McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988), scholars have considered self-awareness and personal development key competencies for managerial effectiveness. Individuals who possess these competencies are presumed to have developed into better managers and leaders because these

self-development behaviors have allowed them to become more skilled (Tesluk & Jacobs, 1998). Little empirical research exists to back up these presumptions and suppositions. Instead, the

beliefs about the importance of self-development rely on a value set taken from the traditions of

the psychotherapy literature—self-awareness as the first step in a behavior-change process (Freud, 1960)—and the goal setting and knowledge-of-results literature (for example, Locke & Latham, 1984). An American and European literary and philosophical tradition that holds self-

knowledge as a valued human trait also plays a part. On their measure of learning agility, Lombardo and Eichinger (1994) demonstrated a partial

conceptual overlap with the self-development construct we have presented in our model. Dalton

and Swigert (1999) reported modest relationships between the learning versatility construct and the learning behaviors necessary to engage in workplace learning, but found no significant relationship between boss and peer ratings of potential effectiveness and self-reported ratings of

learning versatility. Spreitzer, McCall, and Mahoney (1997) investigated the relationship of learning skills to

international effectiveness. They constructed six scales to measure the ability to learn from

experience: (1) seeks opportunities to learn, (2) seeks feedback, (3) uses feedback, (4) is open to

criticism, (5) is flexible, and (6) is cross-culturally adventurous. The first four of these scales overlap with the content of our self-development construct. Spreitzer et al. reported the relation- ship between a boss’s rating of his or her direct reports on these scales and the boss’s rating of the

likelihood that these same direct reports would be successful in an international assignment. In our study, two of the scales that we included in the self-development construct, seeks opportuni- ties to learn and is open to criticism, were modestly related to boss ratings of success on interna-

tional assignments. However, the independent and dependent variables in this research were both rated by the boss, so same-source bias clouds our interpretation of the results.

On the Benchmarks® developmental instrument (Lombardo & McCauley, 1988), the scale

self-awareness includes items about a person’s willingness to seek and attend to feedback from others. This measure demonstrated a significant relationship to boss ratings of promotability and to longitudinal measures of organizational progress but not to independent assessments of

promotability or effectiveness evaluations. We were unaware of any other studies that have tested the relationship of self-

development skills to managerial effectiveness, particularly for managers with international

responsibilities.

HYPOTHESIS 3.1: Self-development will share significant variance with all effective-

ness criteria for managers in the low-global-context group.

This hypothesis was tentative. It may hold only to the extent that the manager was working

in a culture where active attention to one’s self and one’s career growth is considered appropriate. (Our data did not allow us to entertain this perspective.) For example, some cultures (Japanese or Middle Eastern, for example) consider seeking feedback poor form. Managers in these cultures

wait to receive assignments and do not seek them out (Dalton, 1998). Some cultures can view self-development strategies as inappropriate because they represent undue attention to the indi- vidual. This is characteristic of cultures in which the self is considered an interdependent rather

than an independent construct (Cross, 1995). Schwartz’s concept of work centrality suggested that in some cultures one’s work experience is secondary to the totality of one’s life experience (1999). An undue focus on attaining skills to advance one’s career might in such cultures run

counter to norms and expectations. Nonetheless, it is important to address the relationship of self-development to managerial

effectiveness because much of executive development in the United States is based on the notion

of self-development. This kind of assumption causes problems when U.S.-based leadership- development professionals try to introduce these concepts to international organizations.

Perspective taking. The set of skills and behaviors defined as perspective taking describe a person who is able to listen well; is able to consider multiple points of view, multiple possible solutions, and multiple perspectives; and is able to entertain empathy toward another person’s point of view. Perspective taking can perhaps be seen as what Gardner (1983) has called one of

the “personal intelligences.”

Chapter 3: Managerial Capabilities—Learning and Effectiveness as a Global Manager

32 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Gardner (1983) wrote of six basic intelligences: (1) linguistic, (2) musical, (3) logical- mathematical, (4) spatial, (5) bodily-kinesthetic, and (6) personal. The area of personal intelli- gence includes self-knowledge (intrapersonal) and knowledge of other people (interpersonal). He

considered these personal intelligences as different from the other five. In his view, intrapersonal intelligence represents access to one’s own emotional life. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals, particularly among their moods, tem-

peraments, motivations, and intentions. Unlike the other intelligences, however, “the varieties of personal intelligence prove much more distinctive, less comparable, perhaps even unknowable to someone from an alien society. . . . (T)he ‘natural course’ of the personal intelligence is more

attenuated than that of other forms, inasmuch as the particular symbolic and interpretive systems of each culture soon come to impose a decisive coloring on these latter forms of information processing” (p. 240).

Gardner’s view affected our work in that when we discuss perspective taking (and further, when later in this report we discuss cultural adaptability) we are dealing with the highest mani- festation of these intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences. Ideally an effective global man-

ager can rise above his or her own cultural understanding of self and others, translating his or her intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence capacity into the symbol system of another culture. Perspective taking is the ability to transform one’s meaning structures; in other words, individu-

als make sense of what they know within a network of values, beliefs, attitudes, and past experi- ences, interpreting what happens to them through this cultural framework. When they (managers, in this case) work with individuals from other cultures, they encounter people who behave in

ways that are incongruent with their own expectations of behavior. If managers interpret and label what others are doing through their own interpersonal framework, they may make incorrect assumptions about others’ motivations and respond incorrectly. If managers are able to take the

perspective of others, they can transform their understanding, alleviating the anxiety brought about by encountering and dealing with people who have different value systems.

We knew of no empirical work that related the ability to take the perspective of another to

international managerial effectiveness. In his counseling work with college students, Perry (1981) described a developmental progression of movement from dualism to contextual relativism—the ability to make judgments in a relative context while holding one’s own values constant. In the

sojourner literature summarized by Kealy (1989), many researchers were reported to have agreed that empathy, interest in the local culture, flexibility, tolerance, and technical skill predict success (defined as adjustment) in another culture. Our construct perspective taking may capture the

concepts of empathy, flexibility, and tolerance. At the theoretical level, Mezirow (1991) wrote of learning through perspective transforma-

tion. “We encounter experiences, often in an emotionally charged situation, that fail to fit our

expectations and consequently lack meaning for us, or we encounter an anomaly that cannot be given coherence either by learning within existing schemes or by learning new schemes. Illumi- nation comes only through redefinition of the problem. . . . We redefine old ways of understand-

ing” (p. 94).

Given our understanding of perspective taking and managerial work in high-global- complexity conditions, we designed the following hypotheses:

HYPOTHESIS 3.2: Perspective taking will share significant variance with the effec- tiveness criteria managing and leading, interpersonal relationships, success orien- tation, and contextually adept when the manager’s work is more globally complex.

HYPOTHESIS 3.3: Perspective taking will be positively associated with the personal- ity scale openness.

HYPOTHESIS 3.4: Perspective taking will be negatively associated with the personal- ity trait neuroticism.

Cultural adaptability. Cultural adaptability is defined as a set of behaviors used by a person motivated to understand the influence of culture on behavior and who has the skills to

learn about and use cultural differences. More than the capacity to understand a particular culture, it describes a person who is able to work well across multiple cultures. Cultural adaptability may be a special case of perspective taking. Cultural adaptability may also encompass the cultural

empathy construct identified by Ruben (1976) and Cui and Van Den Berg (1991). The construct of cultural adaptability is an old one, grounded in the training literature of

institutions such as the Peace Corps, religious missionary communities, the diplomatic corps, the

military, and the business community. Each of these groups has struggled to prepare people to work effectively in other cultures (see, for example, Hannigan, 1990). What differentiates these various constructs and definitions is the role the sojourner plays and the results the group seeks.

For example, the struggle for the Peace Corps volunteer is to relocate and to adjust to living in another culture, assuming the role of teacher and helper. The role of the international diplomat is to relocate and to adjust to living and working in another culture in order to represent the interests

of the diplomat’s country at a high level of political sensitivity and potential visibility. The role of the military spouse may be to relocate and to adjust to living in an enclave of fellow expatriates.

The role of the global manager is different from these roles in that the global manager often

does not relocate and so does not face the adjustment so often described in the literature. Rather, the global manager manages as a traveler and/or from a distance and is responsible for activities in multiple countries simultaneously, countries that do not share a common culture. Therefore, we

are uncertain that the literature on cultural adjustment will help us understand the skill of cultural adaptability as we define it: the need to know how to adapt quickly in multiple and ever-changing cultural contexts in which interactions are sometimes face-to-face and sometimes at a distance.

Additionally, much of the existing literature has spoken to the criterion measure of cross- cultural adjustment rather than to the criterion measure of work effectiveness. We are interested in the criterion measure of work effectiveness as seen through the eyes of the target manager’s

boss.

Chapter 3: Managerial Capabilities—Learning and Effectiveness as a Global Manager

34 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Studies conducted by McCall, Spreitzer, and Mahoney (1994) and Spreitzer, McCall, and Mahoney (1997) have helped us develop our hypothesis related to leadership effectiveness. Their taxonomy of competencies and learning skills, hypothesized to predict success as an international

manager, included a learning skill operationalized as adapts to cultural differences. They pre- sented this five-item scale in a subsequent factor analysis of the data as two scales: sensitive to cultural differences and is culturally adventurous. Boss ratings of an individual’s potential to be

successful as an international manager and as an expatriate were found to be significantly corre- lated with boss ratings of an individual’s perceived skill on these two items. (In this research the outcome criteria were related to work effectiveness and not adjustment.) Using this scale as the

basis for our own construct of cultural adaptability, we formed the following hypothesis:

HYPOTHESIS 3.5: Cultural adaptability will share significant variance with the

effectiveness criteria managing and leading, interpersonal relationships, knowledge and initiative, success orientation, and contextually adept when the work is more global in scope.

Several other studies provide the context for our additional hypotheses. For example, Oberg (1960), a pioneer in studying cross-cultural adjustment, coined the term culture shock. People

constantly monitor, interpret, and explain the behavior of themselves and others as part of inter- acting with one another. When dealing with people from other cultures, the behaviors are the same—but the meaning attributed to the behaviors differs. Culture shock represents the anxiety

resulting from trying to process and understand how the world works when cultural significance is unmoored.

As Adler stated, “Culture shock is a form of anxiety which results from the misunderstand-

ing of commonly perceived and understood signs of cultural interaction” (1975, p. 13). Adler treated culture shock as a developmental opportunity, an experience that allows a person to first understand the relativity of his or her own value set and then to investigate, reintegrate, and

reaffirm a relationship to others. Anderson (1994) divided the cultural-adaptation literature into four major models: (1) the

recuperation model, (2) the learning model, (3) the journey model, and (4) the homeostatic

model. She suggested that it is a mistake to consider cultural adaptation as different from many other transitional processes, arguing that cultural adaptation is simply an accommodation to change. Using Anderson’s conceptualization of multiple models of cultural adaptability, we

would place our view in the camp of the homeostatic model (Grove & Torbiorn, 1985; Torbiorn, 1982), which holds that cultural adaptation requires a change in one’s perceptual frame and behavior in order to adapt to the ambient environment.

Cui and Awa’s (1992) construct of intercultural effectiveness encompasses language ability, interpersonal skills, empathy, social interaction, managerial ability, and personality traits. This is similar to our conceptual model, which incorporates life experiences, personality traits, role

skills, and capacities as predictors of perceived managerial effectiveness. We note, however, that Cui and Awa’s interest in this work was the sojourner expatriate, not the global manager.

