Week 2: Food and Agriculture
Feeding the World 3
© Steve Mcsweeny/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objec�ves
Aꡲer studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Discuss how a growing popula飠�on combined with changing diets is pung increased pressure on world food supplies. Describe how modern or conven飠�onal agricultural approaches lead to environmental impacts on soil fer飠�lity, water quality, air quality, and wildlife habitat. Explain the basic principle behind gene飠�c engineering of crops and discuss the environmental and health debates surrounding the development and expanded use of biotechnology. Discuss the state of the world's fisheries and describe how an indicator known as the seafood print can be used to measure the impact of different na飠�ons on global fish stocks. Discuss the difference in environmental and social impact between foods grown locally and those shipped over long distances.
Introduc�on Severe droughts in China and Russia, floods in Australia, and a deep freeze in Mexico reduced global crop yields in 2010 and caused food prices to increase across the world. Between July 2010 and January 2011, the global price of wheat increased by 66.8 percent, from $190 per metric ton to $327 per metric ton (Index Mundi, 2011). The price of many other food commodi飠�es went up by similar amounts so that in January 2011, the Global Food Price Index reached its highest level ever. While most of the wealthier people in the world could afford an extra 25 or 50 cents for a loaf of bread, in developing countries, rising food prices pushed 44 million more people into extreme poverty during this 飠�me period.
Now that the human popula飠�on has surpassed seven billion and con飠�nues to grow at the rate of roughly 80 million every year, agricultural experts are asking whether the world can con飠�nue to produce enough food for everyone. Along with total growth, people in many developing countries such as China and India are becoming wealthier and are ea飠�ng a richer diet, including more meat, which requires more cropland to produce.
The problem is that conven飠�onal approaches to agriculture lead to a number of serious environmental impacts. Aᓖempts to feed a growing human popula飠�on will, if we con飠�nue to use the same techniques, only worsen those impacts. Consider the following:
Agriculture in the United States accounts for over 80 percent of all freshwater use and as much as 90 percent in some western states (h�p://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm‐prac�ces‐management/irriga�on‐water‐ use.aspx#.UiTvhJU_YRk (h�p://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm‐prac�ces‐management/irriga�on‐water‐use.aspx#.UiTvhJU_YRk) ). Runoff of pes飠�cides and other chemicals from agricultural fields is a major source of water pollu飠�on (h�p://www.fws.gov/contaminants/Issues/Pes�cides.cfm (h�p://www.fws.gov/contaminants/Issues/Pes�cides.cfm) ). Agriculture accounts for roughly 17 percent of all energy use in the United States and is therefore a major contributor to global climate change (h�p://epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources/agriculture.html (h�p://epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources/agriculture.html) ). Large‐scale meat produc飠�on in what are known as concentrated animal feeding opera飠�ons (CAFOs) requires large doses of an飠�bio飠�cs to control disease and has been linked to the development of an飠�bio飠�c‐resistant bacteria (h�p://www.ncifap.org/_images/212‐2_AntbioRprt_ FIN_web%206.7.10%202.pdf (h�p://www.ncifap.org/_images/212‐2_AntbioRprt_FIN_web%206.7.10%202.pdf) ).
These are just a handful of some of the environmental impacts from agriculture that will be covered in this chapter. They suggest that a business‐as‐usual approach to feeding the world is not sustainable. Alterna飠�ve approaches that increase yields while balancing environmental, human health, and wildlife concerns will be needed. As these readings will demonstrate, the answers to how we can do this vary from group to group, and they are the source of much poli飠�cal and scien飠�fic debate. We start with a review of the sheer challenge involved in feeding a world of nine billion or more. The second sec飠�on documents the environmental impacts of conven飠�onal approaches to agriculture. Sec飠�on 3.3 introduces what is perhaps one of the most controversial subjects in environmental science today—the issue of biotechnology and gene飠�cally modified (GM) crops. We'll see that the GM debate is highly polarized with each side accusing the other of prac飠�cing "junk science" and spreading lies to advance their arguments. Sec飠�on 3.4 takes a look at the state of the world's fisheries and how popula飠�on growth and destruc飠�ve fishing prac飠�ces are threatening this resource. The chapter concludes on a more hopeful note with a discussion of efforts to produce more food locally and sustainably.
3.1 The Global Food Crisis—Feeding Nine Billion By the 1960s, rising popula飠�ons and stagnant world grain produc飠�on combined to create the specter of massive famine. In response, scien飠�sts and development organiza飠�ons launched what came to be known as the green revolu飠�on. This revolu飠�on involved the development of new varie飠�es of wheat, rice, and other grains that doubled yields and allowed farmers in tropical regions to grow two crops a year instead of just one. The results were staggering: famine was largely avoided in certain regions of the world and green revolu飠�on grain varie飠�es came to dominate farming in many regions of the world.
However, in order to grow green revolu飠�on varie飠�es, farmers were required to use much larger quan飠�飠�es of irrigated water, fer飠�lizers for plant growth, and pes飠�cides and herbicides to control insect pests and weeds. These varie飠�es also did beᓖer when they were planted in large blocks of a single variety, known as monocultures. This, in turn, necessitated the use of even more irrigated water, fer飠�lizers, pes飠�cides, and herbicides. Today, crop yields from green revolu飠�on varie飠�es have peaked and are no longer responding the way they once did to increased applica飠�ons of fer飠�lizer and other inputs. Furthermore, over‐pumping of groundwater for irriga飠�on and over‐use of synthe飠�c fer飠�lizers, pes飠�cides, and herbicides are taking an increasing environmental toll.
In the following ar飠�cle, Joel K. Bourne, Jr., of Na�onal Geographic Magazine reviews the history of the first green revolu飠�on and explains why it might be 飠�me for another one. With crop yields stagnant and the popula飠�on s飠�ll growing (though at a slower rate than 50 years ago)—and increasing affluence in countries like China and India spurring increased food consump飠�on—Bourne argues that we could be on the verge of a global food crisis, especially for the world's poorest. The ques飠�on is whether the next revolu飠�on in agriculture will focus on high‐tech approaches such as gene飠�c engineering or on new ways of farming in a less environmentally destruc飠�ve manner some飠�mes referred to as agroecology or sustainable agriculture, or both. This ques飠�on will be the subject of further discussion in the sec飠�ons to come.
By Joel K. Bourne, Jr.
Consider This
Using your understanding of trophic levels from Chapter 1, why does it take five to ten 飠�mes more grain to get the equivalent amount of calories from pork or beef compared to simply ea飠�ng the grain itself?
High demand for meat means a higher need for grain to feed livestock. The soybeans used to feed these Chinese‐produced pigs is imported from Brazil and the United States because China does not produce enough grain to feed all its livestock.
Imaginechina via AP Images
While it eased hunger, the green revolu飠�on also created a number of other problems, including the overuse of fer飠�lizers, pes飠�cides, and irriga飠�on that depleted nutrients from the soil. Here, an Indian man stands in a "bumper crop" of wheat during the green revolu飠�on.
AP Photo
Consider This
During the mid‐1960s, rising global popula飠�ons, stagnant grain produc飠�on, and specific crises such as the Bengal Famine prompted agricultural science to launch the green revolu飠�on. Describe the benefits and drawbacks of the green revolu飠�on, par飠�cularly as seen in India.
By Joel K. Bourne, Jr.
It is the simplest, most natural of acts, akin to breathing and walking upright. We sit down at the dinner table, pick up a fork, and take a juicy bite, oblivious to the double helping of global ramifica飠�ons on our plate. Our beef comes from Iowa, fed by Nebraska corn. Our grapes come from Chile, our bananas from Honduras, our olive oil from Sicily, our apple juice—not from Washington State but all the way from China. Modern society has relieved us of the burden of growing, harves飠�ng, even preparing our daily bread, in exchange for the burden of simply paying for it. Only when prices rise do we take no飠�ce. And the consequences of our inaᓖen飠�on are profound.
Last year [2007] the skyrocke飠�ng cost of food was a wake‐up call for the planet. Between 2005 and the summer of 2008, the price of wheat and corn tripled, and the price of rice climbed fivefold, spurring food riots in nearly two dozen countries and pushing 75 million more people into poverty. But unlike previous shocks driven by short‐term food shortages, this price spike came in a year when the world's farmers reaped a record grain crop. This 飠�me, the high prices were a symptom of a larger problem tugging at the strands of our worldwide food web, one that's not going away any飠�me soon. Simply put: For most of the past decade, the world has been consuming more food than it has been producing. Aꡲer years of drawing down stockpiles, in 2007 the world saw global carryover stocks fall to 61 days of global consump飠�on, the second lowest on record.
"Agricultural produc飠�vity growth is only one to two percent a year," warned Joachim von Braun, director general of the Interna飠�onal Food Policy Research Ins飠�tute in Washington, D.C., at the height of the crisis. "This is too low to meet popula飠�on growth and increased demand."
High prices are the ul飠�mate signal that demand is outstripping supply, that there is simply not enough food to go around. Such agfla�on hits the poorest billion people on the planet the hardest, since they typically spend 50 to 70 percent of their income on food. Even though prices have fallen with the imploding world economy, they are s飠�ll near record highs, and the underlying problems of low stockpiles, rising popula飠�on, and flaᓖening yield growth remain. Climate change—with its hoᓖer growing seasons and increasing water scarcity—is projected to reduce future harvests in much of the world, raising the specter of what some scien飠�sts are now calling a perpetual food crisis.
So What Is a Hot, Crowded, and Hungry World to Do?
That's the ques飠�on von Braun and his colleagues at the Consulta飠�ve Group on Interna飠�onal Agricultural Research are wrestling with right now. This is the group of world‐renowned agricultural research centers that helped more than double the world's average yields of corn, rice, and wheat between the mid‐1950s and the mid‐1990s, an achievement so staggering it was dubbed the green revolu飠�on. Yet with world popula飠�on spiraling toward nine billion by mid‐century, these experts now say we need a repeat performance, doubling current food produc飠�on by 2030.
In other words, we need another green revolu飠�on. And we need it in half the 飠�me. [. . .]
The High Cost of Meat
It's no coincidence that as countries like China and India prosper and their people move up the food ladder, demand for grain has increased. For as tasty as that sweet‐and‐sour pork may be, ea飠�ng meat is an incredibly inefficient way to feed oneself. It takes up to five 飠�mes more grain to get the equivalent
amount of calories from ea飠�ng pork as from simply ea飠�ng grain itself—ten 飠�mes if we're talking about grain‐faᓖened U.S. beef. As more grain has been diverted to livestock and to the produc飠�on of biofuels for cars, annual worldwide consump飠�on of grain has risen from 815 million metric tons in 1960 to 2.16 billion in 2008. Since 2005, the mad rush to biofuels alone has pushed grain‐consump飠�on growth from about 20 million tons annually to 50 million tons, according to Lester Brown of the Earth Policy Ins飠�tute.
Even China, the second largest corn‐growing na飠�on on the planet, can't grow enough grain to feed all its pigs. Most of the shor췁�all is made up with imported soybeans from the U.S. or Brazil, one of the few countries with the poten飠�al to expand its cropland—oꡲen by plowing up rain forest. Increasing demand for food, feed, and biofuels has been a major driver of deforesta飠�on in the tropics. Between 1980 and 2000 more than half of new cropland acreage in the tropics was carved out of intact rain forests; Brazil alone increased its soybean acreage in Amazonia 10 percent a year from 1990 to 2005.
Some of those Brazilian soybeans may end up in the troughs of Guangzhou Lizhi Farms, the largest CAFO [concentrated animal feeding opera飠�on] in Guangdong Province. Tucked into a green valley just off a four‐lane highway that's s飠�ll being built, some 60 white hog houses are scaᓖered around large ponds, part of the waste‐treatment system for 100,000 hogs. The city of Guangzhou is also building a brand‐new meatpacking plant that will slaughter 5,000 head a day. By the 飠�me China has 1.5 billion people, some飠�me in the next 20 years, some experts predict they'll need another 200 million hogs just to keep up. And that's just China. World meat consump飠�on is expected to double by 2050. That means we're going to need a whole lot more grain.
The First Green Revolu�on
This isn't the first 飠�me the world has stood at the brink of a food crisis—it's only the most recent itera飠�on. At 83, Gurcharan Singh Kalkat has lived long enough to remember one of the worst famines of the 20th century. In 1943 as many as four million people died in the "Malthusian correc�on" known as the Bengal Famine. For the following two decades, India had to import millions of tons of grain to feed its people.
Then came the green revolu飠�on. In the mid‐1960s, as India was struggling to feed its people during yet another crippling drought, an American plant breeder named Norman Borlaug was working with Indian researchers to bring his high‐yielding wheat varie飠�es to Punjab. The new seeds were a godsend, says Kalkat, who was deputy director of agriculture for Punjab at the 飠�me. By 1970, farmers had nearly tripled their produc飠�on with the same amount of work. "We had a big problem with what to do with the surplus," says Kalkat. "We closed schools one month early to store the wheat crop in the buildings."
