Unit I
Lesson 3: Foundations of Argumentation
Introduction
When you think about an argument, what comes to mind: two people disagreeing maybe or a verbal fight perhaps? Certainly, these are examples of arguments in one meaning of the word. However, in the academic sense (and even in some public writing instances), an argument is a reason or set of reasons given with the aim of persuading others that an action or idea is right or wrong. So as you can see, the heart of an argument is persuasion.
What Is Argumentation?
In ancient Greece, during the time of the great philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, rhetoric served an important function as part of critical citizenship. The rhetor, or orator, was a key individual in democracy because the rhetor served as the voice of the people. Some rhetors were trained speakers, studying the art of speaking, eloquence, and presentation. Others were naturally gifted orators who saw opportunities to speak and accepted it as their duty to the city-state to do so. In many ways, rhetoric was (and still is) about ethics, meaning that there is an imperative need for people to speak out about subjects that face society. Persuasion was key to the success or failure of political careers and military movements in ancient Rome, yet the notion of “an ethic to speak” did not change even as the Romans adapted Grecian concepts of rhetoric to their own republic.
This ethical imperative is why rhetoric is taught in nearly every university as part of the undergraduate curriculum; it is important for students to understand the connection that their research and writing have to the world around them. Rhetoric is the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques. In order to be persuasive, a rhetor must understand how best to present the argument. This idea is connected to the focus we have already had on audience awareness and genre. Further, this idea of speaking or writing as a way to participate in your society is carried through to multiple areas of life; rhetoric is part of debates and acts of persuasion in every sphere of influence.
It should be made clear that rhetoric is not deception or intended deception, as it is sometimes incorrectly used. When a news reporter states, “The senator’s rhetoric was thick today on Capitol Hill” or “He blasted the crowd with empty rhetoric,” he or she is trying to say that the speaker means to deceive the listeners. But this is an incorrect use of the word rhetoric because rhetoric is all about using a presentation of evidence to persuade a reader or listener. Additionally, as the traditional definition of rhetoric tells us, rhetoric can be thought of as the use of certain means of presentation, such as figures of speech and other compositional techniques. These means of presentation are not, in and of themselves, deceptive. However, it is possible for someone to deceive another person using rhetorical means.
In rhetoric, arguments are made through the presentation of evidence, a concept which should be familiar, as this idea was presented several times in EH 1010, English Composition I. This means that academic arguments must be grounded in research. No one can make unfounded assertions that are not based upon relevant literature, a body of knowledge around the topic. Consider this diagram:
Relevant Literature Argument (thesis)
In this diagram, you can see the flow of the argumentative process. The thesis statement, which embodies the argument, can only come to be after you are familiar with the relevant literature. For this reason, EH 1020 is set up so that you will conduct research first and then learn about how to articulate your argument.
Entering the Critical Conversation
Another aspect of this idea of research before argument is the idea that all new assertions—all new arguments—come from understanding the old ones. That does not mean that you understand all of the relevant literature that has come before. Obviously, in a course of this scope, that would be impossible. Indeed, people study subjects their entire lives and never know everything. To help with this idea, rhetoricians (scholars who study argumentation) often discuss arguments in terms of a critical conversation. The thought is that no argument is formed in isolation. Instead, each argument is a response to what someone else has written or said about the subject. When you write a research paper, you are writing with the idea in mind that you are (a) responding to previous research, (b) adding to a previously existing conversation, and (c) asserting an argument to which others may respond. This back and forth creates a conversation about the topic, one that is described as critical because an argument should persuade, not just inform.
In his The Philosophy of Literary Form, Kenneth Burke describes this discussion about an issue as a conversation had at a party:
You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about …. You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you … The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress. (Burke, 1973, pp. 110-111)
Burke’s famous passage allows for a few revelations about argumentation. One is that it is not necessary for you to feel as though your argument (your research paper) must address the whole history of the topic or the entire conversation around the topic. In its place, you are addressing the specifics of the conversation nearest and most relevant to you. Secondly, you are not responsible for the final word on the topic; this is a good thing because as a student writing a research paper, it can be difficult to write with absolute authority. Further, your argument will not and cannot stand for all time; when someone answers your argument with a critique, a more logical conclusion, or different compelling evidence, then your argument may become defunct. That same rule applies for you as the critic or logical conclusion writer. Again, this is a positive attribute of argumentation because it means that you can always adjust your argument according to these.
Reference
Burke, K. (1973). The philosophy of literary form (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Establishing a Project
Now that the concepts behind argumentation are a bit clearer, we can begin the process of writing the research paper. The first step is to think about your research paper as a project—not just a paper. A project is a supplementary, long-term educational assignment necessitating personal initiative. A project has many different working parts, and not all of them are clearly represented in the finished product, which, in this case, is the research paper. Instead, these other aspects of the project enable you to complete the research paper and to make it the strongest paper possible.
Check for Understanding
(Answer Key is below Review)
1. True/False: Academic arguments are best described as two individuals fighting about something.
2. True/False: Rhetoric is deceptive.
3. True/False: The critical conversation is found within relevant literature around a topic.
Review
1. An argument
is a reason or set of reasons given with the aim of persuading others that an action or idea is right or wrong.
2. The heart of an argument is persuasion.
3. Rhetoric is the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques.
4. Rhetoric is not deceptive.
5. Relevant literature is a body of knowledge around the topic.
6. The critical conversation is the back-and-forth exchange between scholars that allows for new knowledge to be made. The critical conversation is found in the relevant literature.
7. When you write a research paper, you are writing with the idea in mind that you are (a) responding to previous research, (b) adding to a previously existing conversation, and (c) asserting an argument to which others may respond.
8. The first step to success is to think about the undertaking in this course as a project, a long-term academic undertaking whereby you will finish items to aid in the completion of the final product—the research paper.
Answer Key
1. False: An argument is a reason or set of reasons given with the aim of persuading others that an action or idea is right or wrong.
2. False: Rhetoric is the art of effective persuasion; it is not deceptive.
3. True
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