4 papers total, Similar subjects

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8 Culture and group processes

organization doesn’t really accomplish anything. Plans don’t accomplish anything, either. Theories of management don’t much matter. Endeavors succeed or fail because of the people involved. only by attracting the best people will you accomplish great deeds.

Colin Powell, former us secretary of state

In most cases a “visioning” process kicks off an organisation design project. in these sessions executives and others gather to “blue-sky” the

new organisation design, describe the ideal future state, and lay plans for becoming the “best we can be”.

in these and subsequent sessions the cultural and group processes – typically the hidden dangers that block the route – are not discussed. because they are caught up in the mindset of the “infinite possibility”, participants choose not to acknowledge that the path between the current state and their desired future state is perilous and that they are often ill- equipped to take it. Unless design leaders ask and answer the sorts of questions listed below, they will be exposed like those scott Fitzgerald describes in The Great Gatsby as careless, smashing up things and then retreating to “let other people clean up the mess they had made”:

? how much is organisational design success dependent on factors such as local culture (both national and organisational) and human factors such as personalities?

? What specific aspects of an organisation’s culture get in the way of a change process? how are these tackled?

? Are group processes – decision-taking, making sound judgments and managing consequences – effective?

Getting the cultural and process aspects of an organisation design journey right is challenging. ernest shackleton’s apocryphal adver- tisement for men to accompany him to the south Pole in 1914 on the Endurance was rather different from the vision statement of most organi- sation design projects:1

Men Wanted for Hazardous Journey, small Wages, Bitter Cold, Long

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Months of Complete Darkness, Constant Danger, safe return Doubtful. Honour and recognition in Case of success.

in mid-trip the Endurance was crushed by ice. circumstances necessi- tated a complete new organisation design, including a change of purpose. (some would say at this point that their project had failed because it did not achieve the intended mission. however, it illustrates the point that failure is relative and must adapt to circumstances.) in the event and after months of enduring staggeringly harsh conditions, the 28-man team under shackleton’s direct command returned safely.

to achieve this took strong group processes and a robust, well-func- tioning organisation culture. indeed, shackleton’s report of the trip tends to mention only the positive aspects of these – friendly football games on the ice, and so on.2 however, a recent perspective by kelly tyler-Lewis, writing about the expedition’s base-camp party (members of whom did not accompany shackleton’s team), suggests a less rosy picture:3

shackleton’s lack of clarity about the chain of command pitted Mackintosh against his subordinate, Ernest Joyce. “I have never in my experience come across such an idiot in charge of men!” Joyce wrote, while refraining from outright mutiny.

both perspectives are probably right. however, imagine the likelihood of expedition success if group members had started with less of an idea of what they were letting themselves in for and then:

? blamed someone else for the situation they were in (a blame culture); ? wanted to hear only good news (a good-news culture); ? refused to discuss aspects of the expedition (the shadow side of

the organisation); ? were unable to make quick decisions; ? failed to solve the problems they faced; ? escalated rather than managed conflicts.

one or more of these six factors commonly blocks an organisation design implementation. (note that the first three relate to the culture of the organisation and the second three to group processes.) clearly, there are other blockers and some are discussed in previous chapters – for example, leadership issues or stakeholder concerns – but realistic appraisal of aspects of culture and group process followed by effective management

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of them goes some way towards achieving either the desired outcome of an organisation design or being successful in its failure.

shackleton acknowledges as much in the closing section of South:4

That we failed in accomplishing the objective we set out for was due, I venture to assert, not to any neglect or lack of organization, but to the overwhelming natural obstacles … To the credit side of the Expedition one can safely say that the comradeship and resource of the members of the Expedition was worthy of the highest traditions of Polar service; and it was a privilege to me to have had under my command men who, through dark days and the stress and strain of continuous danger, kept up their spirits and carried out their work regardless of themselves and heedless of the limelight.

this chapter looks at three aspects of organisation culture – blame culture, good-news culture and the shadow-side culture – and then at three group processes – making decisions, solving problems and dealing with conflict.

Organisational culture

it is surprising how few of the organisation design models shown in chapter 2 specifically mention culture. they focus on aspects of organisation design that are explicit, whereas much about culture is implicit and difficult to describe because it is socially construed and manifested in norms, behav- iours, expectations and “the way we do things round here”. nevertheless, as edgar schein says in The Corporate Culture Survival Guide:5

Culture matters. It matters because decisions made without awareness of the operative cultural forces may have unanticipated and undesirable consequences.

thinking about organisational culture at three distinct levels as shown in table 8.1 makes it easier to gain awareness of the operative cultural forces that affect new organisation design implementation.

organisation design work has a good chance of success when cultures are aligned, collaborative and open at all three levels. take the example of microstrategy, a builder of business intelligence software, which was forced into design change following an investigation by the Us securities and exchange commission.

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Microstrategy: a forced design change

nearly every element of Microstrategy’s business model has been subjected to scrutiny and forced to change. But amidst these deep-seated strategic reforms, one element of the organization has remained intact so far: its equally deep-seated culture and values.

The fact that most employees were able to keep their heads, even as some heads were rolling, confirmed for saylor [founder and CEo] that for all of his mistakes, he and his senior colleagues had done one important thing right. Their obsession with building a sense of shared purpose, their commitment to schooling all of their people in the big-picture vision behind the company’s business, and their willingness to spend millions of dollars and hundreds of hours of CEo time to create a sense of shared responsibility, had become the glue that held things together.

“The past �� months have really shown that culture is by far the most important thing in a company,” saylor says. “If we had constructed a culture that was based solely on stock price or on prestige, there wouldn’t be a reason to be here now. At the end of the day, the thing that drives people through all of this pain and turmoil is the belief that the world is a better place because of what they do.”

source: salter, C., “updating the Agenda: Microstrategy Inc.”, Fast Company, May �00�

Table �.� three levels of culture

Artefacts and behaviours

This is the observable level of culture, which consists of behaviour patterns and outward manifestations of culture: perks provided to executives; dress codes; who gets the latest technology device; and the physical layout of work spaces. All may be visible indicators of culture but difficult to interpret.