Borlaug was born in Iowa and saw his mission as spreading the high‐yield farming methods that had turned the American Midwest into the world's breadbasket to impoverished places throughout the world. His new dwarf wheat varie飠�es, with their short, stocky stems suppor飠�ng full, fat seed heads, were a startling breakthrough. They could produce grain like no other wheat ever seen—as long as there was plenty of water and synthe飠�c fer飠�lizer and liᓖle compe飠�飠�on from weeds or insects. To that end, the Indian government subsidized canals, fer飠�lizer, and the drilling of tube wells for irriga飠�on and gave farmers free electricity to pump the water. The new wheat varie飠�es quickly spread throughout Asia, changing the tradi飠�onal farming prac飠�ces of millions of farmers, and were soon followed by new strains of "miracle" rice. The new crops matured faster and enabled farmers to grow two crops a year instead of one. Today a double crop of wheat, rice, or coᓖon is the norm in Punjab, which, with neighboring Haryana, recently supplied more than 90 percent of the wheat needed by grain‐deficient states in India.
The green revolu飠�on Borlaug started had nothing to do with the eco‐friendly green label in vogue today. With its use of synthe飠�c fer飠�lizers and pes飠�cides to nurture vast fields of the same crop, a prac飠�ce known as monoculture, this new method of industrial farming was the an飠�thesis of today's organic trend. Rather, William S. Gaud, then administrator of the U.S. Agency for Interna飠�onal Development, coined the phrase in 1968 to describe an alterna飠�ve to Russia's red revolu飠�on, in which workers, soldiers, and hungry peasants had rebelled violently against the tsarist government. The more pacifying green revolu飠�on was such a staggering success that Borlaug won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970.
Today, though, the miracle of the green revolu飠�on is over in Punjab: Yield growth has essen飠�ally flaᓖened since the mid‐1990s. Overirriga飠�on has led to steep drops in the water table, now tapped by 1.3 million tube wells, while thousands of hectares of produc飠�ve land have been lost to saliniza飠�on [soils becoming salty] and waterlogged soils. Forty years of intensive irriga飠�on, fer飠�liza飠�on, and pes飠�cides have not been kind to the loamy gray fields of Punjab. Nor, in some cases, to the people themselves. [. . .]
"The green revolu飠�on has brought us only downfall," says Jarnail Singh, a re飠�red schoolteacher in Jajjal village. "It ruined our soil, our environment, our water table. Used to be we had fairs in villages where people would come together and have fun. Now we gather in medical centers. The government has sacrificed the people of Punjab for grain."
Others, of course, see it differently. Raᓖan Lal, a noted soil scien飠�st at Ohio State who graduated from Punjab Agricultural University in 1963, believes it was the abuse—not the use—of green revolu飠�on technologies that caused most of the problems. That includes the overuse of fer飠�lizers, pes飠�cides, and irriga飠�on and the removal of all crop residues from the fields, essen飠�ally strip‐mining soil nutrients. "I realize the problems of water quality and water withdrawal," says Lal. "But it saved hundreds of millions of people. We paid a price in water, but the choice was to let people die."
In terms of produc飠�on, the benefits of the green revolu飠�on are hard to deny. India hasn't experienced famine since Borlaug brought his seeds to town, while world grain produc飠�on has more than doubled. Some scien飠�sts credit increased rice yields alone with the existence of 700 million more people on the planet.
The Next Green Revolu�on
Many crop scien飠�sts and farmers believe the solu飠�on to our current food crisis lies in a second green revolu飠�on, based largely on our newfound knowledge of the gene. Plant breeders now know the sequence of nearly all of the 50,000 or so genes in corn and soybean plants and are using that knowledge in ways that were unimaginable only four or five years ago, says Robert Fraley, chief technology officer for the agricultural giant Monsanto. Fraley is convinced that gene飠�c modifica飠�on, which allows breeders to bolster crops with beneficial traits from other species, will lead to new varie飠�es with higher yields, reduced fer飠�lizer needs, and drought tolerance—the holy grail for the past decade. He believes biotech will make it possible to double yields of Monsanto's core crops of corn, coᓖon, and soybeans by 2030. "We're now poised to see probably the greatest period of fundamental scien飠�fic advance in the history of agriculture." [. . .]
But is a reprise of the green revolu飠�on—with the tradi飠�onal package of synthe飠�c fer飠�lizers, pes飠�cides, and irriga飠�on, supercharged by gene飠�cally engineered seeds—really the answer to the world's food crisis? Last year a massive study called the
"Interna飠�onal Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development" concluded that the immense produc飠�on increases brought about by science and technology in the past 30 years have failed to improve food access for many of the world's poor. The six‐year study, ini飠�ated by the World Bank and the UN's Food and Agriculture Organiza飠�on and involving some 400 agricultural experts from around the globe, called for a paradigm shiꡲ in agriculture toward more sustainable and ecologically friendly prac飠�ces that would benefit the world's 900 million small farmers, not just agribusiness.
The green revolu飠�on's legacy of tainted soil and depleted aquifers is one reason to look for new strategies. So is what author and University of California, Berkeley, professor Michael Pollan calls the Achilles heel of current green revolu飠�on methods: a dependence on fossil fuels. Natural gas, for example, is a raw material for nitrogen fer飠�lizers. "The only way you can have one farmer feed 140 Americans is with monocultures. And monocultures need lots of fossil‐fuel‐based fer飠�lizers and lots of fossil‐fuel‐based pes飠�cides," Pollan says. "That
for nitrogen fer飠�lizers. "The only way you can have one farmer feed 140 Americans is with monocultures. And monocultures need lots of fossil‐fuel‐based fer飠�lizers and lots of fossil‐fuel‐based pes飠�cides," Pollan says. "That only works in an era of cheap fossil fuels, and that era is coming to an end. Moving anyone to a dependence on fossil fuels seems the height of irresponsibility."
So far, gene飠�c breakthroughs that would free green revolu飠�on crops from their heavy dependence on irriga飠�on and fer飠�lizer have proved elusive. Engineering plants that can fix their own nitrogen or are resistant to drought "has proven a lot harder than they thought," says Pollan. Monsanto's Fraley predicts his company will have drought‐tolerant corn in the U.S. market by 2012. But the increased yields promised during drought years are only 6 to 10 percent above those of standard drought‐hammered crops.[*]
* NOTE: Monsanto has, in fact, received clearance from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to market its drought‐tolerant corn in the United States. However, early trials of the crop were not very successful and it remains to be seen whether it will be adopted to any significant degree by farmers (h�p://e360.yale.edu/digest/drought‐resistant_gm_corn_poses_limited_risk_‐_or_benefit_us_says/2941/ (h�p://e360.yale.edu/digest/drought‐resistant_gm_corn_poses_limited_risk_‐_or_benefit_us_says/2941/) ).
A Change in Focus—Agroecology
And so a shiꡲ has already begun to small, underfunded projects scaᓖered across Africa and Asia. Some call it agroecology, others sustainable agriculture, but the underlying idea is revolu飠�onary: that we must stop focusing on simply maximizing grain yields at any cost and consider the environmental and social impacts of food produc飠�on. Vandana Shiva is a nuclear physicist turned agroecologist who is India's harshest cri飠�c of the green revolu飠�on. "I call it monocultures of the mind," she says. "They just look at yields of wheat and rice, but overall the food basket is going down. There were 250 kinds of crops in Punjab before the green revolu飠�on." Shiva argues that
small‐scale, biologically diverse farms can produce more food with fewer petroleum‐based inputs. Her research has shown that using compost instead of natural‐gas‐derived fer飠�lizer increases organic maᓖer in the soil, sequestering carbon and holding moisture—two key advantages for farmers facing climate change. "If you are talking about solving the food crisis, these are the methods you need," adds Shiva.
In northern Malawi one project is geng many of the same results as the Millennium Villages project, at a frac飠�on of the cost. There are no hybrid corn seeds, free fer飠�lizers, or new roads here in the village of Ekwendeni. Instead the Soils, Food and Healthy Communi飠�es (SFHC) project distributes legume seeds, recipes, and technical advice for growing nutri飠�ous crops like peanuts, pigeon peas, and soybeans, which enrich the soil by fixing nitrogen while also enriching children's diets. The program began in 2000 at Ekwendeni Hospital, where the staff was seeing high rates of malnutri飠�on. Research suggested the culprit was the corn monoculture that had leꡲ small farmers with poor yields due to depleted soils and the high price of fer飠�lizer. [. . .]
Which is why the project's research coordinator, Rachel Bezner Kerr, is alarmed that big‐money founda飠�ons are pushing for a new green revolu飠�on in Africa. "I find it deeply disturbing," she says. "It's geng farmers to rely on expensive inputs produced from afar that are making money for big companies rather than on agroecological methods for using local resources and skills. I don't think that's the solu飠�on."
The Challenge Ahead
Regardless of which model prevails—agriculture as a diverse ecological art, as a high‐tech industry, or some combina飠�on of the two—the challenge of pung enough food in nine billion mouths by 2050 is daun飠�ng. Two billion people already live in the driest parts of the globe, and climate change is projected to slash yields in these regions even further. No maᓖer how great their yield poten飠�al, plants s飠�ll need water to grow. And in the not too distant future, every year could be a drought year for much of the globe.
New climate studies show that extreme heat waves, such as the one that withered crops and killed thousands in western Europe in 2003, are very likely to become common in the tropics and subtropics by century's end. Himalayan glaciers that now provide water for hundreds of millions of people, livestock, and farmland in China and India are mel飠�ng faster and could vanish completely by 2035. In the worst‐case scenario, yields for some grains could decline by 10 to 15 percent in South Asia by 2030. Projec飠�ons for southern Africa are even more dire. In a region already racked by water scarcity and food insecurity, the all‐important corn harvest could drop by 30 percent—47 percent in the worst‐case scenario. All the while the popula飠�on clock keeps 飠�cking, with a net of 2.5 more mouths to feed born every second. That amounts to 4,500 more mouths in the 飠�me it takes you to read this ar飠�cle. [. . .]
Adapted from Bourne, J. K., Jr. (2009). The Global Food Crisis: The End of Plenty. Na飠�onal Geographic Magazine. Retrieved from h�p://ngm.na�onalgeographic.com/print/2009/06/cheap‐food/bourne‐text (h�p://ngm.na�onalgeographic.com/print/2009/06/cheap‐food/bourne‐text) . Joel K. Bourne/Na飠�onal Geographic Crea飠�ve. Used by permission.
Apply Your Knowledge
On average, Americans consume approximately 270 pounds of meat per person per year, among the highest rates of consump飠�on in the world and oꡲen 20 飠�mes as much as people in some poorer countries. As made clear in this reading, a meat‐based diet requires significant grain produc飠�on as well as massive inputs of energy and water. Review the chart found on this web page (h�p://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/06/27/155527365/visualizing‐a‐na�on‐of‐meat‐eaters) to get a sense of how much grain, water, land, and fossil fuel energy is required to make one quarter‐pound hamburger. Next, es飠�mate how many hamburgers you eat per year (if you don't eat meat or burgers, then do this calcula飠�on for someone you know who does). Based on that es飠�mate and the figures provided on the web page, calculate how much grain, water, land, and energy is required to make this level of hamburger consump飠�on possible.
3.2 Environmental Impacts of Conven�onal Agriculture Our modern or conven飠�onal agricultural system produces a staggering amount of food at rela飠�vely low costs to consumers. Americans spend as liᓖle as 7 percent of their income on food, over half of what we spent a genera飠�on ago and far less than what people in other countries spend to feed themselves. Despite this success, there are concerns that conven飠�onal approaches to agriculture—which emphasize heavy inputs of energy, water, and synthe飠�c fer飠�lizers and pes飠�cides—could impose environmental and health costs on society that are not reflected in the prices we pay for food. This briefing by staff of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service reviews some of the major environmental issues associated with conven飠�onal agricultural produc飠�on.
The following report highlights some of the key areas of concern when assessing the environmental impacts of agriculture, which include soil erosion, water pollu飠�on, air pollu飠�on, and habitat destruc飠�on. Modern agricultural techniques involve extensive plowing and manipula飠�on of soils, and this can result in soil erosion by wind and rain. Eroded soils can reduce farmland fer飠�lity, pollute local waterways, and carry fer飠�lizers and pes飠�cides into surface waters. When nitrogen and phosphorous from agricultural fer飠�lizers or animal manure wash into rivers and other bodies of water, they can promote the growth of algae, a process known as eutrophica飠�on. This can lead to decreased oxygen levels in the water and the death of many fish and other aqua飠�c organisms. Pes飠�cide runoff, pes飠�cides leaching into groundwater, and pes飠�cide residues on food crops and fruit can also pose health concerns. Agriculture also results in air pollu飠�on from a number of sources, including par飠�culate maᓖer from wind erosion and smog forma飠�on from agricultural chemicals and emissions of pollutants from farm equipment. Lastly, agriculture oꡲen involves the conversion of natural habitats to human uses, and this can have nega飠�ve impacts on wildlife and biodiversity (as will be discussed in Chapter 4). Given the seriousness of these impacts it's clear why the debate over biotechnology and gene飠�c engineering (sec飠�on 3.3) takes on such importance. Advocates of this approach argue that it will help address many of agriculture's environmental impacts, but cri飠�cs argue that it might, in fact, make things worse.
