WEEK 10 DISC.

See Chapter 15 in Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice for corresponding teaching materials.

SECTION 9

AGEISM AND ADULTISWT

Introduction /

Keri.-OeJong and Barbara J. Love^

•ON

This section, on agS&nn and adultism, is c o n c e m e d w i t h the oppre^sibn of younq^people and elders as age-based social identity groups, a r i i J l i e j j v a y a J l x w d ^ ^ soc]ety^ndJi3g.gatablisf^^ of domination and subordination are organized on t h ^ basis of age (Hardiman, JacksonTand Griffm, 2007). (Jhronological a g F i s a physical reality. What is deemed appropriate for people of any age group is societally constructed. The roles, behaviors, and expectations that society has deemed appropriate for any given age groups vary across societies and within societies across time, corresponding to the economic and techno- logical developments within that society.

Son:ie-.SQCial relationships, such_as the caretaking of the very young and of elders,,flj:a.rooted in physical and biological r^ealities. Decisions about power, voice, and decision making c o n - nected to y o u n g people and elders are determined by societal expectations and structures rather than biological differences. For example, high-school students have played an important part in organizing and participating in political campaigns but are not permitted to vote until they are eighteen years old. Elders are often subjected to layoffs and m a y struggle to find employment due to stereotypes about elders even though they are fully capable of meeting the expecta- u tions of employers. Young BgQpie_and elders arg_socially_constnjcl£jdJdeQtitL^ with_atieadant stereotycfis, and misinformation_that innpact their ability to exercise power, be listened to and acknowledged, and make decisions that will be supported by the dominant society. Our discus- sion of ageisnn_aDd^d.ultism^g^jssiip-q of socia|justice_acknowledges that, like all other forms of oppression, the oppression of young p e o p l e and elders exists independent of our ability to oBseryg and acknowledge it. ' " " ~

One strategy to increase our capacity to observe the disempowerment and lack of respect accorded to young people is to examine societal rules and regulations targeted specifically toward young people. Youth_escoiliaiws_pix)vide one contemporary example. Like sundown laws of the old South requiring black people to get out of town before dark, youth escort laws require young people to be accompanied by an adult over the age of twenty-one or to depart malls before 7 p.m. These laws regulate the presence of members of the subordinate group to suit the needs and preferences of members of the dominant group. These laws determine when and under what circumstances youth, the target group, can be in the presence of adults, the domi- nant group, reinforcing and highlighting adult power and the powerlessness of youth. Rooted in

'•^^l^ 57')^} -^yV 4ti^ i;^7~C^cA/^/7^/^^J

A G E I S M A N D A D U L T I S M

the adage of a not-so-long-gone era, "children are to be seen and not heard," youth escort laws reflect absolute adult power over young people along with societal attitudes of disdajn.ai3£Llack of respect. Another easily observed example takes place daily in schools where young people spen3~a large portion of their time. Young people in schools must request and receive adult permission to go to the bathroom though they are legally approved to drive, work, and even take care of other young people. Young people may be stopped, detained, and punished by any adult in the school if they decide to go to the bathroom without explicit adult permission. Beginning at a very early age, young people learn that they must submit to adult authority.

Societal prohibitions against and contempt for growing older are equally pernicious. The advertisements and news lines that are displayed regularly urging us to fight back against aging is an indjcator of the negative so^ietal^attitudejoy^^^ ng.oId. Prgd.ato|y_leniiing practices and the disproportionate targeting of eldera_fnr rRver.se eguitv-aad-Jitber mortqaqe schemes designed to prey on elders with fixed incomes results in elders bein£jorced_from their homes, often with devasfsffltg results (references to examples and resources are on our sectTorfwebsite). Mandatory retirement age, scandalous nursing home conditions, coupled with the prevalence of stereotypes and disparaging humor, all signal loss of power and mistreatment of people who are old in current society.