Espoused values Values underlie and to a large extent determine behaviour, but they are not as directly observable as behaviours are. There may be a difference between value statements that organisations make and the values people use from day to day. People attribute their behaviour to underpinning values.

Assumptions Assumptions derive from values, which are difficult to identify as they are taken for granted and drop out of awareness. People may be unaware of or unable to articulate the beliefs and assumptions forming their deepest level of culture.

source: schein, E.H., Organizational Culture and Leadership, �rd edn, Jossey-Bass, �00�

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cultures that are misaligned – for example, where there is a statement of values but these are not seen in practice, or are not open, for example where there is finger-pointing and back-biting – must be changed as part of the organisation design process if there is to be any chance of success.

culture change is easy to effect at one level, for example changing the dress-code, or giving everyone the same size of office or workspace. changing behaviour is harder and takes time, patience and resilience – as anyone with children (or dogs) knows. A tv series, Super Nanny, provides a model for behaviour change that organisation designers could well learn from:6

Her simple methods stress consistency, communication and reasonable consequences for poor behaviour, all delivered with loving firmness. she emphasizes the importance of spelling out the new rules of the household to children in advance, as well as explaining the consequences for infractions. she also candidly points out to parents where they need to be more decisive, more flexible or even how they may need to adjust their expectations of a child’s readiness for certain behaviours.

however, as with individuals so with organisations: it gets progres- sively more difficult to change espoused values and assumptions and it is at these levels that culture change is either not addressed in organisation design projects and/or fails to take root. three types of culture which are particularly hostile to new organisation design and thus are essential to change are the blame culture, the good-news culture and the shadow-side culture.

The blame culture briefly, a blame culture is one where there is a search for someone or something to attribute lapses, mistakes or misdeeds to. in other words, people in a blame culture seek to pin responsibility, usually for a wrong action, on someone or something other than themselves.

the example of the response to an internet virus, discussed in relation to a generalised “software culture” similar to that found in many organ- isation’s it departments, illustrates the fact that blame cultures cost money, cut productivity, hinder innovation and learning, build dysfunctional rela- tionships and stem the flow of good information.

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Blame culture: response to an internet virus

This winter [�00�], a worm known as slammer rattled the internet violently enough to become what you might call a “Cnn-level virus” – that is, it burrowed its way into the national consciousness.

The old game was to blame Microsoft. “Microsoft did not protect its customers”, read a letter to the New York Times after the Melissa virus hit in �999. A year later, after the I Love You virus infected Microsoft outlook, a Washington Post editorial stated: “This is a software development problem.”

slammer, though, hasn’t followed the old pattern. A developing consensual wisdom suggests that as woeful as Microsoft’s products may be, CIos have been equally sloppy. A February poll of more than �00 IT professionals, by antivirus company sophos, showed that 6�% of respondents blamed their peers’ lax security practices for slammer. only ��% blamed Microsoft.

What frustrates … security experts is the fact that this seemingly intractable problem is actually quite tractable. The tools and strategies to prevent another slammer are just waiting to be used. In fact, the number of tools and strategies available – and available at a reasonable cost – makes it inexcusable for any CIo to fiddle while the software burns.

There is, after all, $60 billion on the table. A �00� study by the national Institute of standards and Technology (nIsT) developed that number to describe buggy software’s cost to the national economy. Improved software testing alone, nIsT suggests, could shave $�� billion off that.

Why can’t the software community motivate itself to grab all that cash? The answer lies in software culture.

source: Berinato, s., “The Bug stops Here”, CIO Magazine, May �00�

the three levels of a blame culture typically appear as listed in table 8.2. organisation design projects do not succeed in blame cultures because,

inevitably, the project implementation process hits snags, bottlenecks and unforeseen circumstances. Although shackleton’s expedition hit all of these the prevailing culture was not one of blame, illustrating the point that in difficult conditions success relies on a culture of being accountable and taking responsibility. People know that “the buck stops here” and are able and confident to admit to errors, work with the situation as it is and learn from it, not waste time and energy casting around to find someone to scapegoat.

An example of successful culture change is motorola, where ceo

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ed Zander turned around a blame culture. the organisation has seen a number of changes since he joined in 2004, one of which is the way that teams have learned to co-operate to develop new handsets:7

Co-operation improved … because each group became willing to try something difficult that might help the others – without worrying too much about who would get blamed if they failed.

this sort of atmosphere is hard to achieve unless the boss takes it seriously, and unless everyone in the company knows that the rules really have changed. by encouraging motorola’s people to push themselves in this way, mr Zander has changed the company’s frame of mind.

The good-news culture similar to a blame culture is the good-news culture. here people refuse to listen to the operational realities of a situation that is not going as planned. the three levels of a good-news culture are illustrated in table 8.3.

Good-news cultures often reflect the need of leaders to have their image of themselves as successful leaders bolstered. consequently, people in these cultures are not valued for their success in their jobs but for their ability to provide evidence that things are going well, do deals and make their superiors look good. typically, senior executives are unwilling to hear anything which suggests that there are problems.

bob Woodward in his book State of Denial illustrates the good-news culture in action in his description of Jay Garner, head of the iraq Postwar Planning office, meeting President bush:8

of course with all the stories, jocularity, buddy-buddy talk, bluster and confidence in the oval office, garner had left out the headline. He had

Table �.� three levels of blame culture

Artefacts and behaviours

CYA (cover your arse) behaviour “If at first you don’t succeed, remove all evidence you ever tried”

Espoused values “Eagles may soar high, but weasels don’t get sucked into jet engines” The secret of success is knowing whom to blame for your failures no single raindrop believes it is to blame for the flood

Assumptions People are out to get you someone will stab you in the back if you’re not careful The harder you try the dumber you look

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not mentioned the problems he saw, or even hinted at them. He did not tell Bush about the three tragic mistakes. once again the aura of the presidency had shut out the most important news – the bad news.

It was only one example of a visitor to the oval office not telling the president the whole story or the truth. Likewise, in these moments where Bush had someone from the field there in the chair beside him, he did not press, did not try to open the door himself and ask what the visitor had seen and thought. The whole atmosphere too often resembled a royal court, with Cheney and rice in attendance, some upbeat stories, exaggerated good news, and a good time had by all.

in another example, the good-news culture prevailing at the national Australia bank led to massive foreign-currency losses:9

A key finding of both the Australian Prudential regulation Authority report and a controversial PricewaterhouseCoopers investigation into the currency losses was the need for sweeping changes to the bank’s culture.