Because the global manager is constantly being exposed to cultural differences, sequen-

tially and in parallel, we argue that the ability to manage culture shock will affect the manager’s effectiveness:

HYPOTHESIS 3.6: Cultural adaptability will be grounded in one’s ability to manage the anxiety associated with the dissonant messages of the foreign workplace and thus will be highly correlated with emotional stability (neuroticism).

Finally, we wanted to address the skill of cultural adaptability itself. If this is a skill highly related to effectiveness as a global manager, then who is most likely to have this skill or to be

able to acquire it? How do people acquire cultural adaptability? To answer that question we believed it was important to go beyond the “how” to the “why.” Why might individuals who are willing to entertain novel ideas and unconventional values be better prepared and more motivated

to deal with another kind of difference? The psychological theory of mere exposure might par- tially explain this phenomenon. This theory has argued that if individuals have repeated exposure to a stimulus, they will develop an increase in positive affect toward that stimulus (Zajonc, 1968).

In 1989 Bornstein explained it further: It is advantageous to human beings to prefer the familiar over the novel. The familiar is safe and unpredictable; the unfamiliar is unsafe and unfamiliar. Bornstein argued that there is an evolutionary reason for this and suggested that it is an adaptive

human trait. If this is the case, then individuals exposed to cultural differences early in life or career will have a broader sense of what constitutes the familiar than will individuals who have not been so exposed. They will not experience the cultural “other” as unfamiliar, they will experi-

ence less anxiety around what presents itself as different, and they will seek out more interna- tional experiences.

In contrast to the mere exposure theory’s behavioral explanation for the skill of cultural

adaptability, we wished to address the personality trait openness and its posited relationship to cultural adaptability. This trait, as measured by the NEO PI-R, is made up of six facet scales: aesthetics, fantasy, values, feelings, ideas, and actions. Of all the traits measured by the FFM, this

construct has proven the most problematic for researchers. Some authors have equated it to intelligence and divergent thinking, others to creativity (Costa & McCrae, 1992). In the workplace-effectiveness literature, openness has been most often related to effectiveness in

training programs, not to job-effectiveness criteria. In our work we hypothesized as follows:

HYPOTHESIS 3.7: Openness will be positively associated with the learning scale cultural

adaptability.

Knowledge. A large body of literature already exists that demonstrates the relationship of job knowledge to managerial effectiveness (see, for example, Kotter, 1982). For that reason we

Chapter 3: Managerial Capabilities—Learning and Effectiveness as a Global Manager

36 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

did not devote a chapter of this report to a review and explanation of this variable in our model. Still, we believed it essential to include business knowledge and international business knowl- edge in our model. Knowledge seemed to fit best in a chapter that discussed learning. We made

the following propositions regarding the relationship of business knowledge and international business knowledge to effectiveness in managerial jobs of high and low global complexity:

HYPOTHESIS 3.8: Business knowledge will share significant variance with the effectiveness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation regardless of the global complex- ity of the job.

HYPOTHESIS 3.9: International business knowledge will share significant variance with the effectiveness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation when the manager’s

work is more globally complex.

HYPOTHESIS 3.10: The capability insightful will share significant variance with the effective-

ness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation regardless of the global complexity of the job.

HYPOTHESIS 3.11: Conscientiousness will be related to bosses’ ratings of business knowledge and international business knowledge.

HYPOTHESIS 3.12: Business knowledge and international business knowledge will be positively associated with conscientiousness.

Resilience. There was also a substantial body of literature relating the construct of resil- ience to job satisfaction and job effectiveness (for example, Maddi & Kobassa, 1984). The constructs representing resilience and integrity in our model were placed in this chapter to

connect the idea that those individuals most likely to demonstrate learning behaviors will be those who are able to cope with the uncertainties and ambiguities associated with learning. We made the following propositions regarding the relationship of integrity and coping with stress to

effectiveness in managerial jobs of high and low global complexity.

HYPOTHESIS 3.13: The ability to cope with stress will share significant variance with all

effectiveness criteria when the manager’s work is more globally complex.

HYPOTHESIS 3.14: Integrity will share significant variance with managing and leading and

interpersonal relationships regardless of global complexity.

We further hypothesized two relationships between managers’ resilience capabilities and their personality traits.

HYPOTHESIS 3.15: The skill of coping will be negatively associated with the trait neuroticism.

HYPOTHESIS 3.16: Time management will be positively associated with conscien- tiousness.

Capabilities importance. Finally, we hypothesized about the degree of importance global managers would place on different capabilities within the scope of high global complexity.

HYPOTHESIS 3.17: Managers in contexts of high global complexity will attribute more importance to the capabilities of cultural adaptability and perspective taking than will managers in contexts of low global complexity, but managers in either context will perceive

the capability of self-development equally.

HYPOTHESIS 3.18: Managers in contexts of high global complexity will attribute more

importance to the capability of international business knowledge than will managers in contexts of low global complexity, but managers in either context will perceive the capabil- ity of business knowledge equally.

HYPOTHESIS 3.19: Managers in contexts of high global complexity will attribute more importance to the capabilities of time management and coping than will managers in

contexts of low global complexity, but managers in either context will perceive the capabil- ity of integrity equally.

Results and Discussion Learning. Zero-order correlations were conducted between the three learning scales and

the five effectiveness criteria as rated by their bosses and self-reported personality scales for local

and global managers (see Tables 3.1 and 3.2). Hypothesis 3.5 was supported. Hypothesis 3.1 was not supported. There was partial support for Hypothesis 3.2. Only the learning scale perspective taking was significantly related to criterion measures and only in the high-global-complexity

condition.

Chapter 3: Managerial Capabilities—Learning and Effectiveness as a Global Manager

38 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Table 3.1 Learning Behavior Scale Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers

in Low and High Global Contexts

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Table 3.2 Learning Behavior Scale Correlations with Personality Scales for Managers

in Low and High Global Contexts

Low global context n = 101 Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Cultural adaptability –.09 .09 .05a –.03 .17

Perspective taking .00a .03 .07a .20 .15

High global context n = 80 Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Cultural adaptability –.22a .02 –.11a .15 .28

Perspective taking .11a .11 .18a .32 .17

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Low global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 101 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Cultural adaptability .11 .11 .11 .14 .19

Self- development .14a .05a .19a .19a .18a

Perspective taking .06 .05 .04 .11 .17

High global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 80 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Cultural adaptability .15a –.08a .26a .14a .15a

Self- development –.09 .04 .04 .05 –.03

Perspective taking .14a .18a .22a .16a .21a

Hypotheses relating the learning behavior scale perspective taking to the personality trait neuroticism were not supported, but as predicted there was a significant and positive relationship between agreeableness and perspective taking. The capability cultural adaptability was related to

neuroticism as predicted in Hypothesis 3.6, but was not related to openness as was hypothesized in 3.7. These results suggest that managers adept at perspective taking are more likely to have the traits of emotional stability and agreeableness—which includes trust in and consideration for

others, candor, and sympathy. Knowledge. Zero-order correlations were conducted between the three knowledge scales,

the five effectiveness criteria, and personality. The results can be seen in Tables 3.3 and 3.4.

Hypothesis 3.8 was supported only for the global condition. Hypothesis 3.9 was supported. Hypothesis 3.10 was supported only for the local condition. Business knowledge and interna- tional business knowledge are significantly related to the criteria in the high-global-complexity

condition but not the low-global-complexity condition. The hypothesized relationship between business knowledge, international business knowl-

edge, and conscientiousness was partially supported for managers working in a low global

context and fully supported for managers working in a high global context. Conscientiousness for managers in the high global context was related to the skills business knowledge and interna- tional business knowledge.

Table 3.3 Knowledge Scale Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers

in Low and High Global Contexts

Low global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 101 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Business knowledge .07 .03 .14a .17a .06

International business knowledge .07 .14 .13 .11 .14

Insightful .07 .001 .19a .24a .12

High global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 80 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Business knowledge –.04 –.10 .32a .19a –.02

International business knowledge .11 –.02 .37a .21a .11

Insightful –.009 –.14 .18a .14a –.06

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Chapter 3: Managerial Capabilities—Learning and Effectiveness as a Global Manager

40 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Table 3.4 Knowledge Scale Correlations with Personality Scales for Managers

in Low and High Global Contexts

Low global context n = 101 Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Business knowledge –.13 .16 .01 –.14 .29a

International business knowledge –.09 .13 .01 –.19 .20a

High global context n = 80 Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Business knowledge –.44 .19 –.04 –.01 .36a

International business knowledge –.23 .07 –.05 .00 .34a

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Resilience. The zero-order correlations presented in Table 3.5 address Hypotheses 3.13 and 3.14. They reflect the association between the resilience scales, the five effectiveness criteria as

rated by bosses, and personality scales for domestic and global managers. Hypothesis 3.13 was partially supported. Resilience was only associated with bosses’ ratings of knowledge and initia- tive and success orientation. Hypothesis 3.14 was not supported. The scale coping is related to

boss-criterion ratings in both the low- and high-global-complexity condition. Time management, although identified by managers in the high global context as important to their jobs, was not significantly related to any of the effectiveness criteria.

Table 3.5 Resilience Scale Correlations with Effectiveness Ratings for Managers

in Low and High Global Contexts

Low global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 101 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Coping .14 .02 .12 .22 .17

Integrity –.02a –.02a .07 .19 .17

High global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 80 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Coping .08a .05a .36a .26a .16a

Integrity –.05a .10a .09 .03 –.02

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

As shown in Table 3.6, Hypothesis 3.15 was supported. Hypothesis 3.16 was not supported.

Table 3.6 Resilience Scale Correlations with Personality Scales for Managers

in Low and High Global Contexts

Low global context n = 101 Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Coping –.34a .23 .03 .01 .18

High global context n = 80 Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Coping –.50a .22 .15 .16 .17

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Capabilities importance. Both independent sample t-tests and nonparametric Mann– Whitney U analyses were conducted to test for mean differences reported by low- and high- global-complexity managers on the level of importance attributed to the eight capabilities. The

results are presented in Table 3.7. Hypothesis 3.17 was partially supported; differences were found for cultural adaptability but not perspective taking. Hypothesis 3.18 was supported. Hypothesis 3.19 was partially supported as differences were found for time management but not

coping. Managers in high-global-complexity jobs were statistically more likely to endorse the

Chapter 3: Managerial Capabilities—Learning and Effectiveness as a Global Manager

42 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

capabilities of cultural adaptability, international business knowledge, and time management as extremely important to their current job.

The two groups did not differ in the importance they ascribed to the remaining capabilities (self-development, perspective taking, business knowledge, insight, coping, and integrity).

Table 3.7 Capabilities Importance Ratings for High- and Low-Global-Complexity Jobs

Managerial capabilities Cultural adaptability T = –8.27 p < .001 low = –.48, high = .50 Self-development NS Perspective taking NS Business knowledge NS International business knowledge T = –7.69 p < .001 low = –.46, high = .46 Time management T = –2.05 p < .05 low = –.13, high = .14 Coping NS Integrity NS

CHAPTER 4 Experience—Cosmopolitanism and Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

In this chapter we turn our focus toward one group of people who we believe have the

skills needed to succeed in leadership positions of high global complexity. “Even in this day and age and even with Fortune 500 companies, it is difficult to convince recruiting departments and managers of the benefit of hiring a student with multicultural sensitivity, who is bilingual, who

has international exposure and a real knowledge of international business over a person with a (traditional) MBA” (Feldman & Tompson, 1992, p. 345). Such people might be called cosmo- politans. In the following pages we define cosmopolitans, discuss what the literature says about

them, and hypothesize about the relationships between cosmopolitanism and other elements of our model.