^ / \ S ' ' DEFINITIONS AND MANIFESTATIONS OF AGEISM AND ADULTISM

defines ageism a; "A process One of the first writers on ageism, Ffe^ert B u t ^ r (1975, p. 12) ^ipt systemati£ste and discrimTnati6n against people becauie they ar¥"old. . . . Old

people are categorized as senile, rigid in thought and manner, old fashioned in morality and skills" (p. 35). To Butler's definition, we add a_s^ci^al^ju_stjcejramew^ loss l ^ w e r , voice, andJinDited^accessJo participation in society from a basis_of_equity. We define

S d u j l s ^ a s the systenTatic_subordi^^ ' •elaCvelv little opportunity to exercise_social power in the United States through restricted access to the goods, seiA?icesranH""pri\^^ the economic^andlpolitjcanTf^^ subordination of yoTrng"people a n d ^ l d e r r i s sup- ported by the actions of individuals, cultural norms, attitudes and values, and the institutional structures and practices of society. Adult supremacy is maintained by a network of laws, rules, policies, procedures, and organizational norms that consistently d¥nyYoufFacc^^^^ privilegerarrchDpportunity ariB'ensure fFTe~contTnuedTa^^ that"are~70ung. Young peopieThB~elders"areaffecfeaTyl^ that marginalize and exclude them and give adults the power to act on and for young people and elders without their agreement. Thus, while elders may be revered for their presumed wisdom, they are nevertheless legally excluded from the workplace. While young people may be appreci- ated for their vigor, energy, and enthusiasm, their participatiorH£jlli£wiseJBStdcled.__,____

While,a,du]tism and ageism are both f o m s g t g g p i g g g i o n marker of ̂ e i we distinguish betv\fegrrfFi"e two. s ^ c i f i c a i i v ^ a F w n g ' g ^ oTvounq people by_adyjtsand^_elders, and(age/sio-Ss the_Qgpressioiii}Lelidgrs by youth anil_adults (Love and Phillips, 2007). Some writers use the term "ageism" to refer inlerchangeably to the oppression of elders and young people. Rather than using the same term to refer to both types of oppression, we find it important to distinguish between the two given the distinctive ways in which these two "O'^-rffli^ltff'l formp oppression play out i i i a y f i i y d a y life.

Our focus in this section is limited to illustrating the ways in which the mistreatment of young people and elders meets our theoretical framework for understanding oppression and providing examples of everyday manifestations of the oppression of young people and elders—that is, examples that are normalized by the culture, rather than dramatic or horrific. The litany of critical

INTRODUCTION | 537

issues in the everyday lives of young people and elders illustrate the long-term consequences of the loss and/or absences of power a m o n g members of these two groups. Our focus is on creating a framework for understanding how these experiences illustrate not only mistreatment but oppression as well.

The elements of oppression described in the section on conceptual frameworks (selections 4 and 5) are underlying conceptual tools for the analysis of the experience of both young people and elders. For example, it is useful to think about the way schools have become more like prisons. The presence of metal detectors, police or security guards in classrooms, and building design that emphasizes surveillance indicate that society has accepted a view of young people as a criminal threat. Similarly, in an effort to ensure that they continue to receive the income of elder residents, nursing homes have been charged with illegally forcing elders to remain in the institution rather than choosing where they wish to live. A federal lawsuit filed on behalf of 8,500 institutionalized Floridians claims that nursing homes pressured politicians to pass legislation making it more difficult for elders to qualify for community care (AOL News, 2008). These exam- ples illustrate powerlessness, which Young describes as an element of oppression (selection 5).

Recognition of the oppression of young people and elders is hampered by the normalization of mistreatment, which renders it invisible. A variety of laws and institutional arrangements make age the sole criteria for determining when an individual can leave school, drive a car, drink alco- hol, get married, or join the armed services. fVlandatory retirement ages and age-based health- care allocations clearly indicate the denial of power and privilege on the basis of age. Similar to the suggestion of a former Harvard University president that biological difference accounted for the limited participation of w o m e n in math and science, there will be those who assume that biological and developmental differences justify the differential treatment of young people and elders. As the scientific community was quick to c o n d e m n the assertions of that university president, our goal is to increase the consciousness about the oppression of young people and elders so that objection to this oppression can be as clear and unequivocal (Bombardieri, 2005).