By Staff of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service
Over 440 million acres (19.5 percent of land) is dedicated to growing crops in the U.S., and another 587 million acres (26 percent) is in pasture and range, largely used for domes飠�c livestock produc飠�on. Agricultural ac飠�vi飠�es on these lands produce a plen飠�ful, diverse, and rela飠�vely inexpensive supply of food and fiber for people here at home and abroad. However, agricultural produc飠�on prac飠�ces can degrade the environment. Transforma飠�on of undisturbed land to crop produc飠�on can diminish habitat for wildlife. Soil erosion, nutrient and pes飠�cide runoff, and irriga飠�on can pollute the air and water, degrade soil quality, and diminish water supplies. The extent and degree of the environmental problems associated with agriculture vary widely across the country. Concern over these problems has given rise to local, State, and Federal conserva飠�on and environmental policies and programs to address them.
Soil Quality
Soil, as a plant‐growing medium, is the key resource in crop produc飠�on. Soil supports the fundamental physical, chemical, and biological processes that must take place in order for plants to grow [. . .]. Soil can also func飠�on as a "degrader" or "immobilizer" [the ability to break down or hold in place pollutants so that they do not enter groundwater supplies] of agricultural chemicals, wastes, or other poten飠�al pollutants, and can mi飠�gate climate change by sequestering [absorbing] carbon from the atmosphere [. . .]. How well soil performs these func飠�ons depends on soil quality. How soil is managed has a major impact on soil quality, and on the poten飠�al for various pollutants to leave the field and affect other resources.
Soil quality can be defined as the capacity of a specific kind of soil to func飠�on, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and animal produc飠�vity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and habita飠�on. Soil quality depends on aᓖributes such as the soil's texture, depth, permeability, biological ac飠�vity, capacity to store water and nutrients, and organic maᓖer content. Soil quality can be maintained or enhanced through the use of appropriate crop produc飠�on technologies and related resource management systems. Poorly managed fields can lead to soil degrada飠�on through three processes: physical degrada飠�on, such as via wind and water erosion and soil compac飠�on; chemical degrada飠�on, such as toxifica飠�on [conversion of chemicals into toxic forms], acidifica飠�on, and saliniza飠�on; and biological degrada飠�on, such as loss of organic maᓖer and decline in the ac飠�vity of soil fauna. Poor management can also increase runoff of nutrients and pes飠�cides to surface and groundwater systems. Thus, soil degrada飠�on can have both direct and indirect nega飠�ve effects on agricultural produc飠�vity and the environment. Even on high‐quality soils, overuse of chemical inputs can result in soil toxicity and water pollu飠�on.
Water Quality
Agriculture is widely believed to have significant impacts on water quality. While no comprehensive na飠�onal study of agriculture and water quality has been conducted, the magnitude of the impacts can be inferred from several water quality assessments. A general assessment of water quality is provided by EPA's 2002 Water Quality Inventory. Based on State assessments of 19 percent of river and stream miles, 37 percent of lake acres, and 35 percent of estuarine square miles, EPA concluded that agriculture is the leading source of pollu飠�on in 37 percent of river miles, 30 percent of lake acres (excluding the Great Lakes), and 8 percent of estuarine waters found to be water‐quality impaired, in that they do not support designated uses. This makes agriculture the leading source of impairment in the Na飠�on's rivers and lakes, and a minor source of impairment in estuaries. Agriculture's contribu飠�on has remained rela飠�vely unchanged over the past decade.
Major Agricultural Pollutants
Sediment [naturally occurring material that can wash off of fields] is the largest contaminant of surface water by weight and volume, and is iden飠�fied by States as the leading pollu飠�on problem in rivers and streams and the fourth leading problem in lakes. Sediment in surface water is largely a result of soil erosion, which is influenced by soil proper飠�es and the produc飠�on prac飠�ces farmers choose. Sediment buildup reduces the useful life of
Consider This
Nitrogen and phosphorous are fer飠�lizers, and when they enter water bodies like lakes and streams, they promote the growth of aqua飠�c plants and algae. Why is this a problem? Design an experiment, using the basic principles of the scien飠�fic method, to test how addi飠�ons of different amounts of nitrogen and phosphorous might affect water quality and wildlife in a body of water.
A farmer wearing a full‐body protec飠�ve suit sprays crops with pes飠�cides. The level of protec飠�on is warranted; many pes飠�cides are known carcinogens, teratogens, and endocrine disruptors for animals and humans.
Jan Sochor/age fotostock/SuperStock
reservoirs. Sediment can clog roadside ditches and irriga飠�on canals, block naviga飠�on channels, and increase dredging costs. By raising streambeds and burying streamside wetlands, sediment increases the probability and severity of floods. Suspended sediment can increase the cost of water treatment for municipal and industrial water uses. Sediment can also destroy or degrade aqua飠�c wildlife habitat, reducing diversity and damaging commercial and recrea飠�onal fisheries.
Nitrogen and phosphorus [two cri飠�cal plant nutrients] are important crop nutrients, and farmers apply large amounts to cropland each year. They can enter water resources through runoff and leaching [percolate through the ground]. The major concern for surface‐water quality is the promo飠�on of algae growth (known as eutrophica飠�on), which can result in decreased oxygen levels, fish kills, clogged pipelines, and reduced recrea飠�onal opportuni飠�es. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has found that high concentra飠�ons of nitrogen in agricultural streams are correlated with nitrogen inputs from fer飠�lizers and manure used on crops and from livestock waste. EPA reported in its Water Quality Inventory that nutrient pollu飠�on is the leading cause of water quality impairment in lakes, and a major cause of oxygen deple飠�on in estuaries. [. . .]
Eutrophica飠�on and hypoxia (low oxygen levels) in the northern Gulf of Mexico have been linked to nitrogen loadings from the Mississippi River. Agricultural sources (fer飠�lizer, soil inorganic nitrogen, and manure) are es飠�mated to contribute about 71 percent of the nitrogen loads entering the Gulf from the Mississippi Basin, and 80 percent of phosphorus loads. The Gulf of Mexico is not the only coastal area affected by nutrients. Recent research by the Na飠�onal Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administra飠�ons has found that 65 percent of assessed estuaries had moderate to high overall eutrophic condi飠�ons, caused primarily by nitrogen enrichment.
Farmers apply a wide variety of pes飠�cides to control insects (insec飠�cides), weeds (herbicides), fungus (fungicides), and other problems. Well over 500 million pounds (ac飠�ve ingredient) of pes飠�cides have
been applied annually on farmland since the 1980s, and certain chemicals can travel far from where they are applied. Pes飠�cide residues reaching surface‐water systems may harm freshwater and marine organisms, damaging recrea飠�onal and commercial fisheries. Pes飠�cides in drinking water supplies may also pose risks to human health. Pes飠�cide concentra飠�ons exceeded one or more human‐health benchmarks in about 10 percent of agricultural streams examined by USGS as part of the Na飠�onal Water Quality Assessment Program, and in about 1 percent of sampled wells used for drinking water in agricultural areas.
Some irriga飠�on water applied to cropland may run off the field into ditches and receiving waters. These irriga飠�on return flows oꡲen carry dissolved salts as well as nutrients and pes飠�cides into surface or ground water. Increased salinity levels in irriga飠�on water can reduce crop yields or damage soils such that some crops can no longer be grown. Increased concentra飠�ons of naturally occurring toxic minerals—such as selenium, molybdenum, and boron—can harm aqua飠�c wildlife and impair water‐ based recrea飠�on. Increased levels of dissolved solids in public drinking water supplies can increase water treatment costs, force the development of alterna飠�ve water supplies, and reduce the lifespans of water‐using household appliances. The possibility of pathogens contamina飠�ng water supplies and recrea飠�on waters is a con飠�nuing concern. Bacteria are the largest source of impairment in rivers and streams, according to EPA's water quality inventory. Poten飠�al sources include inadequately treated human waste, wildlife, unconfined livestock, and animal opera飠�ons. Diseases from micro‐organisms in livestock waste can be contracted through direct contact with contaminated water, consump飠�on of contaminated drinking water, consump飠�on of crops irrigated with contaminated water, or consump飠�on of contaminated shellfish. [. . .]
Air Quality
Ever since farmers began raising animals and cul飠�va飠�ng crops, agricultural produc飠�on prac飠�ces have generated a variety of substances that enter the atmosphere with the poten飠�al of crea飠�ng health and environmental problems. The rela飠�onship between agriculture and air quality became a na飠�onal issue in the 1930s with the severe dust storms of the Dust Bowl. Although dust storms of this magnitude no longer occur in the United States, soil par飠�culates, farm chemicals, and odor from livestock are s飠�ll carried in the air we breathe. These emissions can harm human health and pollute the environment. Air quality in most rural areas is not a cause for concern, but there are some farming communi飠�es where ozone and par飠�culates have impaired air quality to the same extent as in urban areas.
Ammonia is a gas and one of the most abundant nitrogen‐containing compounds emiᓖed to the atmosphere. Animal farming systems contribute about 50 percent of the total anthropogenic [man‐made] emissions of ammonia into the atmosphere in the U.S. Ammonia is a health hazard to humans and animals in high concentra飠�ons. Once in the atmosphere, ammonia is rapidly converted to ammonium par飠�cles by reac飠�ons with acidic compounds such as nitric acid and sulfuric acid found in ambient aerosols [small, airborne par飠�cles]. These ammonium par飠�cles can be carried long distances in the atmosphere and contribute to fine par飠�culate pollu飠�on and haze. Ammonium is redeposited to the earth's surface by both wet and dry deposi飠�on [the process by which par飠�cles deposit to the ground; wet refers to rain and dry usually to gravity] contribu飠�ng to eutrophica飠�on of water resources.
Nitrous oxide is another nitrogen compound of concern. It is a greenhouse gas and contributes to ozone deple飠�on. Nitrous oxide forms primarily in the soil during the microbial processes of nitrifica飠�on [conversion of ammonia to nitrite] and denitrifica飠�on [conversion of nitrate to nitrogen]. Agricultural sources include manure from livestock farming and commercial fer飠�lizer. Agriculture contributes about 72 percent of total anthropogenic emissions of nitrous oxide in the U.S., mostly from the fer飠�liza飠�on of cropland.
Methane is an important greenhouse gas. It is produced by microbial degrada飠�on of organic maᓖer under anaerobic condi飠�ons. The agricultural sector is the largest anthropogenic source, with livestock produc飠�on being the major component. Enteric fermenta飠�on (within the stomachs of caᓖle, sheep, goats and other ruminants) and manure management contribute 27 percent of methane emissions in the United States.
Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas emiᓖed in the U.S., mostly from the combus飠�on of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is also a primary input in plant growth. Agriculture can sequester [store] carbon in soils and biomass, thus offseng greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon entering the soil is stored primarily as soil organic maᓖer. Agricultural soils sequestered an es飠�mated 12.4 million metric tons carbon equivalent in 2004, less than 1 percent of U.S. emissions. Studies indicate that it may be technically possible to sequester an addi飠�onal 89–318 million metric tons of carbon annually on U.S. croplands and grazing lands through various management prac飠�ces, such as conserva飠�on 飠�llage, crop rota飠�ons, and fer飠�lizer management. Shiꡲing cropland to grasslands or forest could increase sequestra飠�on even more.
Par飠�culates from agriculture result from a variety of ac飠�vi飠�es. Wind erosion can carry soil par飠�cles directly into the atmosphere. Many areas west of the Mississippi River experience low average rainfall, frequent drought, and rela飠�vely high wind veloci飠�es. These condi飠�ons, when combined with fine soils, sparse vegeta飠�ve cover, and agricultural ac飠�vity, make some western regions suscep飠�ble to wind erosion.
Wind erosion can produce short‐term levels of par飠�culate pollu飠�on in rural areas that exceed urban levels. Par飠�culates from wind erosion can impose costs on those living in affected areas, including cleaning and maintenance of businesses and households, damage to nonfarm machinery, and adverse effects on health. Another source of par飠�culates is open‐field burning. Open‐field burning is used as a means of removing crop residue aꡲer harvest and controlling disease, weeds, and pests. Diesel engines from farm equipment and irriga飠�on pumps are also a source of par飠�culates.
A source of fine par飠�culates (par飠�cles smaller than 2.5 microns, also known as PM2.5) is gaseous emissions of ammonia and nitrogen oxides (NOx, or nitric oxide, and nitrogen dioxide). Ammonia and NOx in the atmosphere react with other compounds to form fine par飠�culates, such as ammonium. Fine par飠�culates pose a health risk because they can be inhaled deep into lungs. Fine par飠�culates are also a source of haze, which detracts from views in many popular na飠�onal parks.
The atmosphere is now recognized as a major pathway by which pes飠�cides can be transported and deposited far from their point of use. Pes飠�cides can enter the atmosphere directly from the spray cloud during applica飠�on, from evapora飠�on aꡲer applica飠�on, and aᓖached to windborne soil par飠�cles. As much as 80 percent of some pes飠�cide applica飠�ons evaporate. And many of these pes飠�cides across different chemical groups have been detected in the atmosphere. The U.S. Geological Survey found that the most frequently detected pes飠�cides in the atmosphere are DDT, methidathion, diazinon, heptachlor, malathion, and dieldrin. Even though some of these have been banned for years, they con飠�nue to be detected. [. . .]