It was described as being too bureaucratic and focused on process and documentation, rather than understanding the substance of issues, “taking responsibility and resolving matters”.

All levels of management were criticised for encouraging a “good news culture” that cocooned top decision makers from information that might have enabled the bank to avoid a string of corporate mishaps, ranging from the $�.� billion Homeside losses to the currency scandal.

the issue for people introducing new organisation designs into a good news culture is that they feel pressured to cover up aspects of the project

Table �.� three levels of good-news culture

Artefacts and behaviours

Present data selectively to show only the good news Push bad news under the carpet Dismiss negative findings or make them more palatable

Espoused values You aren’t being paid to do what you believe is right Avoid candour remain cocooned

Assumptions You’ll be punished for being the bearer of bad news It is a career limiter to discuss difficulties openly There’s no support for admitting errors or mistakes

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implementation that would be better exposed and dealt with before it gets too late or spins out of control. helen Fraser, formerly managing director of Penguin books, makes the point:10

You have to make it easy for someone to be able to tell you the bad news. We all like hearing good news, but they have to be able to tell you that they have made the most terrible mistake and know that you won’t completely lose it. The mistakes may not always be redeemable, but you hope you have learned for next time.

The shadow-side culture in his book Working the Shadow Side, Gerard egan defines the shadow- side culture as:11

All the important activities and arrangements that do not get identified, discussed, and managed in decision-making forums that can made a difference. The shadow side deals with the covert, the undiscussed, the undiscussable, and the unmentionable. It includes arrangements not found in organisational manuals and company documents or on organisational charts.

Although it appears from this definition that there is something wrong about the shadow side, this is not necessarily the case. And characterising the shadow side in terms of three levels of culture is not helpful as it does not exhibit in that way. A better way is to think of the organisation’s culture as being a brain with a left and right hemisphere: the left being the rational, logical side and the right being the intuitive, and creative. Using this analogy the two sides manifest as shown in table 8.4.

taking this brain analogy, it is clear that having a shadow side is normal and that organisations are likely to survive best by working with both parts of the “brain”, in exactly the same way that human potential is realised through the whole brain and not through only one hemisphere. Unfortu- nately, organisation design projects are often initiated and planned using predominantly the rational (left side) of the cultural brain which means that the mess, unpredictability and chaos of day-to-day implementation creates anxiety and lack of confidence in project leaders. those that have the skills to engage openly in the right side of the cultural brain as well as the left are more likely to adapt, innovate and find creative solutions as they work on their design.

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Group processes

organisation design work depends on groups of people being able to work effectively together to meet the project’s goals. this is easier said than done. Although group members may know what they have to achieve – the outcomes or objectives – they may lack skills to do it. conse- quently, groups commonly stall on things like making decisions, problem- solving, handling conflicts, communication and boundary management (which includes obtaining resources, sharing information, admitting people into the group, and relationships between the group and the wider organisation/environment). A meeting at marks & spencer when sir richard Greenbury was running the company illustrates difficulties on almost all these counts:12

one of greenbury’s former aides said: “The thing about rick is he never understood the impact he had on people – people were just too scared to say what they thought. I remember one meeting we had to discuss a new policy and two or three directors got me on one side beforehand and said they were really unhappy about it. Then rick made his presentation and asked for views. There was total silence until one said, ‘Chairman we are all �00% behind you on this one.’ And that was the end of the meeting.”

Group process knowledge and skill in handling interpersonal dynamics are critical competences for organisation designers because they work with a range of groups including project teams, advisory committees, task- forces, steering boards and stakeholder constituencies. Without the process skills to build confidence, bring people along, generate commitment and

Table �.� rational and shadow sides of an organisation

Rational elements (left hemisphere) Non-rational shadow-side elements (right hemisphere)

Directives strategic plans organisation charts Job titles Policies Training courses Budgets

Trust Friendships Jealousy Fear and insecurity Power struggles Ambition grapevine

source: “An Introduction to the shadow side”, www.organisational-leadership.com/intro_shadowside.cfm

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help people listen to each other, designers will struggle to make their projects successful.

reporting annually on what makes it projects work – and large scale it implementations are a common driver of a new organisation design – the standish Group has noted that lack of user group involvement tradition- ally has been the principal reason for failure. recognising this, the group developed a one-day workshop called the six senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste, instinct), all of which are related to developing group process skills in it project managers. this is an interesting, touchy-feely foray into a world traditionally associated with geeks and techies (see Glossary) not known for their people skills.

First Workshop: sense of sight

What is the necessary expertise a project manager needs in development to be able to fully use the sense of sight to improve project management success? Can a project manager see the future and move people and the process in ways without criticizing, condemning or complaining to keep the project moving in the right direction? In this workshop we will work together on this sense to improve the sense of sight and eliminate blind spots.

source: “The six senses of Project Leadership”, www.standishgroup.com/events/chaos.php

As well as being skilled in group processes, designers and managers who develop and use the mindset of a critical practitioner as they work will fare better than those who do not. this means: 13

? being constructively not negatively critical; ? coping with uncertainty and change; ? using knowledge with awareness of personal biases; ? adopting no moral direction, apart from the fundamental

professional commitment to social justice for others and empowering, anti-oppressive work.

Developing these skills in critical practice involves five interlocking and overlapping domains. the international masters Programme in Practising management (impm), a radically different alternative to a traditional mba, co-founded by henry mintzberg, cleghorn Professor of management

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studies at mcGill University and author of Managers Not MBAs, aims to develop managers able to manage:14

? themselves (the reflective mindset); ? organisations (the analytical mindset); ? context (the worldly mindset); ? relationships (the collaborative mindset); ? change (the action mindset).

the critical practitioner mindset that this type of study develops should be a mandatory mindset for managers in group situations where people have a tendency to do extraordinary things for good or bad. in most cases the good things go largely unrecognised – no news is good news – while the bad things surface, wreaking all kinds of damage. this is cleverly documented in “the human behaviour experiments”, produced by Alex Gibney, in which past social psychology experiments are re-enacted and discussed in order to answer questions about why human beings commit unethical acts under particular social conditions:15

Why would four young men watch their friend die, when they could have intervened to save him? Why would a woman obey phone commands from a stranger to strip-search an innocent employee? What makes ordinary people perpetrate extraordinary abuses, like the events at Abu ghraib? … [There is] a fierce debate about just how much the situation – or the system – determines our actions, and how much individual personalities are to blame.

three situations particularly relevant to management practice in organ- isation design work are the group processes involved in decision-making, problem-solving and managing conflict, where an experienced critical practitioner can help head off disaster and navigate towards success.

