homework

Process and effects

Effects and uses

It is really interesting that the earlier studies focused on studying the ‘effects’ of media and concluded that the media played a limited role in influencing public opinion!!

There are many theories study the effects such as magic bullet theory or hypodermic theory, payne fund studies, and agenda sitting.

- The "hypodermic theory" which was done by Lasswell, implied mass media had a direct, immediate and powerful effect on its audiences. The mass media in the early studies were perceived as a powerful influence on behavior change. This theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very large group of people directly by ‘injecting’ them with appropriate messages designed to have a desired response. The bullet theory suggests that the message is a bullet, fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's "head". They express the view that the media is a dangerous means of communicating an idea because the receiver or audience is powerless to resist the impact of the message. There is no escape from the effect of the message in these models. The "war of the worlds" broadcast is a good example of the magic bullet theory and this is exactly how this theory worked, by injecting the message directly into the public’s mind in order to make effects. The war of the worlds became known as the "Panic Broadcast" made by Orson Welles.

- “Payne Fund Studies” are the second important studies that also focused on the effects standpoint these studies were developed by the motion picture research council and these studies were concerning about the effects of motion pictures on children particularly. Payne fund studies of effects included the effects on children's information acquisition, attitude change, emotion stimulation, health, and behavior. Children acquired then save or keep the information they received in the movies. Movie viewing changed attitudes concerning ethnic and social issues. Emotions were stimulated especially those related to fear. Health effects were measured by looking at the sleep patterns of children after watching movies, and certain movies disturbed healthy sleep. Children who attended movies regularly were found to behave poorly in school compared to those who attended less frequently. Children imitated favorable behavior they saw in movies, but movies also appeared to play a direct role in delinquent careers. Overall researchers found that movies influenced both children's attitudes and behaviors.

- “Agenda sitting” Agenda setting describes a very powerful influence of the media – the ability to tell us what issues are important. “The world outside and the pictures in our heads” which was done by Lippmann. The article is about an island that was populated by Germans, French and British. The case is that of Madam Caillaux, who was facing a trial for shooting someone. The murder was because of the hate that the English and the French were concealing against the Germans. The people of the island had waited for the judgment to be released in the newspaper. When the newspaper was delivered, they realized that there was a war for more than six weeks between English and French against Germans. For them, it was a strange environment and entirely different from the real situation that existed. The people in the island trusted the picture in their heads and it was driving their imagination. This is the reason why they were acting like they were friends while they were enemies. That means, we do not have the ability to understand everything on the world and we use the media to simplify the pictures for us.

- After that there was new approach which was “People choice or two flow steps” which conducted by Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet, which tends to show minimal effects of media and it means that the media does not have powerful as what was expected. This theory works as bridge between the effects’ theories and uses and gratification theories, because it takes the middle ground between those two approaches. This theory asserts that information from the media moves in two distinct ways. First, individuals or opinion leaders who pay close attention to the mass media and its messages receive the information. Opinion leaders pass on their own interpretations in addition to the actual media content. The theory refined the ability to predict the influence of media messages on audience behavior and it helped explain why certain media campaigns may have failed to change audience attitudes an behavior.

After this approach was developed, many researchers tended to focus in the minimal effects of mass media rather that the maximum effects, and the good example of those researchers are Schramm, Lyle, and Parker who studied the television in the lives of our children. And they focused in their study in the uses and gratification theory, so they said “ children used television not television used children”. And they illustrated their concept in perfect way, so they drew an analogy between television and great shiny cafeteria. In a cafeteria children only selected what they wanted, so children took and consumed only what they wanted from television as well.

Now I think it is important to discuss the idea of the uses and gratification which moved the studies from the effects standpoint to the uses standpoint.