Wildlife Habitat
Habitat is a combina飠�on of environmental factors that provides the food, water, cover, and space that a living organism needs to survive and reproduce. Agricultural land use can benefit some species, harm others, and some飠�mes do both. Poten飠�ally harmful effects of farming include plowing up habitat, farming riparian [along the banks of a river or stream] buffers, fragmen飠�ng habitat, diver飠�ng water for irriga飠�on, and diffusing agricultural chemicals into the environment. In addi飠�on, specializa飠�on in agriculture reduces landscape diversity by crea飠�ng more of a monoculture [growing only one crop]. This reduces the presence of ecological niches, which can limit wildlife popula飠�ons and biodiversity on farms. Historically, the conversion of na飠�ve forests, prairies, and wetlands to cropland has diminished wildlife. Habitat loss associated with agricultural prac飠�ces on over 400 million acres of cropland has been iden飠�fied as a primary factor depressing wildlife popula飠�ons in North America. Agriculture is thought to affect the survival of 380 of the 663 species listed by the Federal Government as threatened or endangered in the conterminous 48 States.
Agriculture's nega飠�ve effects on wildlife need not be permanent. U.S. agriculture is in a unique posi飠�on with respect to the Na飠�on's wildlife resources. The management of land now controlled by U.S. farms and ranches can play a major role in protec飠�ng and enhancing the Na飠�on's wildlife. In 2002, private farms accounted for 41 percent of all U.S. land, including 434 million acres of cropland and 395 million acres of pasture and range. Farms also account for 76 million acres of forest and woodland, and 17 million acres of nonfederal wetlands. Different types of habitat can be restored or improved through conserva飠�on on agricultural lands.
Grassland Habitat
Grasslands cons飠�tute the largest land cover on America's private lands. Privately owned grasslands and shrub lands (including tribal) cover more than 395 million acres in the United States. These lands contribute significantly to the economies of many regions, provide biodiversity of plant and animal popula飠�ons, and play a key role in environmental quality. Grasslands directly support the livestock industry. They also provide habitat for many wildlife species, reduce the poten飠�al for flooding, control sediment loadings in streams and other water bodies, and provide ecological benefits such as nutrient cycling, storage of atmospheric carbon, and water conserva飠�on. Grasslands also improve the aesthe飠�c character of the landscape, provide scenic vistas and open space, provide recrea飠�onal opportuni飠�es, and protect the soil from water and wind erosion.
Large expanses of grassland acreage are annually threatened by conversion to other land uses such as cropland and urban development. About half of all grasslands in the U.S. have been lost since seᓖlement, much due to conversion to agricultural uses.
Wetland Habitat
Wetlands are complex ecosystems that provide many ecological func飠�ons that are valued by society. They take many forms, including prairie potholes, boᓖomland hardwood swamps, coastal salt marshes, and playa wetlands. Wetlands are known to be the most biologically produc飠�ve landscapes in temperate regions. More than one‐third of the United States' threatened and endangered species live only in wetlands, and nearly half use wetlands at some point in their lives. Most freshwater fish depend on wetlands at some stage of their lives. Many bird species are dependent on wetlands for either res飠�ng places during
Grasslands support the livestock industries of the surrounding communi飠�es and contribute to the overall environmental quality of a region.
© Roger Calger/iStock/Thinkstock
Consider This
Many people think of wetlands just as swamps, and swamps as places of pes飠�lence and disease. Why does it maᓖer then that tens of millions of acres of wetlands have been converted to agricultural uses in the United States?
The adop飠�on of gene飠�cally engineered crops, including herbicide‐tolerant (HT) crops and insect‐resistant crops engineered with Bacillus thuringiensis, has increased significantly since 1996.
on wetlands at some stage of their lives. Many bird species are dependent on wetlands for either res飠�ng places during migra飠�on, nes飠�ng or feeding grounds, or cover from predators. Wetlands are also cri飠�cal habitat for many amphibians and fur bearing mammals. Besides suppor飠�ng wildlife, wetlands also control water pollu飠�on and flooding, protect the water supply, and provide recrea飠�on.
When the country was first seᓖled there were 221–224 million acres of wetlands in the con飠�nental U.S. Since then, about half have been drained and converted to other uses, nearly 85 percent for agricultural uses. Currently, there are about 111 million acres of wetlands on nonfederal lands. About 15 percent are on agricultural lands (cropland, pastureland, and rangeland).
Riparian Habitat
Riparian areas are the zones along water bodies that serve as interfaces between terrestrial and aqua飠�c ecosystems. Riparian ecosystems generally compose a minor propor飠�on of the landscape, but they are typically more structurally diverse and more produc飠�ve from a wildlife perspec飠�ve than adjacent upland areas. This is especially true in the arid West. Studies in the Southwest show that riparian areas support a higher breeding diversity of birds than all other western habitats combined. In Arizona and New Mexico, at least 80 percent of all animals use riparian areas at some stage of their lives. Western riparian habitats contain the highest non‐colonial avian breeding densi飠�es in North America.
Riparian zones also support produc飠�ve aqua飠�c habitat. They stabilize streambanks, thus reducing streambank erosion and sedimenta飠�on. Detritus [non‐living organic material, such as fallen leaves] from streamside vegeta飠�on provides energy to the stream ecosystem. Vegeta飠�on also provides shade, preven飠�ng extreme temperature swings that are detrimental to healthy stream ecosystems. Riparian areas also filter out sediment, nutrients, and pes飠�cides in runoff, thereby protec飠�ng water quality.
No comprehensive na飠�onal inventory has been completed on the status and trends of riparian areas. However, NRCS es飠�mates that the conterminous U.S. originally contained 75–100 million acres of riparian habitats and that between 25 and 35 million acres remain.
Implica�ons for Policy
Agriculture has wide ranging impacts on environmental resources. Because of this, it also has the capacity to provide a wide range of environmental services. Understanding the links between agriculture and environmental quality enhances our ability to design programs that best meet the needs of producers and those who value the services the environment can provide.
Adapted from USDA Economic Research Service. 2009 (updated). Environmental Interac飠�ons with Agricultural Produc飠�on: Background. Retrieved from h�p://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/AgAndEnvironment/background.htm (h�p://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/AgAndEnvironment/background.htm)
Apply Your Knowledge
It's clear from this reading that conven飠�onal agricultural prac飠�ces impose significant costs on society in the form of decreased water quality, air quality, and wildlife habitat. For the most part these costs are not counted or factored into the price of the food we buy, although they are borne by society in other ways such as through higher taxes to pay for water treatment and health care costs. Environmental scien飠�sts and economists refer to these kinds of costs as external costs. Develop an inventory of the major environmental impacts of conven飠�onal agriculture and how they might impose external costs on society. Next, ask yourself who might be paying these external costs and how. Finally, ask yourself how our approach to agriculture might change if major agricultural producers were forced to pay directly for these external costs.
3.3 The Debate Over Gene�cally Modified (GM) Foods The opening ar飠�cle for this chapter asked what the next agricultural revolu飠�on would look like—would it be one focused on new forms of gene飠�c engineering or one based on the concept of agroecology or sustainable agriculture. In the following ar飠�cle, Natasha Gilbert of the journal Nature reviews some of the issues swirling around the debate over gene飠�cally modified (GM) crops. She concludes by sta飠�ng that "stories, in favour of or against GM crops, will always miss the bigger picture, which is nuanced, equivocal and undeniably messy." Regardless of that cau飠�onary plea, the debate over GM crops remains one of the most conten飠�ous and emo飠�onal in the field of environmental science.
Unlike the first green revolu飠�on, which was achieved mainly through tradi飠�onal plant‐breeding approaches, gene飠�c modifica飠�on of crops represents a fundamentally new technology. Tradi飠�onal plant breeding sought to cross‐breed or combine traits from the same plant types to produce a new and beᓖer variety. For example, a rice plant that produced a lot of grain but blew over easily in the wind could be cross‐bred with another rice plant that produced less grain but had a stronger stem and could withstand the wind. The resul飠�ng rice plant, aꡲer repeated breeding, would feature both desirable traits—high grain produc飠�on and stoutness—in a single seed. In contrast, gene飠�c modifica飠�on works by removing gene飠�c material from one organism and inser飠�ng it into the DNA of another, oꡲen in "novel" ways or in combina飠�ons that would never occur in nature (for example, inser飠�ng fish genes into a tomato plant).
As with tradi飠�onal plant breeding, gene飠�c engineering seeks to develop plants that feature certain desirable traits. These could include developing plants that feature "input" traits such as resistance to pests or resistance to fungus and disease or plants that can withstand frost or drought condi飠�ons. This could also include developing "output" traits such as plants that have much higher nutri飠�onal content than tradi飠�onal varie飠�es.
The use of gene飠�cally engineered crops has grown rapidly in countries such as the United States, especially for soybeans, corn, and coᓖon where GM crops make up between 70 and 90 percent of total produc飠�on (Figure 3.1). This rapid growth has raised concerns about the environmental, health, and economic impacts of widespread use of gene飠�cally engineered crops. As you review this reading consider the ways in which scien飠�sts might make use of the scien飠�fic method both to develop new gene飠�cally modified crops as well as to test whether these crops might have nega飠�ve impacts on human health or the environment. Also be prepared to test your own beliefs on this subject in an assignment at the end of this sec飠�on.
Figure 3.1: Gene�cally engineered crops
Consider This
Consumer and health advocates are concerned that GM crops with truly novel traits, such as sunflower plants containing fish genes, pose a risk to society and that their approval and development is occurring too rapidly. Some argue that GM crops should be banned altogether, while others argue for longer trial and tes飠�ng periods to ensure safety. What do you think? Are the poten飠�al risks worth it if GM crops can increase agricultural produc飠�vity?
Based on data from USDA. Retrieved from h�p://www.ers.usda.gov/media/185551/biotechcrops.html (hᓖp://www.ers.usda.gov/media/185551/biotechcrops.html)
By Natasha Gilbert
In the pitched debate over gene飠�cally modified (GM) foods and crops, it can be hard to see where scien飠�fic evidence ends and dogma and specula飠�on begin. In the nearly 20 years since they were first commercialized, GM crop technologies have seen drama飠�c uptake. Advocates say that they have increased agricultural produc飠�on by more than US$98 billion and saved an es飠�mated 473 million kilograms of pes飠�cides from being sprayed. But cri飠�cs ques飠�on their environmental, social and economic impacts.
Researchers, farmers, ac飠�vists and GM seed companies all stridently promote their views, but the scien飠�fic data are oꡲen inconclusive or contradictory. Complicated truths have long been obscured by the fierce rhetoric. "I find it frustra飠�ng that the debate has not moved on," says Dominic Glover, an agricultural socioeconomist at Wageningen University and Research Centre in the Netherlands. "The two sides speak different languages and have different opinions on what evidence and issues maᓖer," he says.
Here, Nature takes a look at three pressing ques飠�ons: are GM crops fuelling the rise of herbicide‐resistant ‘superweeds'? Are they driving farmers in India to suicide? And are the foreign transgenes in GM crops spreading into other plants? These controversial case studies show how blame shiꡲs, myths are spread and cultural insensi飠�vi飠�es can inflame debate.
GM Crops Have Bred Superweeds: True
Jay Holder, a farming consultant in Ashburn, Georgia, first no飠�ced Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) in a client's transgenic coᓖon fields about five years ago. Palmer amaranth is a par飠�cular pain for farmers in the southeastern United States, where it outcompetes coᓖon for moisture, light and soil nutrients and can quickly take over fields.
Since the late 1990s, US farmers had widely adopted GM coᓖon engineered to tolerate the herbicide glyphosate, which is marketed as Roundup by Monsanto in St Louis, Missouri. The herbicide–crop combina飠�on worked spectacularly well—un飠�l it didn't. In 2004, herbicide‐resistant amaranth was found in one county in Georgia; by 2011, it had spread to 76. "It got to the point where some farmers were losing half their coᓖon fields to the weed," says Holder.
Some scien飠�sts and an飠�‐GM groups warned that GM crops, by encouraging liberal use of glyphosate, were spurring the evolu飠�on of herbicide resistance in many weeds. Twenty‐four glyphosate‐resistant weed species have been iden飠�fied since Roundup‐tolerant crops were introduced in 1996. But herbicide resistance is a problem for farmers regardless of whether they plant GM crops. Some 64 weed species are resistant to the herbicide atrazine, for example, and no crops have been gene飠�cally modified to withstand it.
S飠�ll, glyphosate‐tolerant plants could be considered vic飠�ms of their own success. Farmers had historically used mul飠�ple herbicides, which slowed the development of resistance. They also controlled weeds through ploughing and 飠�lling—prac飠�ces that deplete topsoil and release carbon dioxide, but do not encourage resistance. The GM crops allowed growers to rely almost en飠�rely on glyphosate, which is less toxic than many other chemicals and kills a broad range of weeds without ploughing. Farmers planted them year aꡲer year without rota飠�ng crop types or varying chemicals to deter resistance.