Decision-making Decisions are the essence of management. They’re what managers do – sit around all day making (or avoiding) decisions. Managers are judged on the outcomes, and most of them – most of us – have only the foggiest idea how we do what we do … decision making is a kind of fortune-telling, a bet on the future.

Thomas stewart�6

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making this kind of bet on the future is risky. take the case of hewlett Packard, a large computer and printer company, whose ceo mark V. hurd made the decision to approve an elaborate “sting” operation on a reporter in February 2005 in an attempt to plug leaks of competitive and sensitive information to the media. According to the Washington Post:17

Internal e-mails show senior HP employees who were given the task of identifying anonymous news sources concocted a fictitious, high-level HP tipster who sent bogus information to a san Francisco reporter in an attempt to trick her into revealing her sources.

in this instance what started off as an apparently good decision to find out how the leaks occurred resulted in an internal investigation into the sting operation that then led to criminal probes and became the subject of a congressional hearing. hurd explains in his congressional Written testimony on september 26th 2006:18

What began as a proper and serious inquiry of leaks to the press of sensitive company information from within the HP board became a rogue investigation that violated HP’s own principles and values. There is no excuse for this. …

How did such an abuse of privacy occur in a company renowned for its commitment to privacy? The end came to justify the means. The investigation team became so focused on finding the source of the leaks that they lost sight of the privacy of reporters and others. They lost sight of values that HP has always represented.

the result of this kind of reputational disaster, which has wide-ranging repercussions in respect of share price, employee trust in management, and so on, inevitably leads to organisation design work as roles and processes are realigned to keep the business stable. hurd, continuing his testimony, explains the measures taken:

We have appointed Bart schwartz, the former head of the criminal division of the us Attorney’s office under rudy giuliani, to do an assessment of current practices and develop future best practices so that our processes will always be legal, ethical, appropriate and without peer.

We are putting into place new measures to maintain the highest levels of information privacy. Let me elaborate on those internal policies.

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in an attempt to minimise the risks inherent in group decision- making in organisations, various tools and techniques are brought into play. simplifying considerably, these come from two schools of thought: first, teaching that good decisions come from a structured, analytical and rational approach; second, teaching that decisions are made in a natur- alistic way involving experience, intuition, sense-making, and so on. Generally, managers are taught to make organisational decisions using the first – a structured way of getting to a situational decision. A common method is the Vroom-Yetton-Jago model of decision-making, which has two steps:19

Step 1: Answer seven questions in order. each question has only a yes or no answer. Follow the tree diagram shown (Figure 8.1) from left to right. the questions are indicated on the top row by a letter of the alphabet and the boxes in the column under each letter indicate the point to ask each question.

A. is the quality of the decision important? b. is there sufficient information to make a high-quality decision right

now? c. is the problem structured? D. is acceptance of the decision by subordinates important for

effective implementation? e. if the leader was to make the decision by him or herself, is it

reasonably certain that is would be accepted by subordinates? F. Are subordinates motivated to attain organizational goals? G. Are subordinates likely to disagree with proposed solutions?

Step 2: Apply one of the decision processes that is shown at the end of the path through the tree. there are five possible processes.

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Table �.� decision processes

Autocratic decision- making

AI: Leader makes decision with current information. AII: Leader obtains needed information from subordinates, then makes the decision him or herself.

Consulting decision- making

CI: Leader shares the problem with subordinates individually and gathers their input. Leader makes the decision that may or may not reflect their input. CII: The same as CI but the leader gathers input from subordinates in a group.

group decision-making gII: The leader shares the problem with subordinates as a group. Collectively, group members generate and evaluate alternatives. They choose a solution that has group consensus.

For example, in the case where the quality requirement is low (for example, the nature of the solution is not critical), choose the “no” branch at point A. if in reference to question D acceptance of this decision by subordinates is also not critical, choose method Ai. Alternatively at point D, if acceptance is critical, ask question e regarding certainty of acceptance if the decision is made without reference to others. if people are likely to accept the decision, again choose method Ai. if, however, acceptance of the decision is not reasonably certain, opt for a consensual group method (Gii) to help overcome this.

the naturalistic method suggests that decisions are made in a much

�: gII

source: World Economic Forum

sources: Vroom, V.H. and Jago, A.g., The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organisations, Prentice Hall, �9��; Vroom, V.H. and Yetton, P.W., Leadership and Decision Making, university of Pittsburgh Press, �9��

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

YesYes

Yes

Yes Yes Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

no

no

no no

no

no

no

no

no no no

no

no

no

no

no

no

state the

problem

a B C d e F g �: ALAI, CL, CI, gII

�:AI, AE, CI, CII, gII

�: AI, AL, CI, CII �: gII

6: CII

�: AII, CI, CII

�: AII, CI, CII, gII

9: CII

�0: CII, gII

��: gII

��: CII

6b: CI CII

2.18.1Vroom-yetton-Jago model for decision-making

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less analytical way drawing on a range of sources. Gary klein presents a model (Figure 8.2) for assessing whether a team is likely to have good decision-making processes.20 the answers to the questions in each of the four areas give an indication of the soundness of a team’s decision- making process.

in this naturalistic model a team with a sound process usually has:

? high skill levels, and shared practices and routines (team competencies); ? a good sense of what they collectively, rather than individually,

own and control (team identity); ? a shared understanding of the situation they are in with methods

of communicating changes and preparing for them (team cognition);

? an ability “to create new and unexpected solutions, options, and interpretations, drawing on the experience of all team members

source: World Economic Forum

source: Klein, g., Sources of Power: How People Make Decisions, MIT Press, �999

team competencies team identity

team metacognition

team cognition

How good are the team members?