INTERNALIZED AGEISM AND ADULTISM

The designation of young people and elders as social identities is so widespread that people of every culture, language, religion, and nationality are sure that their ways of responding to these identities are rooted in the rationality of laws, policies, and principles dictated by biology. Across many societies, people are sure that the control of members of these two groups, by those with more power, more resources, more strength, and more size, is justified by that size, strength, power, and possession of those resources. The assumption of the tightness of those with more power and more resources to make decisions about the lives of those with less power and fewer resources is shared not only by those of the dominant group but by those of the target group as well. Both young people and elders have internalized the belief that decisions regarding their lives are appropriately made by members of the dominant group (middle-aged adults). Bonnichsen (2003) contends.

Very few young people actually feel solidarity with young people as a group . . . [Many young people] spend their entire childhood identifying with the perspective of adults . . . [and] feel t h a t . . . other young people . . . actually deserve to be treated with disrespect. . . . [Youth employ a variety of strategies] to dissociate themselves from other young people, trying to shed the negative status of childhood, (p. 2)

Young people are encouraged and rewarded for practicing adultism toward other young people. Similar to the internalized racism that causes some black people to provide greater respect and

5 3 8 1 A G E I S M A N D A D U L T I S M

deference to ottier black people who look and act more like white people, young people some- times accord respect on an age-based scale and act out the oppression on anyone younger, weaker, with fewer resources, and smaller than themselves. They learn quickly (from their own experience) the prevailing conditions under which humans can behave in an oppressive way toward other humans.

The stereotypes, prejudices, and forms of discrimination against elders, discussed by Butler (selection 117), are practiced not only by middle-aged adults and younger people; they are also practiced and reinforced by elders with each other. "I'm having a senior moment," is a c o m m o n expression a m o n g elders who have accepted the idea that forgetfulness is a condition of aging. This enforcement of the oppression of elders by elders constitutes internalized ageism. The depression sometimes associated with isolation, feeling unwanted, and fear of senility can be a manifestation of internalized ageism. Elders internalize ageism as they internalize feelings of loss of value, being a bother, worthlessness, feeling that they are unworthy of the caretaking of others, and living with the fear of one day being unable to take care of themselves. For both young people and elders, it is the acceptance of these negative stereotypes about themselves that makes it difficult to name their mistreatment as a form of oppression and to effectively organize to change it.

As in the case of elders, the internalization of the oppression by young people has many negative and dysfunctional consequences. One consequence is the enforcement of adultism by young people on other young people. A second major consequence of internalizing adultism is that young people learn the roles of target and agent of oppression to be played out in other manifestations of oppression (racism, sexism, classism, and the like). In this way, adultism inter- sects with all other forms of oppression in its preparation of young people for the roles required to secure their participation in the maintenance of systems of oppression (Love, 2010). Young people are taught to perform the role of subordinant^ and concomitantly learn to desire the role of dominant. Concern about learning appropriate behavior in order to be safe is often the guise under which this socialization takes place. Young people (as subordinants) are taught that adults (as dominants) are entitled to speak for them and to make decisions for them. In turn, they learn not to trust their own thinking, decisions, or feelings. The internalization of the idea that dominants know best what is appropriate for subordinants and are entitled to make decisions for them is replayed in every other manifestation of oppression where young people will eventually be required to play the role of dominant (Freire, 1994).

INTERCONNECTION BETWEEN AGEISM, ADULTISM, AND OTHER FORMS OF OPPRESSION

Other forms of oppression converge with ageism and adultism to produce differential results for members of particular intersecting social identity groups. The interaction between age-based oppression and racism, for instance, means that elders of color are more likely to have lower income than white elders, and that young people of color are more likely to attend underfunded schools with limited curricular offerings, police in the hallways, and metal detectors at the door. Youth of color are less likely to complete high school or college, are more likely to be placed in foster-care settings, and are five to ten times more likely to be imprisoned than white youth who display the same patterns of behavior (Fulbright-Anderson, Lawrence, Sutton, Susi, and Kubisch, 2005). A recent study by Stanford psychologists examining how race affects juvenile sentencing reveals that racism intersects with adultism as adults who simply imagine youth offenders to be black develop policies that result in harsher treatment of all young people (Donald, 2012). African American youth, and in some cases Latino/a youth, receive fewer primary care, mental health, and asthma services than white youth even when family income and health insurance are taken

INTRODUCTION ]

Into account. Schools spend, on average, nearly $9,000 less per pupil on youth of color than on white youth.