Glyphosate‐resistant weeds have now been found in 18 countries worldwide, with significant impacts in Brazil, Australia, Argen飠�na and Paraguay, says Ian Heap, director of the Interna飠�onal Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds, based in Corvallis, Oregon. And Monsanto has changed its stance on glyphosate use, now recommending that farmers use a mix of chemical products and ploughing. But the company stops short of acknowledging a role in crea飠�ng the problem.
On balance, herbicide‐resistant GM crops are less damaging to the environment than conven飠�onal crops grown at industrial scale. A study by PG Economics, a consul飠�ng firm in Dorchester, UK, found that the introduc飠�on of herbicide‐tolerant coᓖon saved 15.5 million kilograms of herbicide between 1996 and 2011, a 6.1% reduc飠�on from what would have been used on conven飠�onal coᓖon. And GM crop technology delivered an 8.9% improvement to the environmental impact quo飠�ent—a measure that considers factors such as pes飠�cide toxicity to wildlife—says Graham Brookes, co‐director of PG Economics and a co‐author of the industry‐funded study, which many scien飠�sts consider to be among the field's most extensive and authorita飠�ve assessments of environmental impacts.
The ques飠�on is how much longer those benefits will last. So far, farmers have dealt with the prolifera飠�on of resistant weeds by using more glyphosate, supplemen飠�ng it with other herbicides and ploughing. A study by David Mortensen, a plant ecologist at Pennsylvania State University in University Park, predicts that total herbicide use in the United States will rise from around 1.5 kilograms per hectare in 2013 to more than 3.5 kilograms per hectare in 2025 as a direct result of GM crop use.
To offer farmers new weed‐control strategies, Monsanto and other biotechnology companies, such as Dow AgroSciences, based in Indianapolis, Indiana, are developing new herbicide‐resistant crops that work with different chemicals, which they expect to commercialize within a few years.
Mortensen says that the new technologies will lose their effec飠�veness as well. But abandoning chemical herbicides completely is not a viable solu飠�on, says Jonathan Gressel, a weed scien飠�st at the Weizmann Ins飠�tute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. Using chemicals to control weeds is s飠�ll more efficient than ploughing and 飠�lling the soil, and is less environmentally damaging. "When farmers start to use more sustainable farming prac飠�ces together with mixtures of herbicides they will have fewer problems," he says.
GM Co�on Has Driven Farmers to Suicide: False
During an interview in March, Vandana Shiva, an environmental and feminist ac飠�vist from India, repeated an alarming sta飠�s飠�c: "270,000 Indian farmers have commiᓖed suicide since Monsanto entered the Indian seed market," she said. "It's a genocide."
The claim, based on an increase in total suicide rates across the country in the late 1990s, has become an oꡲ‐repeated story of corporate exploita飠�on since Monsanto began selling GM seed in India in 2002.
Bt coᓖon, which contains a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis to ward off certain insects, had a rough start. Seeds ini飠�ally cost five 飠�mes more than local hybrid varie飠�es, spurring local traders to sell packets containing a mix of Bt and conven飠�onal coᓖon at lower prices. The sham seeds and misinforma飠�on about how to use the product resulted in crop and financial losses. This no doubt added strain to rural farmers, who had long been under the pressures of a 飠�ght credit system that forced them to borrow from local lenders.
But, says Glover, "it is nonsense to aᓖribute farmer suicides solely to Bt coᓖon". Although financial hardship is a driving factor in suicide among Indian farmers, there has been essen飠�ally no change in the suicide rate for farmers since the introduc飠�on of Bt coᓖon.
That was shown by researchers at the Interna飠�onal Food Policy Research Ins飠�tute in Washington DC, who scoured government data, academic ar飠�cles and media reports about Bt coᓖon and suicide in India. Their findings, published in 2008 and updated in 2011, show that the total number of suicides per year in the Indian popula飠�on rose from just under 100,000 in 1997 to more than 120,000 in 2007. But the number of suicides among farmers hovered at around 20,000 per year over the same period.
And since its rocky beginnings, Bt coᓖon has benefited farmers, says Ma飠�n Qaim, an agricultural economist at Georg August University in Göngen, Germany, who has been studying the social and financial impacts of Bt coᓖon in India for the past 10 years. In a study of 533 coᓖon‐farming households in central and southern India, Qaim found that yields grew by 24% per acre between 2002 and 2008, owing to reduced losses from pest aᓖacks. Farmers' profits rose by an average of 50% over the same period, owing mainly to yield gains. Given the profits, Qaim says, it is not surprising that more than 90% of the coᓖon now grown in India is transgenic.
Glenn Stone, an environmental anthropologist at Washington University in St Louis, says that the empirical evidence for yield increases with Bt coᓖon is lacking. He has conducted original field studies and analysed the research literature on Bt coᓖon yields in India, and says that most peer‐reviewed studies repor飠�ng yield increases with Bt coᓖon have focused on short 飠�me periods, oꡲen in the early years aꡲer the technology came online. This, he says, introduced biases: farmers who adopted the technology first tended to be wealthier and more educated, and their farms were already producing higher‐than‐average yields of conven飠�onal coᓖon. They achieved high yields of Bt coᓖon partly because they lavished the expensive GM seeds with care and aᓖen飠�on. The problem now is that there are hardly any conven飠�onal coᓖon farms leꡲ in India to compare GM yields and profits against, says Stone. Qaim agrees that many studies showing financial gains focus on short‐term impacts, but his study, published
in 2012, controlled for these biases and s飠�ll found con飠�nued benefits.
Bt coᓖon did not cause suicide rates to spike, says Glover, but neither is it the sole reason for the yield improvements. "Blanket conclusions that the technology is a success or failure lack the right level of nuance," he says. "It's an evolving story in India, and we have not yet reached a defini飠�ve conclusion."
Transgenes Spread to Wild Crops in Mexico: Unknown
In 2000, some rural farmers in the mountains of Oaxaca, Mexico, wanted to gain organic cer飠�fica飠�on for the maize (corn) they grew and sold in the hope of genera飠�ng extra income. David Quist, then a microbial ecologist at the University of California, Berkeley, agreed to help in exchange for access to their lands for a research project. But Quist's gene飠�c analyses uncovered a surprise: the locally produced maize contained a segment of the DNA used to spur expression of transgenes in Monsanto's glyphosate‐tolerant and insect‐resistant maize.
GM crops are not approved for commercial produc飠�on in Mexico. So the transgenes probably came from GM crops imported from the United States for consump飠�on and planted by local farmers who probably didn't know that the seeds were transgenic. Quist speculated at the 飠�me that the local maize probably cross‐bred with these GM varie飠�es, thereby picking up the transgenic DNA.
When the discovery was published in Nature, a media and poli飠�cal circus descended on Oaxaca. Many vilified Monsanto for contamina飠�ng maize at its historic origin—a place where the crop was considered sacred. And Quist's study came under fire for technical deficiencies, including problems with the methods used to detect the transgenes and the authors' conclusion that transgenes can fragment and scaᓖer throughout the genome.
Nature eventually withdrew support for the paper but stopped short of retrac飠�ng it. "The evidence available is not sufficient to jus飠�fy the publica飠�on of the original paper," read an editorial footnote to a cri飠�que of the research published in 2002.
Since then, few rigorous studies of transgene flow into Mexican maize have been published, owing mainly to a dearth of research funding, and they show mixed results. In 2003–04, Allison Snow, a plant ecologist at Ohio State University in Columbus, sampled 870 plants taken from 125 fields in Oaxaca and found no transgenic sequences in maize seeds.
A Spanish protest sign posted on a fence where Monsanto is building its largest seed produc飠�on plant in La飠�n America in Cordoba, Argen飠�na reads "Stop loo飠�ng and contamina飠�ng! Monsanto out of Cordoba and Argen飠�na."
AP Photo/Natacha Pisarenko
State University in Columbus, sampled 870 plants taken from 125 fields in Oaxaca and found no transgenic sequences in maize seeds.
But in 2009, a study led by Elena Alvarez‐Buylla, a molecular ecologist at the Na飠�onal Autonomous University of Mexico in Mexico City, and Alma Piñeyro‐Nelson, a plant molecular gene飠�cist now at the University of California, Berkeley, found the same transgenes as Quist in three samples taken from 23 sites in Oaxaca in 2001, and in two samples taken from those sites in 2004. In another study, Alvarez‐Buylla and her co‐authors found evidence of transgenes in a small percentage of seeds from 1,765 households across Mexico. Other studies conducted within local communi飠�es have found transgenes more consistently, but few have been published.
Snow and Alvarez‐Buylla agree that differences in sampling methods can lead to discrepancies in transgene detec飠�on. "We sampled different fields," says Snow. "They found them but we didn't."
The scien飠�fic community remains split on whether transgenes have infiltrated maize popula飠�ons in Mexico, even as the country grapples with whether to approve commercializa飠�on of Bt maize.
"It seems inevitable that there will be a movement of transgenes into local maize crops," says Snow. "There is some proof that it is happening, but it is very difficult to say how common it is or what are the consequences." Alvarez‐Buylla argues that the spread of transgenes will harm the health of Mexican maize and change characteris飠�cs, such as a variety's look and taste, that are important to rural farmers. Once the transgenes are present, it will be very difficult, if not impossible, to get rid of them, she says. Cri飠�cs speculate that GM traits that accumulate in the genomes of local maize popula飠�ons over 飠�me could eventually affect plant fitness by using up energy and resources or by disrup飠�ng metabolic processes, for example.
Snow says that there is no evidence so far for nega飠�ve effects. And she expects that if the transgenes now in use driꡲ to other plants, they will have neutral or beneficial effects on plant growth. In 2003, Snow and her colleagues showed that when Bt sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) were bred with their wild counterparts, transgenic offspring s飠�ll required the same kind of close care as its cul飠�vated parent but were less vulnerable to insects and produced more seeds than non‐transgenic plants. Few similar studies have been conducted, says Snow, because the companies that own the rights to the technology are generally unwilling to let academic researchers perform the experiments.
In Mexico, the story goes beyond poten飠�al environmental impacts. Kevin Pixley, a crop scien飠�st and the director of the gene飠�c resources programme at the Interna飠�onal Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre in El Batan, Mexico, says that scien飠�sts arguing on behalf of GM technologies in the country have missed a crucial point. "Most of the scien飠�fic community doesn't understand the depth of the emo飠�onal and cultural affilia飠�on maize has for the Mexican popula飠�on," he says.
Tidy stories, in favour of or against GM crops, will always miss the bigger picture, which is nuanced, equivocal and undeniably messy. Transgenic crops will not solve all the agricultural challenges facing the developing or developed world, says Qaim: "It is not a silver bullet." But vilifica飠�on is not appropriate either. The truth is somewhere in the middle.
Adapted from Gilbert, N. (2013, May 02). Case studies: A hard look at GM crops. Nature, 497, 24–26. doi:10.1038/497024a. Retrieved from h�p://www.nature.com/news/case‐studies‐a‐hard‐look‐at‐gm‐crops‐1.12907 (h�p://www.nature.com/news/case‐studies‐a‐hard‐look‐at‐gm‐crops‐1.12907) . Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Natasha Gilbert, "Case studies: A hard look at GM crops," Nature 497, 24–26. Copyright © 2013.
Apply Your Knowledge
The degree to which the scien飠�fic, ethical, and poli飠�cal debate over GM crops has become heated can be seen in the language used by those involved. Opponents of GM crops refer to them as "Frankenfoods" and accuse giant biotechnology firms like Monsanto of driving farmers to suicide in their pursuit of profit. Proponents of GM crops accuse opponents of being an飠�‐science extremists who are responsible for the starva飠�on and death of children in poor countries. As the previous ar飠�cle concluded, however, the truth is likely somewhere in the middle.
In order to test your own knowledge and opinion on GM crops it's important to first start with some background material. The links below will help you beᓖer understand some of the basic issues surrounding GM crops, such as
health risks associated with GM crops including the development of new allergens and toxins in foods;
ecological risks and unintended side effects, including the spread of herbicide‐resistant weeds, the transfer of genes from GM crops to non‐GM crops, and unexpected impacts on wildlife.
These readings, like the debate itself, tend to come down more on one side or the other, but they are rela飠�vely balanced and help introduce the major issues. Review them to enhance your knowledge of this subject.
h�p://www.fas.org/biosecurity/educa�on/dualuse‐agriculture/2.‐agricultural‐biotechnology/gene�cally‐engineered‐crops.html (h�p://www.fas.org/biosecurity/educa�on/dualuse‐agriculture/2.‐ agricultural‐biotechnology/gene�cally‐engineered‐crops.html)
h�p://www.who.int/foodsafety/publica�ons/biotech/en/20ques�ons_en.pdf (h�p://www.who.int/foodsafety/publica�ons/biotech/en/20ques�ons_en.pdf) h�p://www.ucsusa.org/food_and_agriculture/our‐failing‐food‐system/gene�c‐engineering/risks‐of‐gene�c‐engineering.html (h�p://www.ucsusa.org/food_and_agriculture/our‐failing‐food‐ system/gene�c‐engineering/risks‐of‐gene�c‐engineering.html)
h�p://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/Biotechnology/ucm346030.htm (h�p://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/Biotechnology/ucm346030.htm) h�p://www.isaaa.org/resources/publica�ons/pocketk/1/ (h�p://www.isaaa.org/resources/publica�ons/pocketk/1/)
Once you have reviewed this material, visit this site, which will allow you to vote on whether we should grow GM crops or not (h�p://www.pbs.org/wgbh/harvest/exist/ (h�p://www.pbs.org/wgbh/harvest/exist/) ). Start by reading the Introduc飠�on and then answering the yes/no ques飠�on at the boᓖom of the page. Based on your first and subsequent answers you will repeatedly be challenged in your beliefs. Work through all of the ques飠�ons. On the final page you'll have a chance to review all 12 arguments for and against GM crops (six in favor and six opposed). Have a look at these and then ask yourself the following ques飠�ons:
What side did you tend to favor in the debate? How strong was your support for that side? What arguments did you find most compelling in forming your own opinion? Why did you find these so important? Given the uncertainty and complexity involved in the debate over GM crops, how should we, as a society, regulate their development and use? What was the most important lesson you learned from this exercise?