Are they still struggling with basic procedures?

Does everyone know who does what?

Do people help each other out?

Is anyone “out of it”?

Is anyone micro- managing?

Who’s taking responsibility?

Do they get crunched for time?

Do they spot and correct problems?

Are they headed for the same goals?

Does everyone have the same picture?

Are they behind the power curve?

Do they get paralysed by uncertainty?

2.18.2advanced team decision-making model

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to generate products that are beyond the capabilities of any of the individuals”21 (team metacognition).

researching the characteristics of team decision-making, klein describes a team of newly organised wildland firefighters with good processes:22

Marvin Thordsen was on location during a forest fire in Idaho, a large one that covered six mountains. He watched the command staff assemble a team of �,000 firefighters, drawing them from all over the country. They put together a working organisation in only a few days and sent them out to fight the fire. It is hard to manage an intact organisation of �,000 people, to give directions and make policies, even in stable and safe bureaucratic settings. Here, in less than a week, they were building that organisation and trusting it enough to risk lives. Why are they so good? …

The command staff met twice a day to make difficult decisions. After years of working together, the team members knew how to plan together. They did not waste time on politeness, and their egos were strong enough to take criticism without bristling. They were also sensitive to issues of morale. someone who disagreed with the commander’s action would confront the commander in the meeting only if it was necessary. otherwise, the disagreement would be expressed in private. They did not want to waste staff time on lower-priority fights or create a feeling of divisiveness.

in reality teams use a blend of the two approaches, sometimes helped by technology tools like Decision Lens or cognexus, both allowing groups to participate in a range of decision-making situations by identi- fying decision options and enabling electronic voting.

because organisation design work is complex and involves decisions being made across a range of objectives, processes, policies, systems, tech- nologies, skills, incentives, and so on (see Figure 1.2 on page 5), making design decisions usually requires trade-offs whatever the method used. John mackey, ceo of Whole Foods, a Us natural and organic food retailer, is designing an expansion to his organisation. his answer to the question “Are there sustainable measures that you wish you could implement, but can’t because of practical bottom-line concerns?” illustrates this:23

If you speak to the totally pure, you will cease to exist as a business. I made these decisions �� years ago. My first store was a little tiny store

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called safer Way. I opened it in �9��. It was a vegetarian store. We did $�00,000 in sales the first year. And when we made the decision to open a bigger store, we made a decision to sell products that I didn’t think were healthy for people – meat, seafood, beer, wine, coffee. We didn’t think they were particularly healthy products, but we were a whole food store, not a “holy food” store. We’re in business not to fulfil some type of ideology, but to service our customers.

Going through a process gives a group the opportunity to look at a decision from various angles and consider the consequences of different courses of action. but even a good process is no guarantee of a good outcome. the value of the process lies in “checking the results of a decision against its expectations, showing executives what their strengths are, where they need to improve, and where they lack knowledge or information”.24

Problem-solving some problems are so complex that you have to be highly intelligent and well informed just to be undecided about them.

Laurence J. Peter, the Peter Principle2�

From the moment the design work is conceived, organisation design teams are faced with problems that may be latent, showing signs of becoming problems, or already evident (see Figure 8.3 overleaf).

At whatever stage they are, the problems may have existed before the project was conceived or they may arise at any stage during the progress of the project. this means that organisation design teams need the skill to:

? anticipate problems before they emerge – this is linked to risk assessment;

? identify the symptoms of a problem early enough so it can be managed before it gets bigger – an analogy here is containing a grievance before it develops into a strike;

? take action on an evident problem – often design work focuses on one aspect while ignoring others.

the bp example illustrates an organisation that had problems at each of the stages shown above.

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BP: problems at every stage

An interim report into a fatal oil refinery explosion accuses BP of ignoring “catastrophic safety risks” and of knowing about “significant safety problems” at another �� facilities around the world.

The us Chemical safety Board (CsB), which publishes the damning findings today, believes that BP may have been aware for years of major problems at its Texas City refinery, which exploded in March last year killing �� workers and injuring ��0.

Carolyn Merritt, the CsB chairman, said: “The CsB’s investigation shows that BP’s global management was aware of problems with maintenance, spending and infrastructure well before March �00�. BP did respond with a variety of measures aimed at improving safety. However, the focus of many of these initiatives was on improving procedural compliance and reducing occupational injury rates, while catastrophic safety risks remained.”

source: Hotten, r., “BP ‘ignored safety risks over refinery disaster’”,

Daily Telegraph, october ��st �006

in this case the recognised problem was ignored and people focused instead on improving compliance and reducing injury rates. they failed to identify the symptoms of disaster at that particular plant with the result that there was a catastrophic explosion, and they did not anticipate the problem (reputational and otherwise) that an explosion would cause. in other words, they did not manage the risks of this. the result of the explosion is an investment of an estimated $1 billion of organisation design work aimed at improving and maintaining the site.

source: World Economic Forum

Latent no symptoms of problems are evident but that does not mean they might not arise

sHoWing signs symptoms of problems are evident

eVident There is a clear problem

2.18.3stages in problem life cycle

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BP: repairing the damage

“The report clearly describes the underlying causes and management system failures which contributed to the worst tragedy in BP’s recent history,” said ross Pillari, president of BP Products north America Inc. “We accept the findings, and we are working to make Texas City a complex that attains the highest levels of safety, reliability and environmental performance.”

some of the actions recommended by the investigation team have been completed. Many are underway. Texas City site manager Colin Maclean has established a special project team to plan and drive execution of the improvement program.

