Please rewrite these papers for (Catherine Owens Only)

Basic theories of Denial and Deception

In can prove difficult to comprehend the basic theories of Denial and Deception in shaping perception. Deception is a planned, conscious intrusion of an opponent’s mind to alter their reality, replacing their objective reality with a perceived reality. A deceiver can alter an adversary’s perception using many forms of Denial and Deception. The two categories of deception are “active” and “passive”, another distinction is “A-type” and “M-type” deception. There are many ways to deceive a person, from simple camouflage, to staging an entire new reality for them to be drawn into. Fact is just about anyone has the ability to be deceived, and knowing the basic theories of Denial and Deception is the first step to understanding the skill, which ultimately can assist in deceiving someone else or detecting deception being done to you.

The theory puts all deception into two interdependent categories, “passive” and “active”. “Passive” deception’s purpose is to “hide the real”, this involves hiding real capabilities and intentions from the target. “Active” deception is simply “showing the false”, this on the other hand, involves showing the enemy intentions and capabilities you don’t actually have. Showing the enemy something that isn’t there and hiding what is, if done properly, can alter an enemy’s reality and make them believe what you need them to believe. Showing the false is often associated with camouflage. Now, in these two categories of deception there are sub-categories, hiding the real has the sub-categories of masking, repacking, and dazzling. Showing the false has the sub-categories of mimicking, inventing, and decoying. Another distinction is made in regard to the degree of “specificity of deception.” (Caddell 2004, 6). In the Strategic Military Deception written by Donald Daniel and Katherine Herbig in 1982, they note the existence of what they term “A-type” and “M-type” deception.

“A-type, or “ambiguity increasing,” deception is designed to create general confusion and to distract an adversary by making “noise.”. (Caddell 2004, 6). A good example of this would be as simple as a breached entry to clear a home. You can use a ram and concussion device, this would cause an surprised enemy to be very disoriented and confused. “M-type, or “misleading variety,” deception is more ambitious in that it is designed to mislead an enemy into believing a specific deception plan. Here you engage in an array of deception operations which should supplement and complement one another, all designed to cause your opponent to believe an “alternative” to what you are actually doing. This “alternative” is, of course, not true. This type of deception is more complicated and more ambitious than simple “ambiguity.” (Caddell 2004, 7). An example of this would be Operation Bodyguard, the deception designed to cover the actions of Operation Overlord, the invasion of Normandy. Operation Bodyguard was pretty much a ghost army that consisted of around 1100 actual soldiers that created the image of a much larger force. The goal of this was to deceive the enemy into believing they were a primary attacking force once the Normandy invasion was taking place. By the time Operation Overlord was in play, the commanders of the enemy forces believed that Operation bodyguard was the primary attack and that Operation overlord was a distraction to cover the real intentions. They successfully convinced many commanders that the primary attack would be more than 100 miles away from the Normandy beaches. “BODYGUARD was actually an umbrella project that included a variety of deception plans of the “M-type.”. (Caddell 2004, 7). By the time they figured out they were wrong it was too late and the invasion had already begun. This in my opinion is one of the most successful and beneficial deceptions in military history. Operation Bodyguard used a lot of camouflage to convince the enemy into believe they had a force and capability they didn’t actually exist.

“Active camouflage entails the artificial creation of the image or impression that you have a force or capability that does not actually exist.” (Caddell 2004, 8 ). Camouflage has been used countless times in all wars, historic and modern alike. From using some paint to sneak up on an enemy, to hiding an entire base, camouflage is one the most used forms of deception. “In the American Civil War, the Confederate Army charred large tree trunks to resemble artillery barrels and marched infantry units in circles to convince Union officers that they had more weapons and more troops than they actually did.” (Caddell 2004, 8). They had some of the opposition so convinced these guns and forces were real, the enemy would simply retreat without any confrontation. “In Operation FORTITUDE SOUTH, the allies used dummy tanks, trucks, aircraft, and landing vessels to give the impression they possessed weapons they did not have. To complement this, they used false radio messages to create the illusion of military units which did not exist.” (Caddell 2004, 8).

Bottom line is there are many forms and types of Denial and Deception. Each form or type is used towards certain objectives and can be accomplished by using many methods. It can be active or passive, it and operate on many different levels. It is difficult to master Denial and Deception because of the various methods and forms it can come in. “What is known about deception in the past is of considerable, if general, use in the present. We have developed terms to describe the different methods and levels of disinformation. This is useful. We know the dangers inherent to mirror imaging and cognitive dissonance. This is important. We can appreciate the need for the synthesis of intelligence methodologies. This is vital. But, despite these realizations, we can never be confident we are not being deceived.” (Caddell 2004, 16). This are basic concepts of Denial and Deception that should be obvious to students of Denial and Deception. The simple reason these basic concepts are repeated is because the opposition hopes that in an attempt to deceive the target will forget one or more of these, thus rendering them successful in altering perception and creating a new reality, which is the primary goal of deception.