3.4 Global Fisheries Seafood provides for roughly 15 percent of all animal protein consumed globally by humans, and this percentage is much higher in some developing countries. Therefore, managing global fisheries is equally as important as the way agriculture is sustained. In this ar飠�cle, Paul Greenberg of Na飠�onal Geographic Magazine reviews trends in the global fish catch and introduces the concept of the "seafood print" as a means of measuring the environmental impact of different kinds of fish consump飠�on.
Rather than look at just the volume of seafood harvested from a fishery, the seafood print approach focuses on the type of fish caught. Fish that are at or near the top of the food chain, and with essen飠�ally no predators of their own (such as Bluefin tuna), are known as apex or top predators. Apex fish consume large amounts of smaller fish in order to survive and grow, and in turn these smaller fish eat even larger amounts of fish that are lower on the food chain—this is the same concept as trophic levels introduced in sec飠�on 1.2. As a result, harves飠�ng and ea飠�ng one ton of Bluefin tuna actually has a much larger seafood print than ea飠�ng many more tons of fish overall. This same concept of ea飠�ng higher on the food chain applies to meat as well. In order to produce one ton of meat, we need many more tons of grain. This is one of the reasons for the concern over grain supplies reviewed in sec飠�on 3.1.
To deal with these interrelated issues in food produc飠�on, scien飠�sts focus on the concept of primary produc飠�on (also reviewed in sec飠�on 1.2) to develop a measure such as the seafood print. In the ocean, most primary produc飠�on is accomplished by algae known as phytoplankton, and these serve as the base of the oceanic food web. Phytoplankton are eaten by small floa飠�ng animals known as zooplankton, which, in turn, are eaten by small fish such as sardines and menhaden. These small fish then become the food source for larger fish and apex predators like the bluefin tuna. In the same way, the impacts of moving fish produc飠�on to fish farms, or aquaculture, will depend on the type of fish being raised. For example, farm‐raised salmon are fed large amounts of fish meal from wild‐caught stocks of small fish and so they have a significant seafood print, Whereas farm‐raised 飠�lapia eat mainly plant material and so have a smaller seafood print. These and other issues surrounding global fisheries are discussed
The impact of aquaculture depends on the fish stocks raised on the farm. Salmon and tuna farms have a higher seafood print than do farms producing smaller fish.
© Vik Thomas/iStock/Thinkstock
Consider This
Both Daniel Pauly and Ray Hilborn are respected fisheries scien飠�sts. Yet one of them es飠�mates that 60–70 percent of the world's fish stocks are overexploited, while the other suggests this number is closer to 30 percent. Why might two scien飠�sts come to such different conclusions? What is it about understanding wild fisheries, in par飠�cular, that makes developing such an es飠�mate difficult?
below.
By Paul Greenberg
Every year more than 170 billion pounds (77.9 million metric tons) of wild fish and shellfish are caught in the oceans—roughly three 飠�mes the weight of every man, woman, and child in the United States. Fisheries managers call this overwhelming quan飠�ty of mass‐hunted wildlife the world catch, and many maintain that this harvest has been rela飠�vely stable over the past decade. But an ongoing study conducted by Daniel Pauly, a fisheries scien飠�st at the University of Bri飠�sh Columbia, in conjunc飠�on with Enric Sala, a Na飠�onal Geographic fellow, suggests that the world catch is neither stable nor fairly divided among the na飠�ons of the world. In the study, called SeafoodPrint and supported by the Pew Charitable Trusts and Na飠�onal Geographic, the researchers point the way to what they believe must be done to save the seas.
They hope the study will start by correc飠�ng a common mispercep飠�on. The public imagines a na飠�on's impact on the sea in terms of the raw tonnage of fish it catches. But that turns out to give a skewed picture of its real impact, or seafood print, on marine life. "The problem is, every fish is different," says Pauly. "A pound of tuna represents roughly a hundred 飠�mes the footprint of a pound of sardines."
The reason for this discrepancy is that tuna are apex predators, meaning that they feed at the very top of the food chain. The largest tuna eat enormous amounts of fish, including intermediate‐level predators like mackerel, which in turn feed on fish like anchovies, which prey on microscopic copepods [small crustaceans]. A large tuna must eat the equivalent of its body weight every ten days to stay alive, so a single thousand‐pound tuna might need to eat as many as 15,000 smaller fish in a year. Such food chains are present throughout the world's ocean ecosystems, each with its own apex animal. Any large fish—a Pacific swordfish, an Atlan飠�c mako shark, an Alaska king salmon, a Chilean sea bass—is likely to depend on several levels of a food chain.
The SeafoodPrint
To gain an accurate picture of how different na飠�ons have been using the resources of the sea, the SeafoodPrint researchers needed a way to compare all types of fish caught. They decided to do this by measuring the amount of "primary produc飠�on"—those microscopic organisms at the boᓖom of the marine food web—required to make a pound of a given type of fish. They found that a pound of bluefin tuna, for example, might require a thousand pounds or more of primary produc飠�on.
In assessing the true impact that na飠�ons have on the seas, the team needed to look not just at what a given na飠�on caught but also at what the ci飠�zens of that na飠�on ate. "A country can acquire primary produc飠�on by fishing, or it can acquire it by trade," Pauly says. "It is the sheer power of wealthy na飠�ons to acquire primary produc飠�on that is important."
Na飠�ons with money tend to buy a lot of fish, and a lot of the fish they buy are large apex predators like tuna. Japan catches less than five million metric tons of fish a year, a 29 percent drop from 1996 to 2006. But Japan consumes nine million metric tons a year, about 582 million metric tons in primary‐produc飠�on terms. Though the average Chinese consumer generally eats smaller fish than the average Japanese consumer does, China's massive popula飠�on gives it the world's biggest seafood print, 694 million metric tons of primary produc飠�on. The U.S., with both a large popula飠�on and a tendency to eat apex fish, comes in third: 348.5 million metric tons of primary produc飠�on. And the size of each of these na飠�ons' seafood prints is growing. What the study points to, Pauly argues, is that these quan飠�飠�es are not just extremely large but also fundamentally unsustainable.
Overfishing
Exactly how unsustainable can be seen in global analyses of seafood trade compiled by Wilf Swartz, an economist working on SeafoodPrint. Humanity's consump飠�on of the ocean's primary produc飠�on changed drama飠�cally from the 1950s to the early 2000s. In the 1950s much less of the ocean was being fished to meet our needs. But as affluent na飠�ons increasingly demanded apex predators, they exceeded the primary‐produc飠�on capaci飠�es of their exclusive economic zones, which extend up to 200 nau飠�cal miles from their coasts. As a result, more and more of the world's oceans had to be fished to keep supplies constant or growing.
Areas outside of these zones are known in nau飠�cal parlance as the high seas. These vast territories, the last global commons on Earth, are technically owned by nobody and everybody. The catch from high‐seas areas has risen to nearly ten 飠�mes what it was in 1950, from 1.6 million metric tons to around 13 million metric tons. A large part of that catch is high‐level, high‐value tuna, with its huge seafood print.
The wealthier na飠�ons that purchase most of the products of these fisheries are essen飠�ally priva飠�zing them. Poorer countries simply cannot afford to bid for high‐value species. Ci飠�zens in these na飠�ons can also lose out if their governments enter into fishing or trade agreements with wealthier na飠�ons. In these agreements local fish are sold abroad and denied to local ci飠�zens—those who arguably have the greatest need to eat them and the greatest right to claim them.
Although supermarkets in developed na飠�ons like the U.S. and Japan s飠�ll abound with fish flesh, SeafoodPrint suggests that this abundance is largely illusory because it depends on these two troubling phenomena: broader and broader swaths of the high seas transformed from fallow commons into heavily exploited, monopolized fishing grounds; and poor na飠�ons' seafood wealth spirited away by the highest bidder.
Humanity's demand for seafood has now driven fishing fleets into every virgin fishing ground in the world. There are no new grounds leꡲ to exploit. But even this isn't enough. An unprecedented buildup of fishing capacity threatens to outstrip seafood supplies in all fishing grounds, old and new. A report by the World Bank and the Food and Agriculture Organiza飠�on (FAO) of the United Na飠�ons recently concluded that the ocean doesn't have nearly enough fish leꡲ to support the current onslaught. Indeed, the report suggests that even if we had half as many boats, hooks, and nets as we do now, we would s飠�ll end up catching too many fish.
Some scien飠�sts, looking at the same data, see a different picture than Daniel Pauly does. Ray Hilborn, a fisheries scien飠�st at the University of Washington, doesn't think the situa飠�on is so dire. "Daniel is fond
of showing a graph that suggests that 60 to 70 percent of the world's fish stocks are overexploited or collapsed," he says. "The FAO's analysis and independent work I have done suggests that the number is more like 30 percent." Increased pressure on seafood shouldn't come as a surprise, he adds, since the goal of the global fishing industry is to fully exploit fish popula飠�ons, though without damaging their long‐term viability.
The SeafoodPrint in Ac�on
Many na飠�ons, meanwhile, are trying to compensate for the world's growing seafood deficit by farming or ranching high‐level predators such as salmon and tuna, which helps maintain the illusion of abundance in the marketplace. But there's a big problem with that approach: Nearly all farmed fish consume meal and oil derived from smaller fish. This is another way that SeafoodPrint might prove useful. If researchers can tabulate the ecological value of wild fish consumed on fish farms, they could eventually show the true impact of aquaculture [fish farming].
Given such tools, policymakers might be in a beᓖer posi飠�on to establish who is taking what from the sea and whether that is just and sustainable. As a global study, SeafoodPrint makes clear that rich na飠�ons have grossly underes飠�mated their impacts. If that doesn't change, the abundance of fish in our markets could drop off quickly. Most likely the wealthy could s飠�ll enjoy salmon and tuna and swordfish. But middle‐class fish‐eaters might find their seafood op飠�ons considerably diminished, if not eliminated altogether.
What then is SeafoodPrint's long‐range poten飠�al? Could some version of it guide a conserva飠�on agreement in which na飠�ons are given a global allowance of oceanic primary produc飠�on and fined or forced to mend their ways if they exceed it?
"That would be nice, wouldn't it?" Pauly says. He points out that we already know several ways to shrink our impact on the seas: reduce the world's fishing fleets by 50 percent, establish large no‐catch zones, limit the use of wild fish as feed in fish‐farming. Unfortunately, the seafood industry has oꡲen blocked the road to reform.
SeafoodPrint could also give consumers a map around that roadblock—a way to plot the course toward healthy, abundant oceans. Today there are dozens of sustainable‐seafood campaigns, each of which offers sugges飠�ons for ea飠�ng lower on the marine food chain. These include buying farmed 飠�lapia instead of farmed salmon, because 飠�lapia are largely herbivorous and eat less fish meal when farmed; choosing trap‐caught black cod over long‐ lined Chilean sea bass, because fewer unwanted fish are killed in the process of the harvest; and avoiding ea飠�ng giant predators like Atlan飠�c bluefin tuna altogether, because their numbers are simply too low to allow any harvest at all.
Protec�ng the Seas
The problem, say conserva飠�onists, is that the oceans have reached a cri飠�cal point. Simply changing our diets is no longer sufficient if fish are to recover and mul飠�ply in the years ahead. What Pauly and other conserva飠�on biologists now believe is that sugges飠�ons must be transformed into obliga飠�ons. If trea飠�es can establish seafood‐consump飠�on targets for every na飠�on, they argue, ci飠�zens could hold their governments responsible for mee飠�ng those targets. Comparable strategies have worked to great effect in terrestrial ecosystems, for trade items such as furs or ivory. The ocean deserves a similar effort, they say.
"Barely one percent of the ocean is now protected, compared with 12 percent of the land," Enric Sala adds, "and only a frac飠�on of that is fully protected." That's why Na飠�onal Geographic is partnering with governments, businesses, conserva飠�on organiza飠�ons, and ci飠�zens to promote marine reserves and help reduce the impact of fishing around the globe.