Background Our theoretical description of cosmopolitanism is based on interviews, personal experience,

observation, and some data. We intend it to serve as a preliminary description, not as a factual

case. A cosmopolitan is not characterized by a particular personality profile, a particular IQ, a

specific type of profession, or a specific background. There is no singular life experience that

makes one person a cosmopolitan and another person not. The difference is that cosmopolitans have spent large portions of their lives oriented and focused externally to themselves and to their

home culture. An interest and attention toward other cultures is a common thread among cosmopolitans.

Cosmopolitanism has been previously referred to in the literature, but the definition of the

variable is much different from our conceptualization. Early in the last century Gale (1919) discussed the necessity of travel and education in creating a cosmopolitan citizen but did not relate those experiences to what one might learn through interaction with foreign cultures. The

term cosmopolitan has also been used to describe media usage (McNelly, Rush, & Bishop, 1968), an attitude more accepting of integration (Caditz, 1976), and loyalty to the profession rather than to the employing organization (DeVries, 1971; Goldberg, 1976; Kirschenbaum & Goldberg,

1976; Rotondi, 1977). For the purposes of our research, we viewed cosmopolitanism as describing an individual

difference that Kanter defined as “a mindset that finds commonalties across places” (1995, p. 61).

Cosmopolitans live in the context of their nation and the world rather than in the context of their local community (Hannerz, 1990; Ratiu, 1983). They not only understand that cultures and places differ, but they are also able to integrate themselves into different cultures in such a way that

neither offends the other nor subverts the cosmopolitan’s own cultural orientations.

Chapter 4: Experience—Cosmopolitanism and Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Figure 5 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

(Experience)

Managerial Roles

Global Complexity

Personality

Experience cosmopolitanism

cultural heterogeneity organizational cohort

homogeneity

Managerial Capabilities

Managerial Effectiveness

▼

▼ ▼

▼

44 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Because of their orientation toward others, cosmopolitans can develop skills that help them interact effectively with others different from themselves. They welcome other perspectives. Although they may prefer their own way of doing things, they are not parochial and do not

ascribe to the “not invented here” philosophy. They will think about ideas that seem against their own cultural grain. Cosmopolitans are political in that they are aware of the impact of their behavior on others (personally and professionally); however, others may not perceive them as

political in that their ability to see a variety of perspectives and integrate culturally different ideas give them the aura of mavericks within an organization.

Although there is no direct literature on cosmopolitanism as we have described it here,

Ratiu (1983) investigated how international executives learned, examining a group of people very similar to our definition. He found that the “internationals” learned differently from those who were not described as internationals. The critical difference in learning styles was that

internationals used stereotypes provisionally, dealt with the stress of interacting with different others by acknowledging it, and tended to be empirical in their understanding of other cultures in that they questioned rather than ascribed motivations. Other managers tended to believe that

stereotypes were fairly enduring, did not acknowledge stress, and leaned toward ascribing moti- vations to behaviors. Ratiu did not investigate how these so-called internationals had acquired their skills. He stated that many of them had childhood experiences that had facilitated the

development of these skills, but he did not explicitly identify which experiences were critical to developing them.

Although they did not talk directly about internationals, Kets de Vries and Mead (1992)

described what they thought was critical in the development of the global manager. They dis- cussed in detail what types of experiences good global managers would need to have and wrote about the specific types of experiences they expected them as having had in developing such

skills. They proposed that in addition to standard technical competence and business experience, global managers would need to be able to interact effectively with people who were different. One way this skill could be learned, they suggested, was through a number of professional

development factors including cultural diversity in family, early international experience, bilin- gualism, self-confidence, hardiness, envisioning, study in another culture, and study in an inter- national environment.

Kets de Vries and Mead went on to say that early socialization into cross-cultural environ- ments might be an important factor in the ability to work cross-culturally as an adult. They wrote: “Given the impact of childhood socialization on adult development, it is to be expected that early

exposure is a determining factor in how successful the individual will be in dealing with cultural adaptability later in life” (1992, p. 193). Further, they wrote that “the strongest influences on both leadership qualities and the ability to adapt culturally stem from childhood background and

psychological development. . . . Following our framework, it can be said that in the development of a global leader ideally it helps to have a childhood background characterized by cultural diversity, one aspect being early international experience” (p. 200).

In 1999 Kets de Vries and Florent-Treacy wrote a book that examined the lives of Richard Branson, Percy Barnevik, and David Simon, three successful global leaders. While examining the

technical competence and business savvy of these leaders, the authors also discussed their life experiences and their ability to work with others. What the authors found was that all three had spent time in their youths in situations that arguably would have increased their competence in

interacting effectively with people possessing very different perspectives, especially a culturally different perspective. These three leaders worked across differences as part of their early life experiences and had developed a hardiness that helped them withstand the effort working across

differences demanded. In addition to skills developed from specific life events, the literature has suggested a

variety of attributes relevant to the development of a cosmopolitan. From a developmental

perspective, being able to take another’s perspective and “empathic accuracy” are critical to the ability to deal with different others (Davis & Kraus, 1997). Relational, cross-cultural, and inter- personal abilities are important to success in international environments (Pucik & Saba, 1998), as

are cognitive complexity, emotional energy, and psychological maturity (Wills & Barham, 1994). Cosmopolitans, then, can be viewed as developing through experience and the practice of

specific skills. The development of these skills can begin in childhood or adulthood. A childhood

beginning allows more time for practicing those skills. It is possible that individuals can develop cosmopolitan skills outside of work as an adult through cultural exposure (marrying into a culturally different family, for example, or through friendships) and interest (travel, for example,

or formal educational opportunities such as foreign language study). Cosmopolitans are not cultural chameleons. They can’t speak every language, do not know

every point of etiquette in every culture, can’t tell you how to tip in every town, and do not know

how to get a cab on the street in every place they visit. Although to others their cultural flexibility and adaptability may appear effortless, their balancing of varied cultural perspectives and their empathy for others different from themselves exerts a high price and is more difficult than

interacting with people from what they would call their own culture. A cosmopolitan’s skill and orientation toward cultural adaptability is an interpersonal skill that helps them interact with others different from themselves, but it is worth noting that such a skill does not make such an

individual better at the technical aspects of leadership.

Hypotheses As local economies become increasingly globally oriented, more and more managerial

positions require that people work or interact with others from different cultures (Aycan, 1997; Tung, 1997, 1998). These globally oriented positions differ widely in their complexity. Some

require people to manage or interact with others across multiple time zones and who speak a variety of languages. Other positions require people to live and work in foreign environments for short assignments or for longer periods of time. Technical improvements in communication and

travel have made it increasingly easy for companies to assemble teams of people who reside and work in different places, who speak different languages, and who carry with them different values and belief systems.

It has been suggested that people who are able to do work across cultures or internationally are more likely to be successful in a global economy (Bennett, 1989). We believe that those

Chapter 4: Experience—Cosmopolitanism and Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

46 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

people we call cosmopolitans have the orientations and skills arising from life experiences that help them interact effectively with others different from themselves and, therefore, to be more successful global leaders.

To this end we operationalized cosmopolitanism as “early life” and “adult life” experience. Early life experience includes the number of languages spoken before age 13 and the number of countries in which the individual was educated. Experience gained later in life includes the

number of countries in which the individual has lived, the number of languages spoken, and expatriate experience.

HYPOTHESIS 4.1: Cosmopolitanism will be positively correlated with bosses’ ratings of effectiveness.

contextually adept than individuals who have not had these experiences, regardless of the global complexity of their current jobs.

Given our description of cosmopolitanism and the list of factors that may contribute to the development of cosmopolitanism, how does cosmopolitanism relate to the variables we are examining in our model of managerial effectiveness? We anticipated a few specific relationships.

It follows that the predisposition to be fascinated by the values and customs of others (openness) should be related to cosmopolitanism.

HYPOTHESIS 4.3: Cosmopolitanism will be positively related to the personality trait openness.

HYPOTHESIS 4.4: Managers who speak multiple languages and who have lived in multiple countries will have higher scores on the personality trait openness.

We also proposed a link between experience and capabilities. (For specifics on the capabilities and effectiveness turn to Chapter 3.)

HYPOTHESIS 4.5: Cosmopolitanism will be positively related to self-ratings of the capabilities of perspective taking, cultural adaptability, and international business knowledge.

HYPOTHESIS 4.6: Number of languages spoken before the age of 13 and number of countries educated in will each be positively associated with the capabilities of

perspective taking, cultural adaptability, and international business knowledge.

HYPOTHESIS 4.7: Experience as an expatriate will be positively related to interna- tional business knowledge and cultural adaptability.

Results and Discussion For purposes of this report, cosmopolitanism was operationalized in two ways. Both ap-

proaches took into account early and later life experience. They differed, however, in the way

they related to the model. We first operationalized cosmopolitanism as a continuous variable (the linear addition of number of languages currently spoken, number of countries lived in, number of languages spoken before age 13, and number of countries educated in) because we believed that

a combination of experiences contribute to the development of cosmopolitanism. We did not hypothesize that job complexity would affect the relationships between cosmopolitanism and any of the other variables in the model. Hypotheses 4.1, 4.4, and 4.6 were examined using an additive

variable—cosmopolitanism. Results indicated that an individual’s level of cosmopolitanism was negatively related to the bosses’ ratings of internal relationships (r = –.182, p < .015), but was not related to bosses’ ratings of other criterion variables (Hypothesis 4.1). These results suggested

that people with higher cosmopolitanism scores were at a disadvantage with their bosses because their bosses perceived them as being less proficient at internal relationships than those with lower cosmopolitanism scores.

Results for hypotheses related to early and adult life experience (4.2, 4.3, 4.5, and 4.7) are shown in Tables 4.1–4.3. In Table 4.1 zero-order correlations between experience variables and effectiveness criteria are presented. Hypothesis 4.2 was not supported. In fact, for managers in

the high global condition, number of countries educated in and number of languages spoken as a child and as an adult were negatively correlated with the criterion measures interpersonal relationships and contextually adept. Number of countries educated in was also negatively

correlated with interpersonal relationships for managers in domestic jobs. For the local-boss ratings, time in role was negatively correlated with interpersonal relationships.

Hypothesis 4.3 was not supported (see Table 4.2). Results indicated that cosmopolitanism

was not correlated with openness (r = .067, p < .332). This result suggested that openness as measured in the NEO PI-R was not necessarily related to the type of past international experience captured by the cosmopolitanism variable. Hypothesis 4.4, which predicted an association

between adult life experience and the trait openness, was also not supported. As seen in Table 4.3, Hypothesis 4.5 was supported. Results indicate that cosmopolitanism

is positively correlated with international business knowledge (r = .481, p < .001) and cultural

adaptability (r = .388, p < .001). This result suggested that international business knowledge and cultural adaptability were related to the type of past international experience captured by the cosmopolitanism variable and is useful with regard to specific competency areas that individuals

can develop.