The company will install modern process control systems on major units, transition to a more powerful maintenance management system, improve worker training, remove blow down stacks and implement the other recommendations contained in the final report. The project team will also develop plans for reconfiguring and simplifying the operation of the Texas City refinery. source: BP press release, December 9th �00�, www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId=�0�

�96�&contentId=�0��96�

Problem-solving, like decision-making, is best approached in a disci- plined way, selecting tools and approaches appropriate for each stage in the life cycle (see table 8.6).

note that table 8.6 shows both rational and naturalistic tools. blend these as the situation demands and also realise that although the tools are associated with a particular stage, this does not preclude using them in other stages. remember, too, that no method can predict all possible problems as michael saylor, founder and ceo of microstrategy, ruefully acknowledges:26

What a difference a year makes. saylor is still young, but it seems as though he’s aged �0 years in �� months. His dark hair has started to turn gray. He says that he’s much more cautious as a result of Microstrategy’s meteoric rise and fall – and more humble. While he still answers questions in long, eloquent passages, they sound less like a lecture and more like a confession. “If I was a better manager, if I had had more experience, if I was more careful, if I was more competent, maybe this wouldn’t have happened,” he concedes. “It’s like being a parent whose children were playing in the front yard, and one of

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the kids got struck by lightning, and now he’s dead. You didn’t have a lightning rod on your roof, because you were planning to take care of doing that next year. now people walk by your house, point, and say, ‘Look, that’s where the kid got struck by lightning.’ It’s an awful feeling.”

Table �.6 examples of tools for each stage of a problem life cycle

Problem life cycle Group process tools for each stage

Anticipate problems before they emerge

use tools and approaches associated with risk assessment: ? Brainstorming ? Questionnaires ? Business studies which look at each business process and describe both

the internal processes and external factors which can influence those processes

? Industry benchmarking ? scenario analysis ? simulation exercises ? risk assessment workshops ? Incident investigation ? Auditing and inspection ? HAZoP (Hazard and operability studies)a

Identify the symptoms of a problem early

? spotting anomalies ? Pattern recognition ? “Connecting the dots” ? using intuition – “something doesn’t smell right here” ? Tracking trends ? seeking confirmatory or disconfirmatory information ? Comparison of past and current experience ? seeing the invisible ? Filtering out noise

Take action on a recognised problem

use tools and approaches associated with six sigma DMAIC (define, measure, analyse, improve, control) methodology, eg: Kaizen sIPoC Work-out Pareto Chart regression Analysis Cause and Effect/Fishbone Diagram � Whys

a The Institute of risk Managers, The Risk Management Standard, �00�, available to download from www.theirm.org

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Managing conflict those involved in organisation design projects frequently find themselves in conflict with others. recognising that conflict is inevitable and learning to manage it constructively rather than trying to avoid it is critical. richard Duran, senior director of human resources at ben & Jerry’s homemade (bought by Unilever in April 2000), makes the point:

I have come to expect it [conflict] as a part of my everyday routine in dealing with business issues. If we walk away from conflict and don’t understand it, we are doomed to repeat and recreate the conflict. not working through problems just slows down the process of understanding. Avoiding conflict creates tension and frustration. on the other hand, if I work through the conflict, I can both understand the other person’s point of view and express my perspective. The process then begins to build trust and understanding. I would not be successful, or a survivor, if I did not deal with conflict openly. It would eat me up inside or cause me political problems within the organization.

People’s attitudes to conflict depend on a range of variables – what will inflame one person may not even be noticed by another. conflicts are most likely to occur when a person or a group feels that their social, psychological, emotional, physical or other space is threatened, and only some form of dialogue will resolve the conflict. there are six steps in a conflict cycle (see Figure 8.4).

conflict is often thought to be a negative group dynamic, but if managed effectively at steps four and five (interpretation of situation and response to situation), it can be positive (see table 8.7).

individual conflict style and the process a group uses for managing conflict have the greatest impact on the outcome of a potential conflict situation. it is therefore helpful to know what individual and team role styles are and how conflict styles can be assessed. there are several tools and models available for individual conflict style assessment, most based on a five-mode response model with two dimensions (see Figure 8.5). A popular one is the thomas-kilmann conflict mode instrument.27

in this model the “concern for self” axis is the degree to which a person aims to satisfy his or her personal concerns or needs, and the “concern for others” axis reflects how much someone is concerned with meeting others’ needs or concerns:

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? the competing or dominating style emphasises winning at the expense of other people – it is highly assertive and unco-operative.

? the collaborating or integrating style involves high concern for self and high concern for others – it is both assertive and co-operative.

? the avoiding or neglecting style shows low concern for self

source: World Economic Forum

1. Individual or group’s attitude to “space”

2. Trigger to perception that space is being invaded

3. Frustration with situation

4. Interpretation of situation

5. response to situation

6. outcome of situation (decisions, actions, feelings, etc.)

2.18.4steps in a conflict cycle

Table �.� Positive and negative outcomes of group conflict

Positive effects of conflict Negative effects of conflict

Causes problems to surface and be dealt with Clarifies points of view stimulates and energises individuals Motivates the search for creative alternatives Provides vivid feedback Creates increased understanding of individual

conflict styles Tests and extends capacities of group members Provides a mechanism for adjusting relationships

Frustrates individuals reduces cooperation Destroys trust Diminishes performance and motivation Causes lasting damage Communication breakdown Builds stress Breaks up relationships

source: Mitchell, r.C., “Constructive Management of Conflict in groups”, �00�, www.csun.edu/~hfmgt00�/ cm_gp.htm

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and low concern for others evidenced by withdrawal, denial or sidestepping confrontations.

? the accommodating or appeasing style reflects low concern for self and high concern for others, akin to self-sacrificing and acquiescing.

? the sharing or compromising style shows moderate concern for self and for others. it takes a middle ground that involves trading concessions, splitting the difference, and so on.