In the end, neither Pauly nor Sala nor the rest of the SeafoodPrint team wants to destroy the fishing industry, eliminate aquaculture, or ban fish ea飠�ng. What they do want to change is business as usual. They want to let people know that today's fishing and fish‐farming prac飠�ces are not sustainable and that the people who advocate maintaining the status quo are failing to consider the ecological and economic ramifica飠�ons. By accurately measuring the impacts na飠�ons have on the sea, SeafoodPrint may lay the groundwork for effec飠�ve change, making possible the rebuilding of the ocean's dwindling wealth. Such a course, Pauly believes, could give the na飠�ons of the world the capability, in the not too distant future, to equitably share a truly boun飠�ful, resurrected ocean, rather than greedily fight over the scraps that remain in the wake of a collapse.
Adapted from Greenberg, P. (2010). Time for a Sea Change. Na飠�onal Geographic Magazine. Retrieved from h�p://ngm.na�onalgeographic.com/print/2010/10/seafood‐crisis/greenberg‐text (h�p://ngm.na�onalgeographic.com/print/2010/10/seafood‐crisis/greenberg‐text) . Paul Greenberg/Na飠�onal Geographic Crea飠�ve. Used by permission.
Many people find locally grown food to be fresher than foods shipped thousands of miles, and enjoy purchasing directly from farmers.
© Vasiliki Varvaki/iStock/Thinkstock
Consider This
Besides providing students with fresh produce, school gardens are also being touted as an important environmental educa飠�on tool. What lessons and concepts from environmental science can students gain through the act of gardening?
3.5 Case History—The Rise of the Local Foods Movement Our modern food system not only provides us with an abundance of food at rela飠�vely low prices, it also allows us to eat different foods at almost any 飠�me of the year, even if they are out of season. Earlier genera飠�ons of Americans expected to have fresh strawberries only in June or July and fresh apples in September and October. Today, however, fresh strawberries and apples, as well as raspberries, grapes, peaches, beans, and mangoes, are available in supermarkets throughout the year.
This trend, combined with increased consump飠�on of processed foods and the concentra飠�on of meat produc飠�on has given rise to a concept known as "food miles." Food miles are a measure of how far our food travels on average from where it is produced to where it is consumed. Since transport of food requires the use of fossil fuels, an increase in food miles is likely to increase the overall environmental impact of that product. Recent studies have found that most supermarket produce has traveled an average of 1,500 miles, and one study es飠�mated that it requires 435 calories of fossil fuel energy to transport a 5‐calorie strawberry from California to New York (Cohen, 2008).
Awareness of the environmental impacts of food miles combined with growing concern over food safety have led more and more Americans to grow their own food or seek out local producers. In this ar飠�cle, Lester Brown of the Worldwatch Ins飠�tute summarizes these trends and argues that they could be the early signs of a more fundamental shiꡲ in the way food is grown, marketed, and consumed in this country. Brown argues that a shiꡲ to purchasing more local foods can significantly decrease food miles and reduce other environmental impacts of conven飠�onal agriculture. For example, more localized livestock produc飠�on can address some of the problems caused by concentrated animal feeding opera飠�ons (CAFOs) and encourage a return to integrated crop‐livestock opera飠�ons that characterized almost all agricultural systems un飠�l very recently.
By L. Brown
In the United States, there has been a surge of interest in ea飠�ng fresh local foods, corresponding with moun飠�ng concerns about the climate effects of consuming food from distant places and about the obesity and other health problems associated with junk food diets. This is reflected in the rise in urban gardening, school gardening, and farmers' markets.
With the fast‐growing local foods movement, diets are becoming more locally shaped and more seasonal. In a typical supermarket in an industrial country today it is oꡲen difficult to tell what season it is because the store tries to make everything available on a year‐round basis. As oil prices rise, this will become less common. In essence, a reduc飠�on in the use of oil to transport food over long distances—whether by plane, truck, or ship—will also localize the food economy.
This trend toward localiza飠�on is reflected in the recent rise in the number of farms in the United States, which may be the reversal of a century‐long trend of farm consolida飠�on. Between the agricultural census of 2002 and that of 2007, the number of farms in the United States increased by 4 percent to roughly 2.2 million. The new farms were mostly small, many of them operated by women, whose numbers in farming jumped from 238,000 in 2002 to 306,000 in 2007, a rise of nearly 30 percent.
Many of the new farms cater to local markets. Some produce fresh fruits and vegetables exclusively for farmers' markets or for their own roadside stands. Others produce specialized products, such as the goat farms that produce milk, cheese, and meat or the farms that grow flowers or wood for fireplaces. Others specialize in organic food. The number of organic farms in the United States jumped from 12,000 in 2002 to 18,200 in 2007, increasing by half in five years.
Gardening
Gardening was given a big boost in the spring of 2009 when U.S. First Lady Michelle Obama worked with children from a local school to dig up a piece of lawn by the White House to start a vegetable garden. There was a precedent. Eleanor Roosevelt planted a White House victory garden during World War II. Her ini飠�a飠�ve encouraged millions of victory gardens that eventually grew 40 percent of the na飠�on's fresh produce.
Although it was much easier to expand home gardening during World War II, when the United States was largely a rural society, there is s飠�ll a huge gardening poten飠�al—given that the grass lawns surrounding U.S. residences collec飠�vely cover some 18 million acres. Conver飠�ng even a small share of this to fresh vegetables and fruit trees could make an important contribu飠�on to improving nutri飠�on.
Many ci飠�es and small towns in the United States and England are crea飠�ng community gardens that can be used by those who would otherwise not have access to land for gardening. Providing space for community gardens is seen by many local governments as an essen飠�al service, like providing playgrounds for children or tennis courts and other sport facili飠�es.
Local Markets
Many market outlets are opening up for local produce. Perhaps the best known of these are the farmers' markets where local farmers bring their produce for sale. In the United States, the number of these markets increased from 1,755 in 1994 to more than 4,700 in mid‐2009, nearly tripling over 15 years. Farmers' markets reestablish personal 飠�es between producers and consumers that do not exist in the impersonal confines of the supermarket. Many farmers' markets also now take food stamps, giving low‐income consumers access to fresh produce that they might not otherwise be able to afford. With so many trends now boos飠�ng interest in these markets, their numbers may grow even faster in the future.
Schools
In school gardens, children learn how food is produced, a skill oꡲen lacking in urban sengs, and they may get their first taste of freshly picked peas or vine‐ripened tomatoes. School gardens also provide fresh produce for school lunches. California, a leader in this area, has 6,000 school gardens.
Many schools and universi飠�es are now making a point of buying local food because it is fresher, tas飠�er, and more nutri飠�ous, and it fits into new campus greening programs. Some universi飠�es compost kitchen and cafeteria food waste and make the compost available to the farmers who supply them with fresh produce.
Supermarkets are increasingly contrac飠�ng with local farmers during the season when locally grown produce is available. Upscale restaurants emphasize locally grown food on their menus. In some cases, year‐round food markets are evolving that market just locally produced foods, including not only fruit and vegetables but also meat, milk, cheese, eggs, and other farm products.
The Benefits of Local
Food from more distant loca飠�ons boosts carbon emissions while losing flavor and nutri飠�on. A survey of food consumed in Iowa showed conven飠�onal produce traveled on average 1,500 miles, not including food imported from other countries. In contrast, locally grown produce traveled on average 56 miles—a huge difference in fuel investment. And a study in Ontario, Canada, found that 58 imported foods traveled an average of 2,800 miles. Simply put, consumers are worried about food security in a long‐distance food economy. This trend has led to a new term: locavore, complemen飠�ng the beᓖer known terms herbivore, carnivore, and omnivore. [. . .]
As agriculture localizes, livestock produc飠�on will likely start to shiꡲ away from mega‐sized caᓖle, hog, and poultry feeding opera飠�ons. The shiꡲ from factory farm produc飠�on of milk, meat, and eggs by returning to mixed crop‐ livestock opera飠�ons facilitates nutrient recycling as local farmers return livestock manure to the land. The combina飠�on of high prices of natural gas, which is used to make nitrogen fer飠�lizer, and of phosphate, as reserves are depleted, suggests a much greater future emphasis on nutrient recycling—an area where small farmers producing for local markets have a dis飠�nct advantage over massive feeding opera飠�ons.
In combina飠�on with moving down the food chain to eat fewer livestock products, reducing the food miles in our diets can drama飠�cally reduce energy use in the food economy. And as world food insecurity mounts, more and more people will be looking to produce some of their own food in backyards, in front yards, on rooꡲops, in community gardens, and elsewhere, further contribu飠�ng to the localiza飠�on of agriculture.
Adapted from Chapter 9, "Feeding Eight Billion People Well," in Lester R. Brown, Plan B 4.0: Mobilizing to Save Civiliza飠�on. Copyright © Earth Ins飠�tute 2009. Retrieved from h�p://www.earth‐policy.org/index.php?/book_bytes/2009/pb4ch09_ss5#" (h�p://www.earth‐policy.org/index.php?/book_bytes/2009/pb4ch09_ss5#Ó) . Used by permission.
Apply Your Knowledge
Whether it's water, energy, or food, we seldom stop to think where these cri飠�cal items come from and how they get to us at the very moment we need them. How oꡲen do we stop and ask where our food comes from, how it's grown, processed, and shipped to where we buy it? And yet our food consump飠�on habits can have enormous impacts on the environment and our personal health. For this exercise complete the following steps:
Step 1—Sit down and list the kinds of foods you usually eat and how much of them you eat over the course of a typical week. It might help to break these down into fruits, vegetables, meats (including seafood), dairy products, etc. List the top ten foods that you eat and try to es飠�mate the quan飠�ty of your consump飠�on over the course of the week. For example, this could be as simple as saying "five apples a week," or as complicated as "five hamburgers a week, each weighing 1/3 pound, equaling 1.66 pounds of beef per week." List these ten types of foods along with es飠�mated consump飠�on.
Step 2—Pick three of these top ten foods and determine where they typically come from. You'll need to do a liᓖle sleuthing at the supermarket or on the Internet, but you should be able to determine where your favorite foods typically are produced. For example, you can visit a supermarket and look at boxes or signs to determine where most of the fruits and vegetables on display originate. A search on the Internet can tell you a lot about where most of the beef, pork, or chicken is produced in the United States.
Step 3—Using knowledge you've gained from this chapter as well as some of the resources provided at the end of this chapter, list some of the significant environmental and health impacts associated with the growing, processing and distribu飠�on of these foods.
Step 4—Use the Food Carbon Emissions Calculator found here (h�p://www.foodemissions.com/foodemissions/Calculator.aspx) to examine some of the impacts of your food consump飠�on. Vary the food category, commodity, and assump飠�ons about miles traveled and percentage wasted to see how this changes your results. How comprehensive is this calculator in terms of measuring the overall impact of your food consump飠�on choices? What factors might it not be measuring?
Summary & Resources
Chapter Summary
In the last chapter, we learned that even though fer飠�lity rates are declining and popula飠�on growth is slowing, global popula飠�on is expected to reach over nine billion later this century. More people, combined with more widespread affluence and rising meat consump飠�on, means we will have to con飠�nue to increase food produc飠�on in order to feed the world. How that food is grown, processed, and distributed can have significant impacts on the environment, and there is concern that conven飠�onal approaches cannot be sustained over the long term.
One approach to increasing food produc飠�on that began roughly 50 years ago was the first green revolu飠�on. This movement achieved remarkable success in raising global grain produc飠�on at a 飠�me when world popula飠�on was growing rapidly. Green revolu飠�on agriculture focused on monocultures of single crops and required significant inputs of energy, water, fer飠�lizers, pes飠�cides, and herbicides. As with many issues in the study of the environment, we are confronted here with tradeoffs. The high‐input approach to agriculture has increased food produc飠�on drama飠�cally, almost certainly aver飠�ng famine in some regions and providing an abundance of rela飠�vely cheap food in countries like the United States. However, this approach has also resulted in a number of environmental challenges, including the following:
Heavy pumping of groundwater for irriga飠�on has lowered water tables and resulted in saliniza飠�on—the buildup of mineral salts in the soil—in many regions. Mechaniza飠�on and con飠�nuous plowing has worsened soil erosion and the loss of topsoil, necessita飠�ng heavier use of synthe飠�c fer飠�lizers to make up for lost soil fer飠�lity. Fer飠�lizer runoff from farms enters water bodies and can result in algal blooms, known as eutrophica飠�on. When the algae decompose, oxygen levels in the water are depleted, and this can result in the death of aqua飠�c and marine life. Monocultures create ideal condi飠�ons for insect pests and weeds, necessita飠�ng heavy applica飠�ons of chemical pes飠�cides and herbicides to reduce crop losses. Conven飠�onal agriculture is highly energy‐intensive. Much of this energy is consumed in the produc飠�on of synthe飠�c fer飠�lizers and pes飠�cides, as well as in the processing and shipment of foods over long distances. Large‐scale meat produc飠�on from concentrated animal feeding opera飠�ons has resulted in waste management problems and necessitated the greater use of an飠�bio飠�cs to control the spread of disease—a situa飠�on that some experts worry is leading to the development of strains of an飠�bio飠�c‐resistant bacteria.