“Uses and gratification” it was time to study what radio means in the lives of listeners. Lazarsfeld and the office of radio research decided to study that aspect of the influence of media. The project included several studies that were focusing on the daytime serials and soap operas that were popular at that time. The purpose was to understand how and why people listened to the daytime series and the soap operas. Herzog who was a student of Lazarsfeld, investigated the characteristics of the regular listeners such as social isolation, intellectual interests, concern with public affair, different characteristics and different preference. Herzog found out that there were three major forms of uses and gratification, which include emotional release, wishful thinking and valuable advice. So the idea of this theory states that consumers use the media to satisfy specific needs or desires. It is an approach to understand why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. Uses and gratification is driving from other media effect theories that ask the question “what does media do to people” to focus on the question “ what people do with media”. The best example of the UGT is as what Schramm, Layle and Parker conducted that children-using TV to satisfy their needs such as for entertainment, learning, or for social utility. The study showed how children use TV to fulfill their needs rather than focus only on the negative effects of media.

Early mass media “interpersonal influence”

Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet conducted interpersonal influence or two steps flow. The project was conducted during the election of Franklin Roosevelt, to determine voting patterns and the relationship between the media and political behavior. The majority of people remained untouched by the propaganda; interpersonal outlets brought more influence than the media. Roosevelt won the election because of his effective political campaign propaganda. The two-step flow of information was also one of the findings of this study. The information about political campaigns flows from the mass media to people who were mostly exposed to them or who they are called “opinion leaders”. These opinion leaders processed the information and passed to the people who were less influenced and less exposed to the media. The theory of the two-step flow of communication reversed the dominant model in mass communication in that time. Before Lazarsfeld’s study, it was assumed that mass media have a direct influence on people who use the media. Media were thought to significantly influence people’s decisions and behaviors. However, the research done by Lazarsfeld and others showed that only about 5 percent of people changed their voting preference as a result of media consumption and that interpersonal discussions of political issues were more prevalent than consumption of political news. These findings came to be known as the “limited effects model or minimal effects model” of media influence, Joseph Klapper explained this concept in his book "the effects of mass communication". Beside that, the theory of the two-step flow of mass communication was developed by Lazarsfeld with Katz in "personal influence" book. This book explains that people’s reactions to media messages are mediated by interpersonal communication with members of their social environment in different social groups such as family, friends, professional and religious associations, and so on, has more influence on that person’s decision-making processes and behavior than the information from mass media

Disciplines

Over the past 50 years, the associated fields of communication and media studies have expanded perhaps more than any other academic field. Evidence of this growth is the number of theories from many other fields such as mass communication, biotechnology, sociology and psychology. Before becoming simply communication, or communication studies, the discipline was formed from three other major studies: psychology, sociology, and political science. By the end of the twentieth century the status of communication and media studies had gained a firm footing next to older, more established fields. While expanding, the field of communication and media studies became more and more diversified. Different types of media (print, electronic, online) and different aspects of communication (journalism, visual communication, media economy, etc.) emerged and developed into more or less independent branches. So communication and media studies are so many today. Scholars from different disciplines such as social psychology, child development, family studies, sociology, and anthropology are all in the business of studying human relationships and mass communication in general. In particular, research in psychology or social psychology and other disciplines has contributed to the establishment and evolution of the field of communication research. If we look at Ryan and Gross study of the hybrid corn seed innovation from sociology department, we can see clearly how the field of communication tries to benefit from other areas of research and tries to apply them in its own field.

Early communication

Various aspects of communication have been the subject of study from the very past years, and the approach eventually developed into the academic discipline known today as communication studies. Before 20th century, in Greece and Rome for example, the study of rhetoric, the art of oratory and persuasion, was an essential subject for students. For example, if we look at Aristotle theory, perhaps the most famous arguer who described three routes to change the mind of the other person. Ethos uses trust, and focuses first on the speaker, showing the speaker as a person of integrity and good character. Pathos appeals to the emotions of the listener, seeking to excite them or otherwise arouse their interest. And finally Logos focuses first on the argument, using cool logic and rational explanation, as well as demonstrable evidence. Communication has existed since the beginning of human life, but people did not begin to study the process until the 20th century. So when WWW1 ended, the interest in studying communication increased.