Chapter 4: Experience—Cosmopolitanism and Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

48 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Table 4.1 Early Life and Adult Life Experience Correlations with Boss Effectiveness Ratings

for Managers in Low and High Global Contexts

Low global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 101 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Languages spoken between ages 1–13 .00 –.05 –.02a –.03a .05a

Languages spoken as adult .07 –.04 .10a .09a .07a

Number of countries lived in –.02 –.04 –.02a –.03a –.04a

Number of countries educated in –.01 –.08 .03a .10a .11a

Years of formal education –.13 –.09 –.01 –.05 –.05

Time in role –.19 –.21 –.11 –.06 –.12

Tenure –.03 .02 –.11 –.04 .04

Expatriate a a a a a

High global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 80 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Languages spoken between ages 1–13 –.14 –.30 .07a .03a –.05a

Languages spoken as adult –.10 –.21 .14a –.06a .00a

Number of countries lived in –.08 –.09 .04a .08a –.08a

Number of countries educated in –.18 –.24 –.03a –.05a –.25a

Years of formal education .10 –.01 .02 .17 –.05

Time in role .13 –.03 .17 .06 .13

Tenure .09 .09 .11 .09 .07

Expatriate a a a a a

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Table 4.2 Early Life and Adult Life Experience Correlations with Personality Scales

for Managers in Low and High Global Contexts

Low global context n = 101 Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Languages spoken between ages 1–13 .01 –.02 .08a –.17 –.11

Number of countries lived in –.10 .08 .11a –.17 .11

Expatriate .10 –.01 .03 .23 –.17

High global context n = 80 Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientious

Languages spoken between ages 1–13 .00 .10 .02a .00 .05

Number of countries lived in –.07 –.08 –.04a .00 .08

Expatriate .10 –.01 .03 .23 –.17

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Hypothesis 4.6 was partially supported. Number of countries educated in was positively

correlated with the capabilities of cultural adaptability and international business knowledge for all managers. Number of languages spoken between ages 1–13 was only associated with cultural adaptability and international business knowledge for managers working in a high global

context. Hypothesis 4.7 was supported for high-global-context managers and partially supported for

low-global-context managers. In other words, for managers in either context, experience as an

expatriate was associated with the skill of cultural adaptability. It was not related to international business knowledge for low-global-context managers but was for high-global-context managers.

Another interesting outcome is that bosses perceived people with high cosmopolitanism

scores as being less proficient with internal relationships. This is particularly interesting given the relationship between cultural adaptability and bosses’ positive evaluation of the managers. This result may suggest that bosses are uncomfortable with people with a cosmopolitan orientation,

even though it is related to precisely the competencies considered necessary for success in a globally complex job.

Chapter 4: Experience—Cosmopolitanism and Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

50 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Table 4.3 Early Life and Adult Life Experience Correlations with Selected Capabilities

for Managers in Low and High Global Contexts

Low global context International n = 101 Perspective taking Cultural adaptability business knowledge

Languages spoken between ages 1–13 a a a

Expatriate –.02 –.27a .03a

High global context International n = 80 Perspective taking Cultural adaptability business knowledge

Languages spoken between ages 1–13 a a a

Number of countries lived in a a a

Expatriate .07 –.21a –.28a

Note: a indicates hypothesized relationships. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20. The negative relationship between expatriate experience and cultural adaptability is the result of coding.

CHAPTER 5 Experience—The Influence of Diversity on Managerial Effectiveness

Demographic changes all over the world have intensified the cultural diversity of today’s

labor force. Concurrently, a shift has occurred toward more complex jobs and roles in multina- tional corporations. The increased complexity of roles and increased interactions among diverse people has yielded practical concerns regarding the influence of diversity on individual and group

effectiveness. Whether or not perceived similarity among group members affects workgroups’ outcomes is a target of a considerable amount of research. The relative distance between mem- bers who are perceived to be in-group members (“one of us”) versus those who are perceived as

outsiders (“one of them”) has been shown to have both adverse and positive consequences. But what influence does organizational diversity exert upon the perceptions of success at domestic and global work?

This chapter focuses on how experience with diversity influences social behavior in global organizations and in the perceptions of a manager’s effectiveness. We present several theoretical propositions that explain how individuals relate to those who are different from and similar to

themselves. We also explore how working with heterogeneous workgroups affects long-term success and the impact of the manager’s “fit” in culturally diverse organizations.

Background We have used diversity to refer to situations in which managers are not alike with respect to

some attribute(s). At an individual/interpersonal level, one can view diversity in several ways.

One way is through one’s own ethnocentrism (the tendency to judge other cultures by one’s own standards). To eliminate ethnocentrism, one must reject one’s own culture—a very rare occur- rence even for individuals who spend a considerable amount of time outside of their native

country (Triandis, 1995). Another view of diversity is based on beliefs of perceived similarity. On one hand, in a homogeneous environment an individual has a very narrow range of attributes that define who comprises the in-group. On the other hand, in a heterogeneous environment the range

of attributes that distinguish in-group members from outsiders is much larger. Many theorists and researchers have addressed the construction of the self in relationship to

the group. In the context of global organizations, one might assume that individuals would have

at least three reference groups (a group to which people refer when making evaluations about themselves and their behavior): one belonging to their native culture, one belonging to the culture with which they come in contact (Ferdman, 1995), and one belonging to the organizational

culture. LaFrombosie, Coleman, and Gerton (1993), in a review of the literature, identified five types of models used to describe psychological processes, social experiences, and general ob- stacles in the context of biculturalism, and more models exist (see, for example, Cox, 1993). But

those studies have not addressed the implications of one’s identity on effectiveness, most particu- larly when the context of that effectiveness is a global organization.

Researchers have frequently used the social identity and social categorization process, the

similarity-attraction paradigm, informational and decision-making theories, and the degree of distinctiveness (Williams & O’Reilly, 1998) to explain the effects of diversity on organizational effectiveness.

Social identity and social categorization refer to the process whereby people derive at least part of their identity from the social categories to which they belong, using those categories to categorize others as similar or different from themselves. Arbitrarily categorizing people based

on perceived differences can lead to trust and cooperation conflicts between in- and out-group members (Brewer, 1979, 1995).

The similarity-attraction paradigm has suggested that similarity between people produces

positive effects by validating the perceiver’s worldview. “Presumably, similarity in demographics leads to an inference or assumption about similarity in values, beliefs, and attitudes. . . . Further- more, a presumed knowledge of the other individual’s values, beliefs, and attitudes leads to a

sense of predictability, comfort, and confidence regarding the other individual’s likely behavior in the future” (Tsui, Xin, & Egan, 1995, p. 108). Some research has shown demographic similar- ity to be related to more frequent communication and friendship ties (Lincoln & Miller, 1979),

frequency of technical communication (Zenger & Lawrence, 1989), and social integration (O’Reilly, Caldwell, & Bartette, 1989). In other words, research has supported the belief that workplace homogeneity makes communication and relationships easier.

Chapter 5: Experience—The Influence of Diversity on Managerial Effectiveness

52 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Informational and decision-making theories (Tziner & Eden, 1985) have suggested that group heterogeneity can have a positive impact through the increase in the skills, abilities, information, and knowledge that diversity brings to the group. When the task or work can benefit

from multiple perspectives and diversified knowledge, diversity can have a positive impact. Lastly, the degree-of-distinctiveness theory has suggested that the more distinctive an

individual is, the more self-aware he or she will become. That individual’s self-awareness in turn

leads him or her to compare his or her behavior to the norms of the group. According to Thomas, Ravlin, and Wallace (1996), a large cultural difference could result in unsuccessful adaptation or decreased effectiveness due to the perceived effort required just to fit in with the group.

The depth and breadth of the literature on the influence of diversity has directed our atten- tion toward two particular aspects: the influence of experience working in heterogeneous work groups and the influence of organizational demography on effectiveness. Phrased another way,

we wanted to know if experience in managing a diverse workgroup in a domestic role increases the likelihood that an individual will be effective in a global role. We also wanted to know if experience, as part of a demographic cohort, impacts perceptions of a manager’s effectiveness.

Hypotheses Influence of experience working in heterogeneous workgroups. It can be argued that

managers who have had positive experiences managing domestic heterogeneous workgroups (workgroups composed of members who are different in demographic and cultural characteris- tics) could also be effective in an international assignment. We have indicated that relationship on

our conceptual model (see Figure 5, p. 43). Experience working with diverse workgroups may indeed become the foundation for developing interpersonal skills that are effective and appropri- ate for working across cultural and geographic boundaries. The literature has suggested that skills

which are helpful in interacting with people from other cultures can be learned by working with heterogeneous groups (Cox & Beale, 1997; Jackson, Brett, Sessa, Julin, & Peyronnin, 1991; Jackson, May, & Whitney, 1995; Sessa & Jackson, 1995). Scholars have argued that demographi-

cally diverse workgroups offer different perspectives, attitudes, and abilities: “Differences in experiences and perspectives lead team members to approach problems and decisions drawing on different information, from different angles, and with different attitudes. Therefore teams com-

posed of people with diverse backgrounds and characteristics are expected to produce a wider variety of ideas, alternatives, and solutions—and thus perform better—than teams composed of people who are similar in terms of demographic characteristics” (Sessa & Jackson, 1995, p. 140).

Research has also supported the link between group diversity and a positive impact on group effectiveness (Sessa & Jackson, 1995). Short-term outcomes of working with heterogeneous groups include the raising of self-awareness and increased social familiarity (Jackson et al.,

1995). The study of how a manager’s previous work history with heterogeneous workgroups

affects the development of interpersonal skills and the capacities required in a global role is new.

But because we assumed that working with a heterogeneous workgroup leads to the development

of these skills, two conclusions were possible: (1) domestic or local managers who excel in this area may be particularly well suited for global leadership assignments, and (2) working with heterogeneous groups can be used for development of skills that impact effectiveness. Therefore,

HYPOTHESIS 5.1: When the work is more globally complex, managers with a history of working in heterogeneous workgroups in their most recent domestic job will

have higher scores on all effectiveness criteria than will their counterparts without this history.

There was substantial evidence, however, that suggested that increased diversity in workgroups has negative effects on the ability of the group to function effectively over time (Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). Diverse groups are more likely to have difficulty integrating,

communicating, and resolving conflict. As the work becomes more global (that is, as time, geography, and cultural distance expand), maintaining workgroup cohesiveness becomes even more complex.

The influence of organizational cohort homogeneity. In addition to the impact of a manager’s work history with heterogeneous workgroups, we believed the manager’s similarity to colleagues was an important factor in trying to understand perceptions of success. Exploration of

the relationship of demographic variables and workers’ attitudes has had a long tradition in industrial and organizational psychology, social psychology, and sociology. Very few studies have examined how variations in multiple demographic variables affect work effectiveness, in

particular the effectiveness of managers working in global organizations. Organizational demography (Pfeffer, 1981, 1983) has treated demographic variables as a

compositional property of the group or unit by measuring the variance in demography within the

unit and relating this unit property to unit outcomes.1 That compositional component has distin- guished it from other demographic approaches.

Two main contributions have typically characterized organizational demography research:

compositional variables (such as relative homogeneity or heterogeneity) and methodological ease (Lawrence, 1997). Researchers have mapped most often the relationship between demographic variables and organizational outcomes. The relationship between the demographic predictor and

the outcome has been reflected in the literature as a varied assortment of theoretical explanations. Relational demographers have treated demography as a group-level variable but have also analyzed it at the individual level (Tsui & O’Reilly, 1989). “In these studies, the relative similar-

ity or dissimilarity of specific demographic attributes of group members is related to individuals’ attitudes or behaviors” (Thomas, Ravlin, & Wallace, 1996, p. 3).

Chapter 5: Experience—The Influence of Diversity on Managerial Effectiveness

1 In organizational demography, there are two ways to define the unit of analysis: individual-level similarity or dissimilarity, and unit level. The individual measure compares all members of the group to each other so that each individual receives a score. At the unit level, the whole group gets a score.