One solu飠�on being touted as a means of mee飠�ng this challenge is gene飠�c engineering and the gene飠�c modifica飠�on of crops. This approach aims to develop specific traits in crops that would maintain produc飠�vity while reducing the need for inputs of water, fer飠�lizer, and pes飠�cides. Another approach, known as agroecology or sustainable agriculture, focuses on managing a farm as an ecological system, paying aᓖen飠�on to nutrient cycles, monitoring the interac飠�ons between plants and other organisms, and balancing resource use with availability. While these two approaches—gene飠�c engineering and agroecology—need not be mutually exclusive, they are usually presented and discussed as if they were. Ul飠�mately, in order to con飠�nue feeding the world in the decades ahead, it may be that every possible op飠�on has to remain on the table.
Indeed, mee飠�ng the food demands of a growing popula飠�on in a way that does not undermine the environment is one of the great challenges of our 飠�me. As we'll see in the next chapter, growing food demands are already driving the conversion of tropical rainforests to farmland and the use of synthe飠�c fer飠�lizers at a rate that is actually beginning to change the global nitrogen and phosphorous cycles.
Working Toward Solu�ons
The readings in this chapter might leave you feeling overwhelmed and pessimis飠�c about the prospects for feeding the world in a sustainable fashion. However, there are thousands of examples from around the world of farmers, ranchers, fishers, and scien飠�sts working together to reduce the environmental impact of food produc飠�on and meet the needs of a growing popula飠�on. The discussion below highlights some of the approaches being used to improve agricultural sustainability and the science, economics, and policy behind them. It also provides some hints for what individuals can do to reduce the environmental impact of their own food consump飠�on choices.
There are a whole range of approaches and prac飠�ces that fall under the umbrella term of sustainable agriculture. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) published a comprehensive survey of these in a 1999 report found here (h�p://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/terms/srb9902.shtml) . The report starts with a defini飠�on of what we mean by sustainable, something we want to maintain or keep in existence over a long period of 飠�me. Clearly, an approach to agriculture that depletes and pollutes water supplies, destroys soil resources, relies heavily on nonrenewable energy supplies, and poisons people and animals with pes飠�cides and agricultural chemicals is not sustainable.
Sustainable alterna飠�ves, therefore, have to preserve water supplies and protect water quality, maintain soil health and produc飠�vity, rely primarily on renewable energy inputs and solar energy, and limit or eliminate the use of pes飠�cides and other poten飠�ally hazardous agricultural chemicals. One approach to doing this is known as agroecology. Agroecology is an aᓖempt to design and develop agricultural systems that mimic or copy natural, ecological systems. For example, consider that natural forest or grassland systems can be incredibly produc飠�ve over long periods of 飠�me while genera飠�ng posi飠�ve environmental benefits (such as clean air and water) known as ecosystem services. These systems do not rely on external inputs of energy, water, or fer飠�lizers or other chemicals to maintain their produc飠�vity. Agroecology seeks to do the same thing for agriculture.
Specific prac飠�ces that are used in agroecology and sustainable agriculture might include the following:
Crop rota飠�on—Rather than plant the same crop year aꡲer year, farmers rotate crops over 飠�me. This approach disrupts pest reproduc飠�on cycles, reducing the need for pes飠�cides, and can also reduce the need for fer飠�lizer since different plants oꡲen require different nutrients. No‐飠�ll and low‐飠�ll farming—Growing crops without 飠�lling or disturbing the soil reduces soil erosion and runoff. Soil‐building crops—Some plants, such as clover and legumes, are capable of absorbing nitrogen from the atmosphere and deposi飠�ng it in the soil, enhancing soil quality. These plants can be inter‐cropped or planted alongside other crops to maintain soil fer飠�lity. Integrated pest management (IPM)—Crop rota飠�on, inter‐cropping, and increased crop diversity generally lead to fewer pest problems than monocultures. IPM also seeks to maintain balance in a field between destruc飠�ve pests and beneficial insects (such as ladybugs and praying man飠�ses) that feed on them. Organic agriculture—Minimizing or elimina飠�ng the use of synthe飠�c fer飠�lizers, pes飠�cides, and herbicides through careful management of soil fer飠�lity and insect popula飠�ons.
Despite the apparent benefits of these approaches there are poli飠�cal, economic, and other barriers to more widespread adop飠�on of sustainable agricultural prac飠�ces. For starters, government subsidies to agriculture in countries like the United States are oꡲen based on the amount of acreage devoted to a specific crop. This encourages monocultures and discourages crop rota飠�on and inter‐cropping since these would reduce the size of the subsidy payment. Second, sustainable prac飠�ces require a fair amount of knowledge, careful monitoring, and experimenta飠�on. Many farmers, already opera飠�ng with heavy debt burdens, are reluctant to change the way they farm for fear of lower yields and profitability. Lastly, the societal costs of conven飠�onal agricultural prac飠�ces—such as air and water pollu飠�on—are typically not reflected in the prices we pay for our food. This makes organic agriculture and food produced in a more sustainable fashion appear more expensive than it actually is.
As individuals we can support a move toward more sustainable agriculture by paying more aᓖen飠�on to where our food comes from and how it is produced. Where possible, and when affordable, organic products are likely to have less environmental impact than non‐organic. Suppor飠�ng local farmers is another way to reduce the environmental impact of our food consump飠�on. One way to do this is by joining a community‐supported agriculture (CSA) group in your area. A CSA consists of a group of consumers who pay a local farmer a fixed price (or subscrip飠�on) for a share of that farmer's produce over the course of the year. You can learn more about sustainable agriculture and see if there are any CSAs in your area by going to these sites:
h�p://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/csa/csa.shtml (h�p://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/csa/csa.shtml) h�p://newfarm.rodaleins�tute.org/embedfarmlocator/ (h�p://newfarm.rodaleins�tute.org/embedfarmlocator/)
h�p://www.localharvest.org/csa/ (h�p://www.localharvest.org/csa/)
Key Ideas
For the past 50 years, green revolu飠�on approaches to agriculture—combining new crop varie飠�es with expanded irriga飠�on, fer飠�lizers, and pes飠�cides to control pests and weeds—have greatly increased crop yields and helped avert famine in many regions of the world. However, agricultural produc飠�vity has begun to stagnate while rising popula飠�ons, changing diets, and increased demand for biofuels from crops is pung increased pressure on global food supplies. Higher levels of meat consump飠�on require even greater increases in grain produc飠�on since it takes many more calories of grain fed to an animal to produce a single calorie of meat. A shiꡲ to more of a meat‐based diet therefore increases the land area devoted to agriculture as well as the consump飠�on of water, energy, and agricultural chemicals. Close to half of America's land area is dedicated to growing crops or pasture for animals. Agricultural ac飠�vi飠�es on these lands can degrade soil quality, water quality, and air quality. Agriculture is the leading cause of impairment or pollu飠�on of America's rivers and lakes. This includes sediment from soil erosion, runoff of nitrogen and phosphorous fer飠�lizers, and runoff of pes飠�cides and herbicides. Nitrogen and phosphorous runoff leads to algae blooms, eutrophica飠�on, and hypoxia, or low oxygen levels in water bodies. Agriculture is also an important contributor to air pollu飠�on in the form of nitrous oxides, methane, carbon dioxide, and par飠�culates or dust. Unlike tradi飠�onal plant breeding, which combines traits from the same plant types to produce beᓖer varie飠�es, gene飠�c engineering or biotechnology involves moving gene飠�c material from one organism to another, perhaps completely different, organism. The goal of gene飠�c engineering is to select genes that possess desirable traits, such as resistance to drought or insects, and insert them into another organism that does not already benefit from the desirable trait. Globally, over 170 billion pounds of wild fish and shell fish are caught in the oceans each year, and seafood accounts for roughly 15 percent of all animal protein consumed by humans. By some es飠�mates, 60 to 70 percent of the world's wild fish stocks are overexploited or already collapsed. Apex predator fish species such as Bluefin tuna and Pacific swordfish feed at the very top of the food chain, ea飠�ng as many as 15,000 smaller fish a year to survive. For this reason, human consump飠�on of apex predator fish species has a larger impact, or seafood print, on global fisheries than does ea飠�ng an equivalent amount of fish lower down the food chain. The concept of food miles can be used to measure how far our food travels from where it is produced to where it is consumed. Higher food miles generally mean a greater environmental impact since more fossil fuels are used in transporta飠�on. A local foods movement focused on farmers' markets and gardening in homes and schools is growing rapidly in response to an awareness of food miles.
Cri�cal Thinking and Discussion Ques�ons
1. The two commodi飠�es of food and energy are both cri飠�cal in our day‐to‐day lives. We couldn't survive without food, and it's hard to imagine how we'd get by without energy to move our cars, light and heat our homes, and power our economy. It turns out that these two commodi飠�es are also very 飠�ghtly linked. Think about a recent meal you consumed and then try to account for all of the ways in which energy was used to get that meal in front of you, going as far back in the produc飠�on process as possible. What does this say about the environmental impact of agriculture and the security of our food system in an age of unstable energy supplies?
2. Experts disagree over whether con飠�nued increases in popula飠�on will lead to more widespread famine in the future. Some argue that we have already exploited the best lands for agriculture and that green revolu飠�on approaches are no longer increasing yields. Others suggest that new approaches to agriculture, such as gene飠�c engineering, will increase produc飠�on enough to avert disaster. S飠�ll others argue that there is more than enough food in the world if people are willing to adjust their diets and, for example, eat less meat. How compelling do you find each of these arguments? What does it suggest to you about what needs to be done to meet our food needs in the future?
3. Agriculture is a persistent and leading cause of water pollu飠�on in the United States. In contrast, since the 1960s there has been great progress made in reducing water pollu飠�on from large industrial and sewage treatment facili飠�es. What is it about an ac飠�vity like agriculture that might make it more difficult to control runoff and pollu飠�on compared to large industrial facili飠�es?
4. Whether you realize it or not, gene飠�cally modified corn, soybeans, and other crops are already present in much of the food you eat. At least in the United States, concerns over consumer safety from gene飠�c engineering have not slowed the development of these products. What kinds of safety research and tes飠�ng do you think should occur before gene飠�cally engineered crops are approved for mass produc飠�on and human consump飠�on? How might the basic principles of the scien飠�fic method be used to design and carry out that research?
5. How is gene飠�c modifica飠�on different from tradi飠�onal cross‐breeding techniques? What are the ramifica飠�ons of these differences? Consider both inten飠�onal results and unintended consequences. 6. Aquaculture, or fish farming, is frequently touted as a more sustainable alterna飠�ve to seafood produc飠�on than catching wild fish. Yet not all forms of aquaculture are as sustainable as others. As sec飠�on 3.4 points out,
ea飠�ng farmed 飠�lapia is more sustainable than ea飠�ng farmed salmon. Why is this? What is it about the diets of different fish species—such as 飠�lapia or salmon—that make the farming of one more sustainable than the other? How might you use that knowledge to build a sustainable aquaculture system?
7. The idea of using food miles as a key indicator of the environmental impact of a certain food product has recently come under aᓖack as being oversimplified. Cri飠�cs point out that it's not just how far a food item travels that determines how much energy is used to bring it to market, but also how much energy is used, and how efficiently it's used, to produce it in the first place. If you had to design an experiment to es飠�mate the life cycle energy costs (how much energy is used in the en飠�re process of producing and transpor飠�ng a product to market) of an apple grown 1,500 miles away on a large apple farm versus one grown locally by a small farmer, how would you do it? What factors would you want to consider in making this comparison?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the defini飠�on.
agfla�on (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
An increase in the price of food that occurs as a result of increased demand from human consump飠�on.
agroecology (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
An ecological approach to agriculture that views agricultural areas as ecosystems and is concerned with the ecological impact of agricultural prac飠�ces.
apex (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
The top or highest part of something.
apex predators (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
Predators that feed at the very top of the food chain.
aquaculture (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
The growing and harves飠�ng of fish and shellfish for human use.
biofuels (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
Gas or liquid fuels made from plant material.
Dust Bowl (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
The ecological and agricultural damage in the American Plains created by the severe dust storms of the 1930s; for more informa飠�on, visit h�p://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/dustbowl (h�p://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/dustbowl) .
food miles (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
The measure of how far food travels on average from where it is produced to where it is consumed.
gene�c engineering (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
The deliberate modifica飠�on of the characteris飠�cs of an organism by manipula飠�ng its gene飠�c material.
Global Food Price Index (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
A measure of the monthly change in interna飠�onal prices of a basket of food commodi飠�es, specifically the prices of cereal, oils/fats, sugar, dairy, and meat.
green revolu�on (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
Term for the introduc飠�on of scien飠�fically bred or selected varie飠�es of grain that, with adequate inputs of fer飠�lizer and water, can greatly increase crop yields.
locavore (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
One who primarily eats food that is grown or produced within the local community or region.
Malthusian correc�on (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
Theory put forth by the Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834) that popula飠�on growth is eventually curtailed by famine, disease, or other factors.
monocultures (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
Cul飠�va飠�on of a single crop, usually on a large area of land.
seafood print (h�p://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover/books/AUSCI207.14.2/sec�ons/cover#)
A measure of the amount of primary produc飠�on—microscopic organisms at the boᓖom of the marine food web—required to make a pound of a given type of fish.
Addi�onal Resources If you would like more informa飠�on about the topics presented in this chapter, click here (h�ps://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constella�on/book/AUSCI207.14.2/{handouts}chapter3.pdf) .