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Pre-human hominids are universally deemed as the ancestors of the human race. Their occurrence is dated to be four to five million years ago, while the human race itself emerged nearly too hundred thousand years ago. Over the years, it has been keenly noted that humans share specific DNA composition with other primates. It is only a slight difference in the genetic makeup and body chemistry that makes humans have more intelligence than these other species, making them more adaptable to their environment and therefore give them a greater ability to control the natural world. This intelligence has seen the humans have greater potential for advanced and sophisticated social-cultural abilities that other species cannot measure up to. These unique and advanced abilities possessed by humans include well devised tools, technologies cooperation and communication skills.

The Paleolithic society, which is commonly known as the Old Stone Age is the longest era in the history of the human race on the planet. It is majorly characterized with hunting and gathering. It existed long before ancient agriculture emerged, and therefore it lived on looking for edible stuff from the wild life, both edible fruits and animal, hence their hunting and gathering lifestyle. Theirs was a completely liberal life, as there was nobody’s possession ever. No wealth, no private property. One very outstanding characteristic of this early man is the ability to communicate. There was a well-structured and powerful language that enabled them to communicate very important messages. For this reason, it was possible to pass information and knowledge to the next generation. The new generations would thus improve the knowledge and as it accumulated over the years, humans were able to give a good take on the various aspect of life they live. One common link between generation and creativity is the early cave paintings. This ability to communicate abstractly is the major skill that humans have banked on in realizing their present control over the natural world.

The Neolithic or the New Stone Age era proceeded the Paleolithic. It marks the transition from the hunting and gathering lifestyle of the Old Stone Age into a more civilized agricultural society. Human in this era lived in distinct communities which domesticated animals and grew crops. This is cited to have been taking place at around 9000 B.C.E. They lived together and their population grew over time. Unlike in the Old Stone Age, there was the aspect of ownership of property, hence personal wealth. The ownership of land was the major one, and it dictated the owner’s economic and political power. There were hierarchies of authority in aspects such as religion and government, a clear indication of an organized and civilized society. Just like the Old Stone Age, the New Stone Age gave interest in fertility as an important feature of their religion.

Later, within a period of four thousand years, the agricultural revolution gave birth to a new, more civilized urban life, with distinction between villages and towns. Apart from being more civilized, these urban societies were complex ones, and are the ones that saw the emergence of specialization. There was an emergence of craftsmanship and industries in these towns that housed different classes of people, who were professionals in their fields of specialization. These professionals ranged from tax collectors, governors, administrators and military strategists. The religions were also more advanced, and were characterized with specialization too. There were priests who were more specialized and executed their religious roles in a more sophisticated manner than the shamans of the Paleolithic era. It was in these cities that the various aspects that influenced the society were controlled. Economic, political, social and religious systems which were now sophisticated were formulated and monitored in these cities. For this reason, the cities became the central point of focus in the evolution that culminated to rapid civilization.

Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations

Human civilization is said to have evolved in Mesopotamia at around 4000 B.C.E. Mesopotamia, also called ‘The Land between the Rivers’ had the world’s first cities that housed the ancient civilized professionals. Some of these cities were Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Kish. They cities had sophisticated marketplaces, where commerce took place. It was where buyers and sellers met for business. These cities were also the places where political, military and religious institutions were controlled from. Formal education also started during this era, where the traditions of writing were learnt and taught. This was a major step in the history of human race. It was a great advancement that, later, would see the activities and occurrences of that time be known by later generations. Priests, who were leaders of organized religious groups were instrumental in this formal education. One other thing that defined these cities was the architecture in the palaces, temples and defensive walls. The ziggurat in Uruk which was constructed in 3200 B.C.E. is one of the well-known architectural features.

These cities were in constant interaction with each other. The people used to mingle. They cooperated with each other and other times they conflicted. This interaction led to merging of these cities, into two empires. The northern Mesopotamia Empire was called the Babylonians and the one which took to the south of Mesopotamia was called the Sumerians. Military force was used to conquer neighboring cities, and this was the major cause of this merging. Sargon was among the well-known conquerors of this time. He was from Akkad, which was a city near Kish and Babylon. He fought the Sumerians in 2334 B.C.E. and started merging all the cities-states. After his time, this series of conquests continued, but there were no strong emperors of his type, therefore the empire grew weaker. In 1792-1750 B.C.E. , there emerged a strong Babylonian emperor called Hammurabi who introduced strict laws with regular taxes. His was a bureaucratic ruling. Hammurabi was the first emperor to introduce codified laws which gave a clear information on the standards for behavior. These laws were distinctively categorized as civil laws and criminal laws. Civil laws touched on things like the conditions for slavery, wages, market prices and other commercial dealings. It had also clauses on how to conduct marriage. Criminal laws were those that entailed criminal activities. All these laws outlined severe punishment for those who broke them.