54 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Lawrence (1997) characterized five defining boundaries of organizational demography: (1) the demographic unit selected for the study, (2) the attributes of the demographic unit, (3) the domain in which the attributes are studied, (4) the measures of the attributes, and (5) the mecha-

nism by which the attributes predict outcomes. The demographic unit can range from small (such as an individual) to large (such as an industry). The unit is the entity to which theoretical gener- alizations are made. Attributes of the demographic unit are the characteristics used to depict the

subject matter under study (such as organizational tenure). The domain is the context in which a demographic unit is studied. The domain’s level of analysis is higher than or equal to the demo- graphic unit under study. Domains also range in size from dyads or groups to organizational

populations or industries. Measures of the attribute that depict the demographic unit or domain are either simple (such as the organizational tenure of an individual in a group) or compositional (such as the Euclidean distance of group members), depending on the level of analysis of the

attribute.2 The final characteristic of organizational demography, the mechanism, refers to the process by which the attributes predict outcomes. The mechanism may be either indirect or direct.

Explanations for the effects of demography on organizational outcomes have followed several avenues, including social identity and social categorization process (Tajifel, 1974; Tajifel & Turner, 1986; Turner, 1985, 1987), the similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, 1971), and the

degree of distinctiveness (Mullen, 1983, 1987; Thomas, Ravlin, & Wallace, 1996). Relevant variables for assessing demographic effects in international or global organiza-

tions have included the following: (1) the number of years with the company, (2) national culture,

(3) educational background, (4) gender, (5) race, and (6) age. Although all of these demographic attributes are important, some may be more salient than others when it comes to understanding individuals’ effectiveness or fit in the organization. Age, race, and gender, for example, are easily

observable; tenure, education, or field of study are not. Following are highlights from past research and our thoughts on the relative importance of each demographic attribute.

Number of years with company. Most of the organizational demography studies have continued to use Pfeffer’s index, the tenure or length-of-service distribution in an organization or its top-management team, as the demographic variable of primary interest.3 Effectiveness mea- sures examined across these studies have varied. They have included turnover, innovation,

diversification, and adaptiveness (Carroll & Harrison, 1998; Tsui, Egan, & Xin, 1995). A preponderance of evidence has shown a positive relationship between organizational

tenure and increased group effectiveness. Arguments for this positive relationship have been

consistent with social categorization and similarity-attraction theories (Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). According to Tsui and O’Reilly (1989), the cause of the relational demographic effects are

2 The Euclidean distance measure computationally is the square root of the individual’s mean squared distance from the other members in the group on any demographic variable.

3 The coefficient of variation in tenure has also become the most common measure of length-of-service hetero- geneity. The measure is calculated as the standard deviation of tenure over the mean of tenure.

often attributed to a combination of high-level attraction based on similar experiences, attitudes, and values (see Byrne, 1971; Byrne, Clore, & Smeaton, 1996), and strong communication among the interacting members (Roberts & O’Reilly, 1979). As tenure in organizations increases,

employees gain a better understanding of policies and procedures. In general, tenure acts as an indicator of organizational experiences (Zenger & Lawrence, 1989).

It may be that executives who are similar in their length of service to the organization have

gained a better understanding of the organization through their shared experiences resulting in overall effectiveness. Based on this view, our resulting hypothesis was

HYPOTHESIS 5.2: As the similarity of an individual’s organizational tenure to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effective- ness increases.

National culture. An increase in research on the impact of multicultural differences in organizational behavior has accompanied the rising number of companies expanding into interna-

tional markets. Many of the studies have focused on cultural differences in terms of values, norms, and assumptions (Adler, 1991; Hofstede, 1980; Schwartz, 1994; Triandis, 1995). Accord- ing to Triandis, Kurowski, and Gelfand (1994), to the extent that cultures share objective ele-

ments (such as language, religion, political systems, or economic systems) or subjective ones (values, attitudes, beliefs, norms, roles), they are considered similar. Triandis (1995) further concluded that different cultural groups have a higher chance of unification if they (a) share goals

and equal status, (b) have a shared membership, (c) maintain frequent contact and a shared network, and (d) are encouraged by the organization to view each other in a positive light.

The more a person’s national culture identity is distinct from others in the workgroup, the

more difficult it will be for the members of the workgroup to perceive each other as similar. One might conclude that one of the most important factors in understanding diversity in international organizations is how national culture affects social behavior. A large cultural distance may in fact

make individuals more self-aware, resulting in their having difficulty adjusting and being ac- cepted by the workgroup. Thus:

HYPOTHESIS 5.3: As the similarity of an individual’s national culture to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases.

Educational background. Educational achievement can be proxy for status and power within organizations. In the United States, for example, it is often assumed that senior-level

people have more education than their direct reports. People believed to have different levels of education are often assumed to differ in their knowledge, skills, and abilities. It is not uncommon to find people who have similar educational backgrounds performing similar tasks within organi-

zations.

Chapter 5: Experience—The Influence of Diversity on Managerial Effectiveness

56 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Unlike the demographic attributes discussed previously, however, the literature has reported that increased diversity in educational background improves effectiveness (Hambrick, Cho, & Chen, 1996; Wiersema & Bantel, 1992) and in some cases communication (Glick, Miller, &

Huber, 1993; Jenn, Northcraft, & Neale, 1997). Therefore,

HYPOTHESIS 5.4: As the dissimilarity of an individual’s educational attainment

(college degree, for example) to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases.

Gender and race. There was enough support in the literature to treat gender and race effects separately. In the organizational demography literature, however, the two attributes often were examined together. Likewise, we have introduced them together in this report.

Gender and racial distinctiveness cannot be suppressed. The lack of representation of women and people of color in senior-level managerial positions has not gone unnoticed. For those who historically have been denied managerial opportunities and who have lacked clear role

models from which to learn, two additional struggles were reported to have precedence. Accord- ing to Ruderman and Hughes-James (1998), managing multiple identities and fitting in are particularly difficult for women and people of color as they develop their self-identities as lead-

ers. Some research has suggested that for white women there is a limited range of acceptable behavior that is more stereotypically masculine than feminine (Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1992). Because of a lack of role models or coaches, people of color have to identify those accept-

able behaviors themselves (Ruderman & Hughes-James, 1998). Specific to the organizational demography literature, differences in gender and race were

shown to relate negatively to psychological commitment and intent to stay, and positively to

frequency in absence (Tsui, Egan, & O’Reilly, 1992). Konrad, Winter, and Gutek (1992) found that minority women were more likely to experience dissatisfaction and organizational isolation. In a more recent study, Tsui and Egan (1994) found no differences in the level of direct reports’

citizenship behaviors when they were rated by a boss of the same race. White supervisors rated nonwhite subordinates lower than white subordinates, and white subordinates were rated highest by nonwhite supervisors.

To add to the confusion of the influence of diversity on workgroups, Wharton and Baron (1987), in an investigation of the effects of occupational gender desegregation of men, found that men in mixed-gender work settings reported significantly lower levels of satisfaction and a

higher level of depression than men in either female- or male-dominated work settings. Further, they found that working among mixed-gender groups may take on different meanings for men than for women. Gender self-categorization for men appeared to be more important (for men,

being male is more important than being female is for women), and gender was a symbolic representation of certain occupations—such as senior management—in organizations (Tsui, Egan, & O’Reilly, 1992). Because it is likely that an international organization will have a greater

distribution of diversity in its workforce, we propose the following:

HYPOTHESIS 5.5: As the similarity of an individual’s gender to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness in- creases.

HYPOTHESIS 5.6: As the similarity of an individual’s race to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases.

Age. Similarly aged employees often have common experiences outside of work, which have tended to produce employees who share similar attitudes, beliefs, and interests inside and

outside of the organization (Rhodes, 1983; Zenger & Lawrence, 1989). According to Zenger and Lawrence, “the youngest employees tend to be unmarried, and slightly older employees may be newly married with young children. Middle-aged employees may be divorced and have parents

who need special care, and older employees tend to look forward to quiet lives without depen- dents and with grandchildren” (p. 365).

Studies have shown a positive relationship between age and job satisfaction (Hunt & Saul,

1975; Kalleberg & Loscocco, 1983), age and job involvement (Saal, 1978), age and commitment (Morris & Sherman, 1981), and age, tenure, and frequency of technical communication (Zenger & Lawrence, 1989). Tsui, Egan, and Xin (1995) pointed out that many organizational demogra-

phy studies have included age and tenure as independent variables to test Pfeffer’s (1983) tenure demography theory (see, for example, Bantel & Jackson, 1989; Murry, 1989; Jackson, Brett, Sessa, Julin, & Peyronnin, 1991; Tsui, Egan, & O’Reilly, 1992; Tsui & O’Reilly, 1989; Wagner,

Pfeffer, & O’Reilly, 1984; Wiersema & Bantel, 1992; Zenger & Lawrence, 1989). Pfeffer argued that age and tenure distributions are not perfectly correlated and that they should be kept distinct.

In international organizations it may be that age similarity produces similarity in general

attitudes about work that result in overall effectiveness. Therefore,

HYPOTHESIS 5.7: As the similarity of an individual’s age to that of others in a group

increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases.

Results and Discussion The Euclidean distance formula was used to measure each individual’s dissimilarity from

the group on attributes, age, sex, race, country of current residence, and native country (see Jackson et al., 1991). The Euclidian distance provides a measure of the individual’s dissimilarity

from the group on each attribute individually, with possible scores for each attribute ranging from 0 (no difference from the group) to 1 (different from every member of the group). Zero-order correlations were conducted between demographic variables and effectiveness criteria.

The results of the influence of experience working in heterogeneous workgroups can be seen in Table 5.1. Hypothesis 5.1 was not supported.

Chapter 5: Experience—The Influence of Diversity on Managerial Effectiveness

58 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Table 5.1 Heterogeneity of Group in Most Recent Domestic Job Correlated with Effectiveness

Ratings for Managers in Low and High Global Contexts

Low global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 93 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Sex .15 .15 .08 .01 .17

Residence .03 .03 .02 –.01 .02

Race –.25 –.20 –.14 –.09 –.10

Native country –.02 .06 .06 .01 .09

Age –.04 –.08 .05 .05 .04

High global Managing Knowledge context and Interpersonal and Success Contextually n = 68 leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Sex –.14 –.03 –.25 –.26 –.12

Residence .12 .05 .10 .11 .19

Race .07 .14 –.06 .04 .07

Native country .14 .22 .02 .23 .19

Age .07 .03 –.04 .00 –.05

Note: All global relationships were hypothesized to be significant. Bold items are significant at the .05 level or greater and when the correlation is at a magnitude of at least .20.

Previous experience working with diverse groups does not enhance managerial effective- ness as expected. There is in fact a negative relationship between boss effectiveness rating and

experience managing people of a different gender in the high global condition. Because 89% of our sample was male, it is most likely females who, on the basis of gender, reported high scores on difference from others in the former workgroup. Although men and women did not receive

significantly different criterion scores from bosses, there was a trend for bosses to give lower scores to women than to men. It is unclear whether this result means that if a manager has experi- ence working with people of the opposite sex that manager is less likely to be effective in a

global role, or that women are more likely to receive low scores from their bosses than are men when the work is global in scope. The same line of thought holds for the significant finding regarding race for local managers.

The Euclidean distance measure was also used to test the influence of organizational cohort homogeneity on perceptions of effectiveness. For this analysis, however, individuals’ demo- graphic similarity with their cohort group (company) was examined within each participating

organization. Because we framed our hypotheses in terms of similarity, we expected to find negative correlations. The results are displayed in Tables 5.2–5.5.