A tool such as belbin’s team-roles, which is an inventory designed around nine clusters (team-roles) of behaviour, each having a combin- ation of strengths and areas for development, can be used to assess the part individuals play in groups.28 Using this form of assessment in combi- nation with an assessment of team-member conflict style is a powerful way of thinking about managing conflicts that may arise. some interesting research by Aitor Aritzeta, sabino Ayestaran and stephen swailes, who used the belbin team-role tool, suggests that:29

Creating a high performing work team is not just about putting well- trained individuals together and giving them the autonomy to take decisions. such teams also need to be built in a complementary way where different team role preferences are present and individuals have

source: World Economic Forum

source: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument

Competing (dominating)

Avoiding (neglecting)

Collaborating (integrating)

Accommodating (appeasing)

sharing (compromising)

Cooperativeuncooperative

u na

ss er

ti ve

As se

rt iv

e

Concern for others

Co nc

er n

fo r s

el f

2.18.5Conflict style model

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the abilities to manage conflict. Knowing how team role preferences are related to conflict management styles will help practitioners to build balanced teams.

other ways of managing conflict focus on the processes and strat- egies used by participants either at the point of conflict or as the conflict escalates up the management ladder.30 strategies for managing at the point of conflict include:

? devising and implementing a common method for resolving conflict (for example, collaboration, mediation, team counselling);

? providing people with criteria for making trade-offs (for example, between speed in getting a new process up and running and ensuring its seamless integration with existing ones);

? halting the escalation of conflict, rather than accepting it, and coaching people to manage it at their level. ibm, for example, runs training programmes with back-up resources for staff. one of these lists the types of conversations that might occur and suggests some methods of managing these.

strategies for managing conflict as they start to escalate include:

? establishing and enforcing a requirement of joint escalation (that is, people present a disagreement jointly to their manager or managers);

? requiring managers to resolve escalated conflicts directly with their peers;

? making the process for escalated conflict resolution transparent.

Jamie Dimon, ceo of JPmorgan chase, notes his way of stopping the escalation of conflicts as he designs the company to be less bureaucratic:31

You have all these meetings, and people come and see you privately afterward and say, “Well, I know what we said there, but here’s what I really think about it.” And my reaction is, “Hey, am I your messenger? You couldn’t say it in the meeting?” The response is, “Well, I thought so-and-so would get upset.” And I say, “I don’t care whether he or she gets upset. say it next time.” I have no problem with someone coming in and saying, “Hey, we met. We don’t agree. Here are the facts on

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which we agree; here are the things we disagree on. Can we talk about this now?” That’s what mature management does.

Case study: management of roles and conflicts

Enterpriseaccess.org is the official business link to a major western country’s government, and is managed by the Department of Enterprise in a partnership with more than �0 other government departments. This partnership, known as Enterprise Access, is an initiative that provides a single access point to government services and information to help the country’s businesses with their operations.

Enterprise Access initially focused on starting, growing and financing small businesses. More recently users said they needed help in complying with government regulations, a need that was not being met by any other government programme. To meet that need Enterprise Access was relaunched to provide a one-stop compliance assistance shop for businesses. It held over �0,000 compliance-related documents from 9� government websites and for the first time businesses were able to go to a single website for all their compliance assistance resources. one business owner reported:

It’s a real breakthrough. I’ve browsed the site and already I can see it’s going to save me hours of time and a lot of money. The maze of stuff I have to submit to comply is a nightmare and I was never sure if I got it right. The burden has almost put me out of business, but with this resource and the way it’s organised I don’t have to know which of the 90 or more departments to contact, or navigate millions of documents returned from general web directories and search engines.

The team behind the portal’s new look comprised Enterprise Agency staff and external consultants and the project had not gone smoothly. Malcolm silcock, the programme manager, said:

Quite honestly this has been a difficult project. on the client side, we’ve had five changes in the client we reported to, the government stakeholders have been inconsistent and unreliable, we’ve had to handle a lot of budget unknowns because the funding comes from the �0 partnering departments which all have the option to withdraw funding. on our side, our company was acquired which has led to team turnover with all that entails, and we weren’t sure for almost a year precisely what the project aimed to achieve which caused a lot of tension and in-fighting.

I clearly remember the day when we had everyone together and finally

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nailed the direction. It was a real turning point. People stopped blaming each other for hold-ups and there was a reduction in gossip and emotional responses. other issues remained unresolved but once we had a common goal we became motivated. We started to say “let’s do this together”, instead of “this is never going to work”. I’m really proud that we’ve achieved the first goal of getting the site renewed and relaunched. now our task is to drive traffic to the site and give the users good reasons for returning. In a year from now I’d like to be seeing an extended user base and hearing success stories that they put down to the site’s content and ease of use.

To recalibrate the project (starting again but from where the company was then) and set the tone for the next phase, silcock decided to run a one-day workshop:

What I’d like to come out of it is that we have a common view of what the current situation is, and what we would like to achieve in the coming year. To do this we need to agree why we should bother working towards this – what’s in it for all the players? of course it can’t be just a talking shop, we also need to draft a high-level plan of what work has to be done together with a timeline and critical milestones so we’re in a better position to respond as the situation changes.

silcock and the facilitator he brought in to orchestrate the day carefully designed it in the spirit of appreciative inquiry (see Chapter �). The opening session included questions like: What do you most enjoy about your work? What works well in the team you currently work with? What surprised participants was their realisation that they had successfully met their target because, for the most part, once they had an agreed direction they had managed to achieve an open team culture where they shared information, sought creative solutions to issues and valued the diversity in the team.

The morning progressed in a similar vein, and the client manager reported:

My eyes were really opened when we did that transferable skills exercise [see Tools for this case below] where we all identified the three or four things we were most competent at and I saw how much capability we had available to us. It made me see more clearly that people are wired differently and that we could use this diversity more effectively. In the discussion we had about some of the conflicts we’d had I could see that a lot of it was probably due to people trying to place their standards on others. Also we’d been under very tight time pressures to get the software right and didn’t take time to have face-to-face discussions. Had we done that we probably would have identified the root problems and solved these rather than arguing about the symptoms we had to deal with.

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The exercise on capturing achievements to date led to other insights. The software architect said:

What I enjoyed hearing was not just the range and level of achievements we’d had but the discussion around what made these possible. It pulled out the reasons why we were successful in some aspects and suggested that if we applied similar approaches in those cases where we’d had difficulties things might have worked out differently. For example, I remember a tremendous blow-up in the early stages when the technical solution failed on all counts – I don’t think we realised that some of what happened was due to our not defining our terms properly. There was frustration because some of our partners felt their territory was being encroached on, and we worried too much about trying to hide our problems from the client rather than sharing openly and honestly what was going. The client, who was our point of contact at that stage, was very difficult too. To protect ourselves we felt obliged to hide all the issues from him as he couldn’t cope with anything but good news. This led to all kinds of complications which, with the current client manager, we simply don’t have. Her view is that an unhealthy culture develops if people can’t express openly what’s going on.