Before becoming simply communication, or communication studies, the discipline was formed from three other major studies: psychology, sociology, and political science. Communication studies focus on communication as central to the human experience, which involves understanding how people behave in creating, exchanging, and interpreting messages. In the early 1960s Communication Studies began to move towards a more independent field, and move out of the departments of sociology, political science, psychology, and English. The changes in the department are considered a result of the historical events taking place at the time.

It is important also to mention here that the first major model for communication was conceived by Shannon and Weaver. Following the basic concept of communication, which is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from (sender) to (receiver). Then this model developed by Berlo who expanded Shannon and Weaver's model of communication and created the sender-message-channel-receiver.

Also it is important to mention here that in the early communication theory people focused on the effect of mass media rather than focusing on the uses standpoint, and the good example of this thought could be illustrated magic bullet theory. Magic bullet theory suggests that while we are raised in different social situations and norms, we are essentially the same in human nature. The theory goes to say that we therefore should have the same emotions and outlooks when it comes to response to messages. It then holds that the media will and can shape our outlooks and actions. The message is "shot" or "injected" to the viewer and then guides their actions. The main view of the theory is that viewers will not try escape or resist the message. They accept the message without investigation because the media is a valid source of information.

Example: The war of the worlds broadcast “panic broadcast” which made by Orson Welles.

Uniform influences

The theory of uniform influence, sometimes also called the magic bullet theory or hypodermic needle theory, suggests that while we are raised in different social situations and norms, we are essentially the same in human nature. The theory goes to say that we therefore should have the same emotions and outlooks when it comes to response to messages. It then holds that the media will and can shape our outlooks and actions. The message is "shot" or "injected" to the viewer and then guides their actions. The main view of the theory is that viewers will not try escape or resist the message. They accept the message without investigation because the media is a valid source of information.

Example: The war of the worlds broadcast

Selective influence

The theories of selective influence contradict the theories of uniform effects. The theory suggests that every person is unique. It believes because of unique natures and beliefs that we will all respond to the media in different ways or not at all.

Indirect Influences

Theory of indirect influence: Media only had limited influences on their audiences. Research findings concentrated on studies of effects that were produced in the short run realized that media could produce long range and indirect influences.

Not powerful

This thought is somehow true because it discusses the idea of the “opinion leader” who is a well-known individual or organization that has the ability to influence public opinion on the subject matter for which the opinion leader is known. The opinion leaders would pass on to people some information or advice that they received from firsthand exposure to the media, along with their own special interpretation of what all meant. Thus, the heavy involvement of people in political discussion led the researchers to suggest “ideas often flow from radio and print to the opinion leaders and from them to the less active section of the population.

To explain the new concept of “the media has less powerful” very effectively, I would explain very important theory which “uses and gratifications theory”. This theory is an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. UGT is an audience-centered approach to understanding mass communication. Diverging from other media effect theories that question, "what does media do to people?" UGT focuses on "what do people do with media? To be informed or educated, identify with characters of the situation in the media environment, simple entertainment, enhance social interaction, escape from the stresses of daily life. There are several needs and gratification for people they are categorized into five categories include, cognitive needs, affective needs, personal Integrative needs, social Integrative needs, and tension free needs. The needs are individual in nature, and how we satisfy the need is individualistic. For example, why some people watch news to relax and some get more tension by watching news, Program is the same but people use it for different needs. I believe this moved from the old concept of the powerful of media into the new concept of power less of media evolve because of the “sleeper effects model” which is a psychological phenomenon that relates to persuasion. Generally, the sleeper effect is referred to as the delay of the effect of the persuasive messages when the recipients are exposed to those messages. The reason behind of this model of sleeper effects or forgetting curve is the critical ability or the educational attainment level or critical thinking level. Some people make assumptions on what they think and feel without testing the statement. Not taking thing at face value wonder why. We live in a world where people constantly influence us and we have to question why. Life is not simple; there are many factors we have to think about it. Those people who didn’t have critical thinking skill were more frightened in the “panic broadcasting experience”. We need to look at the study to see why people were so easily persuaded that the radio drama was real? Why do we think these people should have known better? We need to look at how powerful the radio was at that time. Especially on individuals with low critical thinking. Politicians use this all the time. All of the politicians lie to convince us because people want to believe it. So I think because of the improvement in the idea of the critical ability or thinking, the studies moved from focusing on the powerful of media into the new concept that the media has fewer effects on people.