As shown in Table 5.2 less than half of the demographic variables were negatively corre- lated with bosses’ ratings of effectiveness. We did find a modest but statistically significant association between an increase in years of education distance and bosses’ ratings of individuals’

contextual adeptness and managing and leading. In other words, managers who are different from their cohort in terms of their education were perceived to be more effective on two of the five criterion measures. Another statistically significant association was found among the cohort

in company A’s native country distance and success orientation. These results suggested that being dissimilar from others in terms of education and nationality may positively affect percep- tions of effectiveness.

Table 5.2 Correlations Between Organizational Demographic Variables and

Managerial Effectiveness for Company A

Managing Knowledge and Interpersonal and Success Contextually leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Age distance –.15 –.15 –.10 –.18 .07

Native country distance .17 .19 .11 .25 .09

Years with company distance –.17 .03 –.03 –.03 –.12

Years of education distance .22 .20 .12 .13 .25

Race distance .09 .10 –.00 .15 .01

Sex distance .07 .05 .01 –.03 .05

Note. Bold correlations are significant at the .05 level (2-tailed). Managers N = 88.

For the executive cohort in company B (Table 5.3), over half of the demographic variables were negatively correlated with bosses’ ratings of effectiveness even though these relationships were not statistically significant. We did find a modest association between an increase in years with the company distance and a decrease in bosses’ ratings of individuals’ interpersonal rela-

tionships. That is, managers in company B who were different from their cohort in the number of years they had been with the company were perceived by their bosses to have poor interpersonal relationships.

For company C, over half of the demographic variables were negatively correlated with bosses’ ratings of effectiveness, even though these relationships were not statistically significant (see Table 5.4).

Chapter 5: Experience—The Influence of Diversity on Managerial Effectiveness

60 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Table 5.3 Correlations Between Organizational Demographic Variables and

Managerial Effectiveness for Company B

Managing Knowledge and Interpersonal and Success Contextually leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Age distance .30 .20 .16 .24 .30

Native country distance .19 .18 .04 .16 –.00

Years with company distance –.30 –.38 –.15 –.21 –.16

Years of education distance –.12 –.01 –.08 –.12 –.19

Race distance A A A A A

Sex distance –.16 .02 –.22 –.19 .01

Note: Bold correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed). A cannot be computed because at least one of the variables is constant. Managers N = 40.

Table 5.4

Correlations Between Organizational Demographic Variables and Managerial Effectiveness for Company C

Managing Knowledge and Interpersonal and Success Contextually leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Age distance –.15 .08 –.03 .14 –.08

Native country distance –.20 .09 –.09 –.18 –.10

Years with company distance –.01 –.01 .06 –.00 .11

Years of education distance .02 –.04 –.16 –.19 .00

Race distance –.25 –.28 –.29 –.08 –.32

Sex distance .11 .09 .00 .00 .24

Note: Managers N = 35.

Results for the last company in our study (labeled D) showed over half of the demographic variables were negatively correlated with bosses’ ratings of effectiveness (these relationships were not statistically significant). We found one statistically significant association between an

increase in sex distance and bosses’ ratings of managers’ managing and leading effectiveness. Phrased differently, as sex distance increases, perception of leadership effectiveness increases.

Table 5.5 Correlations Between Organizational Demographic Variables and

Managerial Effectiveness for Company D

Managing Knowledge and Interpersonal and Success Contextually leading relationships initiative orientation adept

Age distance –.00 .12 –.12 –.11 –.11

Native country distance –.02 –.34 –.09 –.23 –.05

Years with company distance .21 –.06 –.03 –.00 .06

Years of education distance .05 .00 –.18 –.34 –.01

Race distance –.04 –.42 –.20 –.34 –.05

Sex distance .44 .38 .39 .24 .24

Note: Bold correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed). Managers N = 20.

These results suggest that an individual’s demographic difference from his or her cohort can affect perceptions of his or her effectiveness. Comparing the results across all four compa-

nies, being unlike others in terms of education and nationality may affect perceptions of effec- tiveness. These data also suggest that people who have been in a job for a long time are perceived by their bosses as less effective. More obviously, those who have achieved higher educational

degrees than their cohorts are perceived by their bosses as being more competent. Finally, an individual’s being different in gender from a predominantly male or female cohort increases bosses’ effectiveness ratings.

CHAPTER 6 General Discussion and Conclusions

This report presents a conceptual model designed to help identify what it takes to be an

effective global manager. The model is based on the literature and our experience working with international executives. With this research we have been able to help answer questions about roles, characteristics, traits, and experiences of effective global managers.

Returning to our conceptual model (see Figure 1 on p. 3), the antecedent variable personal- ity does help to explain the kinds of managerial capabilities and role behaviors a manager is most likely to acquire. Personality is also associated with managerial effectiveness as predicted.

Personality was not, however, related to a manager’s previous work experience. Therefore, we have modified the model, as reflected in Figure 6 (p. 62), to reflect this change.

Experience, the other antecedent variable, was not a predictor of effectiveness. Its inclusion

in the model, however, turned out to be more fruitful than we had anticipated. Our results re- vealed a paradox for managers who aspire to be global leaders. On one hand, exposure to other

Chapter 6: General Discussion and Conclusions

62 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

cultures is probably critical for developing the skills needed for global roles. Just as the personal- ity variables share variance with many of the critical global skills, suggesting a link between traits and skill acquisition, a primarily post hoc review of the relationship between cosmopolitan

experiences reveals a link between experience and skill set (see Appendices C and D). On the other hand, managers with these experiences were rated lower in some cases by their bosses on the interpersonal criterion measure (this phenomenon will be discussed more fully later in this

section). The remaining variables in the model, managerial capabilities and managerial roles, were

in one form or another associated with managerial effectiveness as predicted.

We suggest that the revised model provides a useful heuristic to identify, appreciate, and explain the relationships among traits, experiences, skills, and capabilities needed to be an effective manager in a global role. These results show that as complexity accrues from the

manager’s simultaneously juggling time zones, country infrastructures, and cultural expectations, there is a shift in the skills, capacities, traits, and experiences needed for managerial effective- ness. We now turn our attention to the research questions for which the model was constructed.

What Do Global Managers Do? The global executives we studied placed great importance on the roles of liaison (network-

ing across organizational boundaries) and spokesperson, suggesting that as work responsibility shifts from domestic to global, managers place greater emphasis on external roles that take place

Figure 6 A Conceptual Model of Predictors of Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

(Revised)

Managerial Roles

Global Complexity

Personality

Experience

Managerial Capabilities

Managerial Effectiveness

▼

▼ ▼

▼

at the organization’s periphery. Our global manager subjects also rated the managerial capabili- ties of cultural adaptability, international business knowledge, and time management as more important to their job than did local managers. These results track with our definition of a global

manager—one who manages and leads across distance, borders, and cultural expectations. An intriguing outcome, worthy of further investigation, is that the roles and capabilities identified by global managers as most important to their work—liaison, spokesperson, and time manage-

ment—were not the roles and capabilities that their bosses identified as significant to managerial effectiveness.

What Does It Take for a Manager to Be Effective when the Work Is Global in Scope? The patterns of traits, role skills, and capabilities global managers need to be effective is

similar to that of domestic managers. The bosses of global managers say emotional stability, skill

in the roles of leader and decision maker, and the ability to cope with stress are key components to managerial effectiveness regardless of the job’s global complexity. In addition, bosses look to conscientiousness, skill in the role of negotiator and innovator, business knowledge, international

business knowledge, cultural adaptability, and the ability to take the perspective of others as significant to the effectiveness of global managers.

In regard to how personality relates to managerial effectiveness, emotional stability occu-

pies an important place. It appears that the action roles (decision maker and negotiator) are relatively more critical to the global manager than to the domestic manager. The learning capa- bilities were also significantly more critical to effectiveness ratings for the global manager.

While these results may be intuitively satisfying, it is somewhat surprising that conscien- tiousness and business knowledge were not significantly related to effectiveness ratings for the domestic managers. (It’s important to note, however, that all of these results could be an artifact

of this particular sample.) As for the relationship between experience and effectiveness, many of the results did not

support our conjectures. Neither early exposure to other languages and cultures, experience living

in other countries, multilingualism at work, nor past experience working with heterogeneous workgroups predicted effectiveness ratings in a global or domestic context. In fact, managers who fit the highly cosmopolitan profile (for example, those that were multilingual and widely

traveled) were rated low by their bosses on how well liked and trusted their peers and other colleagues in their organizations found them to be. This finding revealed a paradoxical dark side for managers whose bosses perceived them as being cosmopolitan: exposure to other cultures

through education, expatriate experience, language, and travel are critical to developing the skills needed to be an effective global manager, but these same factors are associated with negative ratings from bosses on at least one facet of effectiveness.

There are several possible explanations for this paradox. Ratiu (1983) has written that international executives are seen as being extremely effective but also as chameleon-like. In other words, the flexibility and innovation global managers bring to bear on their situations may

contribute to their being seen as inconstant; therefore, they may be disliked and mistrusted by

Chapter 6: General Discussion and Conclusions

64 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

other people in their organizations. Bennett’s (1993) work on the effects of marginality also provides insight into this paradox. Her work describes how some individuals develop an identity that is independent of culture as a response to spending a considerable amount of time living in

different cultures. Their cultural independence enables them to better negotiate between cultures, but at the same time their independence forces a wedge between their relationships and affects perceptions of effectiveness.

In investigating cohort homogeneity as one of the experience variables, we wanted to test the hypothesis that there are situations in which a boss’s ratings of an individual’s effectiveness may be influenced by how similar that individual is to other senior managers (in this case demo-

graphics—age, native country, company tenure, education, race, and gender). In three of the four companies, we found modest cohort effects, although not in the direction predicted. These results suggest that being unlike others in terms of education, nationality, gender, and tenure may affect

bosses’ perceptions of effectiveness.

How Can Organizations Best Select and Develop Effective Global Managers? To answer this question it’s necessary to simplify our initial model for understanding and

position it as an integrated framework for development. Building upon the significant statistical, albeit modest, relationships that exist between bosses’ effectiveness ratings and four pivotal skills

(cultural adaptability, international business knowledge, perspective taking, and skill in the role of innovator), it’s possible to extricate the skills and capabilities unique to the high-global- complexity condition. That is beyond the scope of this report. We have expounded on those ideas

to create such a framework in Success for the New Global Manager: How to Work Across Dis- tances, Countries, and Cultures (Dalton, Ernst, Deal, & Leslie, 2002).

Although practical uses of our model find their rightful home in that book, it’s helpful here

to discuss some of the relationships that emerged from our study. For example, readers should note the relationship between the five personality variables and the four pivotal skills. Cultural adaptability and international business knowledge are related to neuroticism (negatively) and

conscientiousness (positively). This could be interpreted to mean that individuals who are able to tolerate the ambiguity and relativity of what they know (neuroticism) and who possess the determination and persistence to learn new ways of doing things (conscientiousness) may be

more likely to acquire the knowledge and skills to do business in appropriate ways in other cultures. Individuals who have some appreciation for their own personality will have a greater appreciation for how hard or easy it might be for them to acquire the skills associated with

cultural adaptability and international business knowledge. Individuals who have high scores on the trait of agreeableness are more likely to be skilled

at perspective taking (seeing the world through someone else’s eyes). In other words, these

managers have an inclination toward empathy. Although agreeableness is not directly related to effectiveness, it is related to skills associated with taking the perspective of others. One might surmise that managers with low agreeableness scores would have greater difficulty learning the

skill of perspective taking.