The afternoon session focused on the practicalities of drafting a high-level plan, and again to the surprise of some of the participants the session ran smoothly. It began with the facilitator reminding people of some of the attributes for group success that participants had identified in the morning: listening carefully before responding, sticking to the issues in hand, keeping the behaviour and vocabulary level, not overreacting, and calling truces for rethinking, cooling off, or recovering.

six months after the event the programme manager commented:

I had in mind what the streams of work should be but as the discussion progressed I started to change my mind, and in fact, stopped even thinking about my solution and went with the flow of the group. It made a lot of sense because I was new to the project and they’d all been working on it for various lengths of time. What we came up with was radically different from what I planned to propose but I could see how it made sense to start from a clean slate. What was more important was that we arrived at a jointly agreed solution that everyone subscribed to. I must admit that I’m rather impatient and over the course of the three hours or so that it took I wondered if we were ever going to get to closure but I’m glad that I stuck with it. The thing that catalysed it for me was that graphic that the facilitator showed (Figure �.6).

My approach was going to be that of the common design scenario building

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on what already existed, and what we’ve got now is the more successful design scenario reflecting a whole view of the project in the system and not a piecemeal view. By celebrating their success and acknowledging the different strengths people bring to the table, the team has been able to find a creative solution to recalibrating the project. What’s striking is that we’re getting a lot of kudos for the way things are going. For example, we’ve now got trade associations’ support and other government departments are using us as a model of success for one-stop information and are seeking our input on how to apply our learning to their projects. of course it hasn’t all been easy. We’ve had to put a lot of effort into defining our own operating processes – decision-making, problem-solving and managing the inevitable conflicts. But it seems that this investment is paying off and we are almost able to say that the Enterprise Access project is running like a well-oiled machine.

Reflections on this case

having to redesign project organisations when they have reached specific milestones (in this case the website launch) or when some other event occurs (such as a significant change in stakeholder support) is extremely common.

Perfo rm

ance m

etri cs

Communica tio

n plan

Initiative

source: World Economic Forum

source: www.touchstone.com

Performance metrics

Communication plan

Initiative

Performance metrics

Communication plan

Initiative

CoMMon design sCenario

Perfo rm

ance metric sCommunicatio

n plan

Initia tiv

e

Initia tiv

e

Initia tiv

e

? Fragmented views of the As Is and Vision ? Many initiatives managed independently to solve

problems ? Each individual accountable for their initiative

? Cohesive views of the As Is and Vision ? Fewest initiatives managed as portfolio to drive

Vision ? Team accountable for portfolio of initiatives

More suCCessFuL design sCenario As is As isVision Vision

2.18.6aligning project initiatives with the vision

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this case is interesting because on the face of it the project had achieved success in that it was on schedule, within budget and well received. Probing more deeply using appreciative inquiry revealed a number of aspects where participants agreed that they could do things differently and much better. it also revealed how they had been able to be successful in the first phase. crucial to their success was agreeing the vision and mission of the project and thus having a common direction for their work. With this and the constraints of time and budget they had tight boundaries to work within, and were able to move from a culture of blame towards a more participative “one for all and all for one” approach. With the appointment of the new client contact they were able to move away from a good-news culture. both these events meant a shift in the shadow side of the project organisation towards a healthier, more trusting working environment. the shifting context had clear impacts on the project.

team members handled decision-making less well than they felt they should. For example, they knew they had to make a decision on data harmonisation as they were getting information in different formats from the various departments, but they had procrastinated on this which led to upstream difficulties.

they all felt pretty good about problem-solving. but looking again at how they did it, they understood that they were not using the diversity of the team to come up with innovative solutions. they had a tendency to limit discussion to people in their work streams which they felt could lead to missed opportunities.

managing conflict was an aspect that they felt they could improve on. team members recognised that negative conflicts arose over things like adminis- trative procedures, resource issues, deadlines, overruns and not prioritising carefully enough. however, team members also saw that there were some positive conflicts that they found energising and capacity building provided that they followed the “rules”: listening effectively, acknowledging people’s positions, responding without defensiveness and looking for the causes of issues rather than trying to deal with the symptoms.

Tools for this case

Transferable skills cards these cards, available from Lifeskills Publishing,32 are used to help individ- uals and groups identify and apply their skills and values to work choices. Users identify their transferable skills and then classify their level of ability in applying them, choosing one of four levels (very competent, competent, adequate for task, undeveloped) for each skill. skills cards are classified

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under data, ideas, people and things. Work values are identified by levels of importance and considered with respect to paid and unpaid work. Guide- lines and support materials are available in Build Your Own Rainbow.33

The prisoner’s dilemma the prisoner’s dilemma shows that, in certain circumstances, if the members of a group trust each other, they can choose a course of action that will lead to the best possible outcome for the group as a whole. Without trust, each individual will aim for his or her best personal outcome, which can lead to the worst possible outcome for all.

in the prisoner’s dilemma, two players act as prisoners who have been jointly charged with a crime (which they did commit) but they are ques- tioned separately. the police have enough evidence to secure a conviction for a minor offence but not enough for the more serious crime.

the prisoners made a pact that if they were caught, they would not confess or give evidence against each other. if both prisoners keep their word, they will only be convicted of the lesser offence. the dilemma occurs when the police offer each prisoner a reduced prison term if they confess to the serious offence and give evidence against the other prisoner.

this is a good exercise in group dynamics when played with a pack of playing cards (instructions are available at www.indiana.edu/~econed/ issues/v31_3/3.htm). individuals can also play the open University’s inter- active prisoner’s dilemma (www.open2.net/trust/dilemma/dilemma_ game.htm).

Summary

this chapter discusses aspects of group culture and dynamics, putting the view that successful organisation design work is characterised by a no-blame culture, telling it like it is and reducing the negative power of the shadow side. team members working on organisation design projects must be able to work effectively with group processes and dynamics, specifically methods of decision-making, problem-solving and conflict management.

even so, success is not guaranteed. returning to shackleton’s expedition:

Whether there is one book or �0, the fate of the ross sea Party deserves to be told and retold. “There are,” wrote the Edinburgh Evening Dispatch, “some failures as glorious as successes. sir Ernest shackleton’s is one of them”. no less important, no less memorable, is the story of The Lost Men.��

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