Ageism intersects with classism and sexism to produce differences in the distribution of retire- ment resources for the elderly. Women of all ethnic groups live longer than men and generally have fewer economic or health-care resources than men in their old age. W o m e n , poor and working-class people, and people of color often have lower paying jobs resulting in limited discretionary funds and lower contributions to Social Security. In old age, w o m e n of color and poor and working-class women have fewer Social Security benefits, and are less likely to have pensions from discretionary funds that were invested for retirement (O'Rand, cited by Calasanti and Slevin, 2001). Ageism intersects with heterosexism so that same-sex partners cannot collect survivor benefits that are restricted to "spouses."

When a boy plays dress-up with his sisters and is ridiculed or told that his behavior is inappro- priate, messages of adultism, sexism, heterosexism, and transgender oppression are conveyed simultaneously. Because the boy in this example could potentially experience name-calling, social isolation, or even violence for dressing, acting like, or simply aligning himself with girls, he is forced to perform a prescribed version of masculinity that clearly distinguishes his gender apart from that of his sisters and simultaneously conveys the ideas that it is shameful to be or act "like a girl." Ridicule and shame are often used to teach the role of dominant and subordinant to y o u n g people and is justified to be "for their own g o o d . " In their efforts to keep young people safe from potential violence, adults' "that's-just-the-way-it-is" attitude conveys a sense of powerlessness to youth who, as other forms of oppression are experienced, are thereby trained to accept them without questioning, challenging, or fighting back.

Infantilization functions on both the micro and macro levels. Infantilization employs the char- acteristics ascribed to youth to justify the consolidation of power into the hands of the dominant group. Speaking to elders, people with disabilities and people of color in the same tone that adults use to speak to babies and pets is an example of infantilization and leads to both individual and systematic confusion about appropriate interactions with and support for members of these groups. Describing native peoples (Americans, Africans, Australians, and other native peoples) as childlike was the rhetoric used to justify colonial acquisition of their land and resources, removal of power from their government and society, and exercise of cultural and physical genocide. The rhetoric of "developing nations and economies" conveys the image of youth "becoming," justify- ing the actions of imperial powers which dictate and prescribe how "developing" nations should orient their economic and political policies. Similarly, colonized and formerly colonized popula- tions are seen as dependent, justifying their treatment as inferior (infantile/underdeveloped) and in need of the intervention of imperial (adult/developed) powers (DeJong, 2012).

GLOBAL DIFFERENCES IN THE TREATMENT OF YOUNG PEOPLE AND ELDERS

The treatment of young people and old people varies from one society to another, and within different cultural groups in a given society. For instance, research shows differences between Western and non-Western and between post-industrial and less-industrialized societies in the treatment of both young people and elders (Rogoff, 2003, p. 9). While the focus in this section is on the experience of young people and elders in U.S. society, it is important to recognize the variations a m o n g and within cultural and socioeconomic groups globally as well as within the United States.

Different treatment does not connote oppression or the lack of oppression. In many societ- ies, for instance, elders are revered based on the assumption that with age comes increased w i s d o m . At the same time, there is an assumption in many of those same cultures that age brings inevitable senility and decline. We recognize that both the revering of elders and youth and the

I A G E I S M A N D A D U L T I S M

oppression of elders and youth can exist within the same racial/cultural/familial context. Our research shows that this simultaneous revering and enforcement of oppression occurs across societies in Africa, Asia, South and Central America, as well as Europe and North America. In addition, it is not limited to rural, urban, industrialized, agrarian, or post-technological contexts.

LIBERATION: ELIMINATING AGEISM AND ADULTISM AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIETY

Age-based identities are shared by all humans, across race, gender, class, nationality, sexuality, language, religion, ability, culture, ethnicity, or any other identity, whether target or agent. Their specific meanings will differ in various cultures. Every single human is or has been young. Every human who lives long enough will become an elder. Age-based oppression affects all humans, and so it is in the interest of all humans to work for the elimination of ageism and adultism. Our purpose in seeking a deeper understanding of oppression is to facilitate liberation, that is, the transformation of society through the elimination of age-based oppression. Here and there, we witness bits and parts of models and theory that contribute to our unfolding vision of a liberatory society.