Individuals who have high scores on the traits of openness and extraversion are also more skilled at playing the role of innovator. These managers are inclined to see novel associations and are able to persuade others to see these new possibilities. Again, knowledge of one’s own person-

ality preferences may help a manager more realistically set his or her development goals. Looking at the experience variables languages spoken, countries lived in, and past expatri-

ate experience, an individual with some measure of cultural adaptability and international busi-

ness knowledge is also more likely to speak more languages, have lived in more places, and have been an expatriate. It is possible that these individuals can be encouraged to learn languages, to travel, and to seek out expatriate experience with a focused understanding of what is to be

learned from such experiences. Finally, because the number of languages one speaks is statisti- cally related to one’s skill as an innovator, there is the intriguing possibility that managers who speak more than one language might also be those most inclined to see novel associations and

make unique connections. This suggests that those managers who aspire to global jobs can gain benefits from trying to learn another language even if they never become proficient enough to conduct business in that language.

Certain skills and capabilities are common to managerial work whether that work is global or domestic. But subsequent examinations of culture tell us that these common characteristics play out differently as the cultural context, country infrastructure, and distance shift and interact.

A manager (or anyone, for that matter) able to make that shift will have specialized knowledge and unique personal capabilities.

We propose that individuals wishing to develop such specialized knowledge and capabili-

ties will benefit from understanding themselves and from knowing what experiences facilitate the development of this knowledge and these capabilities (travel, foreign language instruction, and expatriate experience, for example).

Limitations Although the sample size is international, most cultural regions of the world are severely

underrepresented. These data are also influenced by rater bias. Managers rated themselves on all

of the personality, role, and capability scales. The shared variance among the independent vari- ables interfered with our ability to use regression methodology.

Finally, the instrumentation was designed by Americans, and the surveys were administered

in English. The criterion measures focused primarily on activities that occur inside of the organi- zation, not on activities that occur outside or at the boundaries.

These limitations aside, this research is quantitative in an arena replete with best practices,

interview data, and case studies of exceptional individuals. The project has considered and integrated a broad number of variables drawn from a range of theoretical perspectives that offer different kinds of relationships to managerial effectiveness criteria. The subject pool is interna-

tional and the organizations represent a variety of industry types in diverse locations. It is our hope that as we have built productively on work done by others, we have also

cleared away some of the underbrush for those scholars and practitioners who will follow our

investigation with their own.

Chapter 6: General Discussion and Conclusions

66 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

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References

76 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Appendix A: Participant Background Form

1. How many years total have you been with this company? ______________________________

2. What is your current job title and/or position? _______________________________________ Please briefly describe your main responsibilities:

3. How many years have you been in your current role? _________________________________

4. In how many countries are you a manager? [ ] one country—I am not an expatriate [ ] one country—I am an expatriate [ ] more than one country on the same continent and I am not an expatriate [ ] more than one country on the same continent and I am an expatriate [ ] more than one country on different continents and I am not an expatriate [ ] more than one country on different continents and I am an expatriate

5. In how many time zones do you work? [ ] 1 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 6 or more

6. In the time zones that you do work, how many are more than an hour away? [ ] 1 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 6 or more

7. Have you been an expatriate manager in the past? [ ] yes [ ] no

8a. In the course of your work, how many languages do you speak? [ ] 1 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 6 or more

8b. In your day-to-day life away from work, how many languages do you speak? [ ] 1 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 6 or more

9. How many languages did you speak ages 1–13? [ ] 1 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 6 or more

10. What is your native language? ____________________________________________________

Appendix A

78 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

11. How many different countries have you lived in over your lifetime? [ ] 1 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 6 or more

12. In what country were you born? __________________________________________________

13. In what country do you currently live? _____________________________________________ For how many years? ___________________________________________________________

14. How many years of formal education have you completed? [ ] 10 years or less [ ] 15 years [ ] 11 years [ ] 16 years [ ] 12 years [ ] 17 years [ ] 13 years [ ] 18 years or more [ ] 14 years

15. In your lifetime, how many countries were you educated in (please include all levels of schooling)? [ ] 1 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 6 or more

16. If you studied beyond secondary school (that is, beyond high school or Gymnasium level), what academic discipline was your main field of study (for example, engineering)?

____________________________________________________________________________

17. You are: [ ] Male [ ] Female

18. Your present age: _____________________________________________________________

19. Please describe your race or ethnic origin. [ ] Asian [ ] Multi-racial [ ] Black [ ] Other (please specify) _________________________________________ [ ] White

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Appendix A

80 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

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ROLE BEHAVIORS

Managing Information Monitor (Alpha .68)

1. Can seek information energetically. 2. Can probe, dig beneath the surface, test the validity of information. 3. Can create order out of large quantities of information. 4. Can spot problems, opportunities, threats, trends early. 5. Am logical, data-based, rational.

Spokesperson (Alpha .80) 1. Am crisp, clear, articulate. 2. Am skillful in speaking to external agencies or individuals. 3. Am a strong communicator. 4. Can effectively represent corporate interests at multiple levels of interaction in public

and private sectors. 5. Can effectively act as agent and advocate for the organization. 6. Can effectively represent the organization at social or civic functions.

Managing Relationships Leader (Alpha .90)

1. Am adept at establishing and conveying a sense of purpose within the organization. 2. Am a team builder; bring people together successfully around tasks. 3. Structure subordinates’ work appropriately. 4. Recognize and reward people for their work. 5. Am effective at managing conflict. 6. Confront others skillfully. 7. Make good judgments about people. 8. Attract talented people. 9. Consider personalities when dealing with people. 10. Am a good coach, counselor, mentor; am patient with people as they learn. 11. Bring out the best in people. 12. Give subordinates appropriately challenging assignments and the opportunity to grow. 13. Make good use of people; do not exploit. 14. Am inspirational; help people to see the importance of what they are doing. 15. Am able to inspire, motivate, spark others to take action. 16. Delegate effectively.

Liaison (Alpha .75) 1. Possess an extensive network of contacts necessary to do the job. 2. Am skilled at selling upward, influencing superiors. 3. Establish strong collaborative relationships. 4. Effectively create alliances throughout the organization. 5. Effectively create alliances external to the organization.

Managing Action Decision Maker (Alpha .87)

1. Am action oriented; press for immediate results. 2. Am decisive; do not procrastinate on decisions.

Appendix B

82 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

3. Am a troubleshooter; enjoy solving problems. 4. Can implement decisions, follow through, follow up well; an expediter. 5. Can make decisions rapidly when speed and timing are paramount. 6. Can make good decisions under pressure with incomplete information. 7. Can modify plans in response to changing conditions. 8. Can create significant organizational change. 9. Can introduce needed change even in the face of opposition. 10. Manage the process of decision making effectively; know who to involve on what

issue. 11. Am comfortable with the power of the managerial role.

Innovator (Alpha .83) 1. Can form novel associations and ideas that create new and different ways of solving

problems. 2. Can depart from accepted group norms of thinking and behaving when necessary. 3. Can try new approaches. 4. Am entrepreneurial; seize new opportunities. 5. Consistently generate new ideas. 6. Am good at promoting an idea or vision; persuading.

Negotiator (Alpha .79) 1. Carefully weigh consequences of contemplated action. 2. Can organize and manage big, long-term projects; have good shepherding skills. 3. Can translate strategy into action over the long haul. 4. Build work and management systems that are self-monitoring and can be managed

effectively by remote control. 5. Establish effective management practices for directing employees I see only twice a

month. 6. Negotiate adeptly with individuals and groups over roles and resources. 7. Carry out negotiations with multiple risk factors and unknowns.

PERSONALITY

Neuroticism (Alpha .80)

Extraversion (Alpha .74)

Openness (Alpha .74)

Agreeableness (Alpha .73)

Conscientiousness (Alpha .81)

MANAGERIAL CAPABILITIES

Knowledge Business Knowledge (Alpha .78)

1. Am a good general manager. 2. Am effective in a job with a big scope.

3. Pick up knowledge and expertise easily in a new assignment. 4. Understand our business and how it works. 5. Understand cash flows, financial reports, corporate annual reports. 6. Tap local market knowledge and use it to underpin corporate strategy. 7. Am able to analyze and choose the best format for collaboration. 8. Know when and how to call on the specialized expertise of others.

International Business Knowledge (Alpha .91) 1. Can integrate local and global information for multi-site decision making. 2. Can discern and manage cultural influences on business practices and marketing. 3. Can create innovative corporate culture to leverage unique cultural-based knowledge

and information for new product and service development. 4. Can negotiate effectively in different business environments, even with jet lag and

through translation. 5. Can apply knowledge of public regulatory framework in multiple countries. 6. Am able to make deliberate choices about how to conduct business successfully in a

given part of the world.

Learning Behaviors Cultural Adaptability (Alpha .85)

1. Can effectively select and develop people in multiple cultural settings. 2. Can motivate multicultural teams effectively. 3. Can evaluate the work of others in a culturally neutral way. 4. Can inspire information sharing among individuals who do not know/see each other

and who may represent different cultures. 5. Can adapt management style to meet cultural expectations.

Self-Development (Alpha .85) 1. Can compensate for my own weaknesses. 2. Can capitalize on my own strengths. 3. Respond well to new situations that require me to stretch and grow. 4. Learn from experience; am not set in my ways. 5. Make needed adjustments in my own behavior. 6. Am eager to learn and grow. 7. Seek out new and diverse work experiences.

Perspective Taking (Alpha .70) 1. Listen well. 2. Take into account people’s concerns when trying to effect change. 3. Succeed in viewing a situation through other people’s eyes. 4. Recognize the limits of own point of view.

Resiliency Behaviors Managing Time (Alpha .79)

1. Can set priorities well; can distinguish clearly between important and unimportant tasks.

2. Can make the most of the time available; am extremely productive. 3. Can deal with interruptions appropriately; know when to admit interruptions and when

to screen them out. 4. Avoid spreading myself too thin. 5. Am able to work on planes, in airports, in hotels. 6. Exhibit a high degree of comfort with high-tech communications.

Appendix B

84 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

7. Can balance inflow of information from a variety of sources—voice mail, e-mail, fax, cellular phones, or pagers—with the need to get things done.

Managing Adversity (Alpha .68) 1. Am capable, cool in high-pressure situations. 2. Can deal well with setbacks; resilient; bounce back from failure, defeat. 3. Am optimistic; take the attitude that most problems can be solved. 4. Use constructive outlets for tension and frustration.

Integrity (Alpha .68) 1. Am willing to admit ignorance. 2. Have integrity; am trustworthy. 3. Do not put my own ambitions ahead of the organization’s objectives.

Criterion Effectiveness Measures Managing and Leading (Alpha .87)

1. Is able to establish and communicate common long-term goals. 2. Is an expert communicator. 3. Is an inspirational leader. 4. Is an effective manager. 5. Excels at selecting and developing good people. 6. Consistently helps staff produce high-quality work. 7. Establishes and maintains good relationships with subordinates. 8. Is extremely effective in managing conflict to enhance the quality of the decision.

Interpersonal Relationships (Alpha .80) 1. Works with senior managers effectively. 2. Has excellent relationships within the company. 3. Works well with peers and other departments to get the work done. 4. Works extremely well as a team member.

Knowledge and Initiative (Alpha .78) 1. Takes calculated entrepreneurial risks. 2. Demonstrates independence and initiative. 3. Has broad business knowledge of political, economic, and technological issues. 4. Demonstrates confidence in the face of ambiguity. 5. Is professionally competent. 6. Has superior knowledge of the business.