Mesopotamian civilization is instrumental for many advancements that the human race today enjoy. Modern science, literature, religion and the whole education system owe to the legacy of the early writing techniques that the Mesopotamians came up with. Their technology that time led to very important pioneering discoveries and inventions such as bronze metallurgy, iron metallurgy, the wheel and ship building. It is from these massive inventions that economic specialization was realized, that led to extensive growth of trade networks all over the globe. Mesopotamians had a good stratified patriarchal society, with a class of rulers. These kings and noblemen had a lot of wealth that they had accumulated for themselves. They lived in palaces and ziggurats and had very large areas of land. The people began associating them with the gods and goddesses. Women were not left out in the society. There were laws that governed gender roles and dictated on gender division. There were women even in top roles in the society such as consultants to kings and priestesses. However, in the second millennium of B.C.E, men controlled women’s sexual behavior for the sake of protecting their valuables.

The Hebrews and the Phoenicians are the two main groups of people whose life was greatly influenced by Mesopotamia. At around 1850 B.C.E, the famous Hebrew patriarch, Abraham, migrated to the Mediterranean region from Ur, the Sumerian city. He carried with him the Mesopotamian life that he later lived with, together with his close companions. All the history of the Hebrews is enshrined in the Torah, and encompasses the life of many other great people of the Hebrew society. This Torah is the current Old Testament of the Christian Bible. The Phoenicians settled on the city states near the Mediterranean region, just above the Hebrews. They too had a great influence of the Mesopotamian culture.

-EGYPTIAN AND NUBIAN SOCIETIES

Chapter 3: Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations

Nubian and Egypt societies that are located alongside river Nile have proven to be essential in the history of human civilization. One of the key aspects that transformed this region is people's agricultural practices. The complexity and sophistication nature of the Egyptians began around 5000 B.C.E. It is during this period whereby individuals believe the aspect of divine and semi-divine leaders was established in Nubia and Egypt, the idea that originated from eastern and central Sudan. In these areas of Sudan, there were already small kingdoms which had been put in place and were well established. There were disparities in the Nubia and Egypt way of evolution by 3500 B. C. E whereby Egypt established large empires as compared to the small kingdoms which were previously in place. Egypt also treasured Menes as their original unifier. During 3100 B. C. E Menes emerged and came up with Memphis city nowadays called Cairo that was located at the juncture of Lower and Upper Egypt. It was Menes central idea of the establishment of a state governed by supreme rulers or pharaohs. Another key aspect that was taken from Sudan was the idea of God living in the form of human on Earth. Up to today, massive pyramids and pharaoh's legacies are still in place in Egypt.

The Archaic and Old Kingdom periods that existed between 3100-2660 B.C.E and 2660-2160 B.C. E respectively delineate pharaohs who were responsible for the organization of these complex and sophisticated societies that reflected the architectural and artistic superb works and also well established and advanced economic, political, social and religious institutions. During this period there was a very strong interconnection of commercial and political ties between the two societies (Nubia and Egypt). There were several instances whereby Egypt tried to conquer Nubia until the latter established a very powerful kingdom named Kush which had its capital at a place known as Kerma. The word Kerma referred to strong integration and assimilation of larger and complex Egyptian civilization.

Although there were Pharaohs during middle kingdom that existed in between 2040-2060 B.C.E and the new kingdom between 1550-1070 B.C. E they were less powerful in comparison with the pharaohs in the Old Kingdom era. Later Egyptian civilization declined and only acted as defensive against the Nubia which led to the Nubia conquering Egyptian society, and Kush ruled them for almost a century during 760 B.C E. The emergence and establishment of stratified societies were very essential, and Nubian and Egyptian ancient cities were the key commerce, wealth and power centers. Egyptians majorly depended on professional military class since the chances of the extensive noble class were minimal. Their sole idea of having supreme central ruler made them be very distinctive. In fact, Egyptian civilization has proven to have the grand legacy in numerous fields. Sophisticated complex tax collectors and administrators also existed.

Nubian and Egyptian societies are patriarchal societies with bestowed authority over private and public affairs. Elite individuals had a benefit of enjoying amassed wealth, high social status and comfortable positions, unlike the lower class people who were just carpenters, agricultural workers, crafts men, potters, and fishermen. Egyptian civilization had a very strong contribution towards a religious system whereby they had two major gods, Anon and Re. On the other hand Nubians had a lion-god known as Epidermal, creator God and also divine guardian for people. One of the common and major cults in the Egyptian Society was Osiris which was associated with the Nile and was honoured with very high moral standards.