Diffusion of the message before the industrial revolution changes in society and in the ways in which human beings related to each other took place slowly. The reason of that was the rate of innovation was low and the process of communication was limited to the word of mouth. After that, the industrial revolution changed all of that. Not only brought the media and popular culture but also with the industrialization people moved between countries. With this changed the free flow of information through informal channels based on neighbors, and traditional communities. One of the most important innovations in agricultural technology during WW11 was the development of hybrid seed corn, which was developed by Ryan and Gross. The innovation was a great success, so because of that Ryan and Gross interviewed some farmers in order to gather some information about the diffusion of the innovation or how they had heard about this hybrid corn seed. They found that some farmers heard about the hybrid seed from their neighbors and some from salespeople or relatives. Also, they found that some farmers had switched their entire farms from the older to new, while other had tried out on smaller plot before making the change. Rogers categorizes the five stages (steps) of adopters as:

Awareness

Interest

Evaluation

Trial

Adoption

An individual might reject an innovation at any time during the adoption process.

There are five established adopter categories, and while the majority of the general population tends to fall in the middle categories, it is still necessary to understand the characteristics of the target population. When promoting an innovation, there are different strategies used to appeal to the different adopter categories.

Innovators - These are people who want to be the first to try the innovation. They are venturesome and interested in new ideas. These people are very willing to take risks, and are often the first to develop new ideas. Very little, if anything, needs to be done to appeal to this population.

Early Adopters - These are people who represent opinion leaders. They enjoy leadership roles, and embrace change opportunities. They are already aware of the need to change and so are very comfortable adopting new ideas. Strategies to appeal to this population include how-to manuals and information sheets on implementation. They do not need information to convince them to change.

Early Majority - These people are rarely leaders, but they do adopt new ideas before the average person. That said, they typically need to see evidence that the innovation works before they are willing to adopt it. Strategies to appeal to this population include success stories and evidence of the innovation's effectiveness.

Late Majority - These people are skeptical of change, and will only adopt an innovation after the majority has tried it. Strategies to appeal to this population include information on how many other people have tried the innovation and have adopted it successfully.

Laggards - These people are bound by tradition and very conservative. They are very skeptical of change and are the hardest group to bring on board. Strategies to appeal to this population include statistics, fear appeals, and pressure from people in the other adopter groups.

The revere project the leaflet is a highly specialized medium of communication, it is significant as a last resort, because through this medium we can reach large number of audience in the emergency time or war time when no alternative channels available. The project revere, which was develop by group of sociologist at the university of Washington under the leadership of Dodd. The experiment calls “the coffee slogan” in which the researchers and company officials made message to be six words slogan “gold shield coffee: good as gold”. They delivered this message to some people and asked them to send it to their friends and neighbors, and they would use the airborne leaflet to remind them in three days after that they would come to see the result. The result was the message became less and less and it became noticeably shorter. The key concepts in these studies are leveling, sharpening, and assimilation. These patterns described the distortions that occurred in the slogan unusually well.

Propaganda is a form of communication, often biased or misleading in nature aimed at influencing and altering the attitude of a population toward some cause, position or political agenda in an effort to form a consensus to a standard set of belief patterns. Propaganda is information that is not impartial and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively (perhaps lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or using loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information presented. The good experiment of the propaganda was using films to persuade American soldier in WW11. The main thrust of the research was to see if the films could change the belief and attitude of new soldier or not. The result was, the films were not very effective at least in term achieving dramatic changes. However, it was clear that the new soldier did learn many important facts about the war, the enemy and so on. Propaganda influenced civilians by getting them to support the war effort. For some that meant join the military. Several different methods were used to encourage civilian support. In the United States President Roosevelt assured Americans that with God's help America would win the war. Posters encouraged people to support the war by making them feel that every bit they did was important, that America couldn't win without them, and by emphasizing their national duty