Success Orientation (Alpha .68) 1. Consistently drives for better outcomes. 2. Meets company goals and expectations for the position. 3. Could effectively handle the most senior position in the company. 4. Uses the complexity of the job to help produce innovative outcomes.

Contextually Adept (Alpha .68) 1. Is a good judge of character, even across cultures. 2. Is effective at managing important external relationships. 3. Uses cultural difference as a source of organizational strength.

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e/ in

it ia

ti ve

.7 8

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uc ce

ss o

ri en

ta ti

on .6

Appendix C

86 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

A p

p en

d ix

D :

A lp

h as

a n

d I

n te

rc or

re la

ti on

s A

m on

g F

F M

, I n

te rn

at io

n al

E xp

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, R ol

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eh av

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ab il

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s, a

n d

P er

fo rm

an ce

V ar

ia b

le s

(B os

s L

oc al

)

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A p

p en

d ix

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a n

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s A

m on

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F M

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s (D

ir ec

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ep or

t G

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uc ce

ss o

ri en

ta ti

on .6

Appendix E

88 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

A p

p en

d ix

F :

A lp

h as

a n

d I

n te

rc or

re la

ti on

s A

m on

g F

F M

, I n

te rn

at io

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b le

s (

D ir

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R ep

or t

L oc

al )

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2 3

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6 7

8 9

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12 13

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22 23

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24 S

uc ce

ss o

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on .6

Appendix G: Hypotheses Organized by Questions of Interest

What do global managers do?

Managerial Roles

HYPOTHESIS 1.1: Managers in contexts of high global complexity will attribute more importance to the roles of monitor and spokesperson than will managers in contexts of low global complexity. (p. 14)

HYPOTHESIS 1.2: Managers in contexts of high global complexity will attribute more importance to the role of liaison than will managers in contexts of low global complexity, but managers in both contexts will perceive the role of leader equally. (p. 15)

HYPOTHESIS 1.3: Managers in contexts of high and low global complexity will perceive the roles of decision maker, innovator, and negotiator equally. (p. 16)

Managerial Capabilities

HYPOTHESIS 3.18: Managers in contexts of high global complexity will attribute more importance to the capability of international business knowledge than will managers in contexts of low global complexity, but managers in either context will perceive the capability of business knowledge equally. (p. 37)

HYPOTHESIS 3.19: Managers in contexts of high global complexity will attribute more importance to the capabilities of time management and coping than will managers in contexts of low global complexity, but managers in either context will perceive the capability of integrity equally. (p. 37)

What does it take for a manager to be effective when the work is global in scope?

Managerial Roles

HYPOTHESIS 1.4: The role of monitor will be related to the effectiveness criterion contextually adept for managers in contexts of low and high global complexity. (p. 17)

HYPOTHESIS 1.5: The role of spokesperson will be related to the effectiveness criterion contextu- ally adept for managers in contexts of high global complexity. (p. 17)

HYPOTHESIS 1.6: The role of leader will be related to the effectiveness criterion managing and leading for managers in contexts of low global complexity. (p. 17)

Appendix G

90 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

HYPOTHESIS 1.7: The role of liaison will be related to the effectiveness criteria contextually adept and interpersonal relationships for managers in high-global-complexity jobs. (p. 17)

HYPOTHESIS 1.8: The role of decision maker will be related to the effectiveness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation for managers in low- and high-global-complexity jobs. (p. 17)

HYPOTHESIS 1.9: The role of innovator will be related to the effectiveness criterion knowledge and initiative for managers in low- and high-global-complexity jobs. (p. 17)

HYPOTHESIS 1.10: The role of negotiator will be related to all effectiveness criteria for managers in low- and high-global-complexity jobs. (p. 17)

Personality

HYPOTHESIS 2.1: Regardless of how globally complex the context is in which the manager works, conscientiousness will be positively associated with the effectiveness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation. (p. 25)

HYPOTHESIS 2.2: Extraversion will be positively associated with the managerial effectiveness criteria managing and leading and interpersonal relationships when the work is more globally complex. (p. 25)

HYPOTHESIS 2.6: Neuroticism will be significantly and negatively correlated with all of the effec- tiveness criteria when the managerial work is more globally complex. (p. 26)

Managerial Capabilities

Learning Behaviors

HYPOTHESIS 3.1: Self-development will share significant variance with all effectiveness criteria for managers in the low-global-context group. (p. 31)

HYPOTHESIS 3.2: Perspective taking will share significant variance with the effectiveness criteria managing and leading, interpersonal relationships, success orientation, and contextually adept when the manager’s work is more globally complex. (p. 33)

HYPOTHESIS 3.3: Perspective taking will be positively associated with the personality scale openness. (p. 33)

HYPOTHESIS 3.4: Perspective taking will be negatively associated with the personality trait neuroticism. (p. 33)

HYPOTHESIS 3.5: Cultural adaptability will share significant variance with the effectiveness criteria managing and leading, interpersonal relationships, knowledge and initiative, success orientation, and contextually adept when the work is more global in scope. (p. 34)

Knowledge

HYPOTHESIS 3.8: Business knowledge will share significant variance with the effectiveness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation regardless of the global complexity of the job. (p. 36)

HYPOTHESIS 3.9: International business knowledge will share significant variance with the effec- tiveness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation when the manager’s work is more globally complex. (p. 36)

HYPOTHESIS 3.10: The capability insightful will share significant variance with the effectiveness criteria knowledge and initiative and success orientation regardless of the global complexity of the job. (p. 36)

HYPOTHESIS 3.11: Conscientiousness will be related to bosses’ ratings of business knowledge and international business knowledge. (p. 36)

Resilience

HYPOTHESIS 3.13: The ability to cope with stress will share significant variance with all effective- ness criteria when the manager’s work is more globally complex. (p. 36)

HYPOTHESIS 3.14: Integrity will share significant variance with managing and leading and inter- personal relations regardless of global complexity. (p. 36)

HYPOTHESIS 3.15: The skill of coping will be negatively associated with the trait neuroticism. (p. 37)

HYPOTHESIS 3.16: Time management will be positively associated with conscientiousness. (p. 37)

Demographics

There are no hypotheses for the demographic variables. However, to the extent permitted by sample size, mean differences on boss and direct report criterion scores will be examined as a function of race, gender, age, and ethnicity of target manager. If indicated, these variables could then be used as covariates.

Appendix G

92 Managerial Effectiveness in a Global Context

Experience [Eventually the authors intend to combine these variables into a composite variable called cosmopoli- tan. However, in this paper they are to be considered as independent measures.]

HYPOTHESIS 4.1: Cosmopolitanism will be positively correlated with bosses’ ratings of effectiveness. (p. 46)

HYPOTHESIS 4.2: Individuals who spoke/speak more languages in early life and adult life, who have lived in more countries, and who were educated in more countries will have higher scores on knowledge and initiative, success orientation, and contextually adept than individuals who have not had these experiences, regardless of the global complexity of their current jobs. (p. 46)

HYPOTHESIS 4.3: Cosmopolitanism will be positively related to the personality trait openness. (p. 46)

HYPOTHESIS 4.4: Managers who speak multiple languages and who have lived in multiple coun- tries will have higher scores on the personality trait openness. (p. 46)

HYPOTHESIS 4.5: Cosmopolitanism will be positively related to self-ratings of the capabilities perspective taking, cultural adaptability, and international business knowledge. (p. 46)

HYPOTHESIS 4.7: Experience as an expatriate will be positively related to international business knowledge and cultural adaptability. (p. 47)

Early Life and Adult Life

HYPOTHESIS 4.6: Number of languages spoken before the age of 13 and number of countries educated in will each be positively associated with the capabilities of perspective taking, cultural adaptability, and international business knowledge. (p. 46)

There are no hypotheses for variables related to tenure and time in current role but the authors plan to investigate these relationships in their future work.

Heterogeneity of Workgroup in Most Recent Domestic Job

HYPOTHESIS 5.1: When the work is more globally complex, managers with a history of working in heterogeneous workgroups in their most recent domestic job will have higher scores on all effectiveness criteria than will their counterparts without this history. (p. 53)

Organizational Demography

HYPOTHESIS 5.2: As the similarity of an individual’s organizational tenure to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases. (p. 55)

HYPOTHESIS 5.3: As the similarity of an individual’s national culture to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases. (p. 55)

HYPOTHESIS 5.4: As the dissimilarity of an individual’s educational attainment (college degree, for example) to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases. (p. 56)

HYPOTHESIS 5.5: As the similarity of an individual’s gender to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases. (p. 57)

HYPOTHESIS 5.6: As the similarity of an individual’s race to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases. (p. 57)

HYPOTHESIS 5.7: As the similarity of an individual’s age to that of others in a group increases, the perception of that individual’s managerial effectiveness increases. (p. 57)

What do organizations need to know and do in order to select and develop people who will manage and lead effectively in the global economy?

Personality and Its Relationship to Role Behaviors and Capabilities

HYPOTHESIS 2.3: Openness will be positively associated with the role behavior innovator. (p. 26)

HYPOTHESIS 2.5: Agreeableness will be positively associated with the role behavior skills that are related to managing people: leader and liaison. (p. 26)

HYPOTHESIS 3.7: Openness will be positively associated with the learning scale cultural adaptability. (p. 35)

Experience and Its Relationship to Role Behaviors and Capabilities

HYPOTHESIS 3.12: Business knowledge and international business knowledge will be positively associated with conscientiousness. (p. 36)

Appendix G

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The rapid expansion of globalization and multinational corporations means more and more managers work across the borders of multiple countries simultaneously. Some of them are expatriates. Most are not. And although many of these managers are not wrestling with the issues of relocating and adjusting to living in a different culture, they all find themselves dealing with cultural issues—defined in the broadest context—every time they pick up the phone, log onto their e-mail, or disembark from an airplane. What do these managers do? Is it different from the work they did when they managed in their own countries, and if it is different, how so? What does it take for them to be effective when they manage across so many countries simultaneously? What do these managers need to know in order to be effective? What do organizations need to know and do in order to select and develop people who will manage and lead effectively in the global economy? This report addresses those questions as it documents the findings of a Center for Creative Leadership research study into what factors might predict managerial effectiveness in a global context.

Although this report is written for scholars, the practical implications of the work have been published in Success for the New Global Manager: How to Work Across Distances, Countries, and Cultures (2002, Jossey-Bass and Center for Creative Leadership).

The Authors Jean Brittain Leslie is manager of instrument development research in CCL’s products

group and instructor of CCL’s Benchmarks® Certification Workshop. She is the coauthor of several CCL publications, including A Look at Derailment Today: North America and Europe. She holds an M.A. in sociology from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro.

Maxine Dalton is group director of CCL’s Leading in the Context of Difference practice area, in which she manages research and development projects related to understanding how people become effective leading others who are different from them on some major social dimension. She has written extensively about global issues and other subjects, and holds a Ph.D. in industrial/organizational psychology from the University of South Florida.

Chris Ernst is a research associate at CCL and focuses on the changing role of leadership in a globally connected world. He is the coauthor of several articles and a frequent presenter on the subject of global issues. His Ph.D. in industrial/organizational psychology is from North Carolina State University.

Jennifer Deal is a research scientist at CCL with interests in global leadership, generational issues of leadership, and other facets of leadership development. She is the author and coauthor of several works related to executive selection, global management, and other issues. She holds a Ph.D. in industrial/organizational psychology from The Ohio State University.

ISBN 1-882197-72-0

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