Contemporary Western society has evolved a particular way of thinking about young people and elders that is rooted in structures of domination and subordination. A social justice perspective requires us to envision and develop responses that enable more equitable participation of elders and young people in society. For example, some organizations have young people on their boards of directors who are central to making decisions about the organization with their adult colleagues. Groups like the Gray Panthers, whose membership is comprised of elders, are working to challenge ageist attitudes and put pressure on legislative bodies to create policies that protect elders from abuse and support views of elders as productive and important members of a multi-generational, diverse society (Woolf, 2005). Challenging adultist attitudes about young people's role in decision making can increase the likelihood that young people's needs and perspectives are represented. Challenging ageist attitudes about elders' roles as participants in political and economic life can increase the likelihood that elders' needs and perspectives are represented.

In many parts of the world, young people, elders, and their allies are engaged in research and model building that result in societal transformation and lead to the creation of a liberatory society. They are developing relationships, organizations, programs, and policies that enable young people and elders to participate in society from a position of equity. As we broaden our understanding of these manifestations of oppression and work toward the elimination of ageism and adultism, young people and elders can increasingly anticipate living empowered lives with complete dignity and respect. This is a benefit for every single human.

THE SELECTIONS

The selections in the Context part address definitions of ageism and adultism, and individual, institutional, societal, and cultural manifestations of ageism and adultism. Robert Butler's article (selection 117) defines ageism on the basis of attitudes, stereotypes, and behavior patterns that e m b o d y the mistreatment and oppression of elders and a discussion of institutional manifes- tations of ageism. John Bell's article (selection 114) defines adultism and describes c o m m o n occurrences of adultism. His discussion provides a method for examining individual behavior to determine the extent to which it perpetuates adultism. Sheets (selection 118) discusses the expe- riences of elders with disabilities, while the selection on "Black Elderly" (selection 119) describes

I N T R O D U C T I O N |

specific difficulties encountered by elders who are black. Looking at adultism on an institutional level, Dohrn (selection 115) and Durkin (selection 116) discuss the ways young people are crimi- nalized in contemporary society.

The selections in Voices, by Huber (selection 120), Larabee, (selection 121) and Curry (selec- tion 122), describe y o u n g people and elders' experience of ageism and adultism. We note that it was challenging to find descriptions of the experience of adultism written by young people, as was locating the voices of elders; most descriptions of the experiences of young people and elders that we found were, more often than not, written by middle-aged adults. We think that this reflects the reality of the oppression and the internalization of powerlessness (we include some recent resources on the section website).

The selections in Next Steps offer strategies to eliminate ageism and adultism and to move toward liberation. It includes specific suggestions for what allies can do. Jenny Sazama with Boston Area Youth (selection 124) describes strategies to learn about adultism, interrupt adultism, and support the empowerment of young people. Kazu Haga (selection 123) describes a program developed by young people to take charge of the environment of their school. They provide s u g - gestions to stimulate thinking about both individual and systemic and institutional changes that can help in the elimination of adultism. Gullette (selection 125) examines contemporary cultural assumptions that support ageism and encourages the development of coalitions to interrupt and defeat what the author describes as "new ageism." Markee (selection 126) provides a helpful discussion of specific things that allies of elders can do. We include Marge Larabee's "Elder Liberation Draft Policy Statement" (selection 121) because it provides a g o o d model for examin- ing the oppression of elders from a position of empowerment and with a view toward liberation. In addition to a description of conditions for elders, this statement discusses both how elders can work on ending internalized oppression, what they can do to promote their own liberation, as well as what allies can do to support elders to have g o o d lives.

See Companion Website for Additional Resources and Material

Notes

1 W e a s k t h a t t h o s e w h o c i t e t h i s w o r k a l w a y s a c k n o w l e d g e b y n a m e b o t h t h e a u t h o r s l i s t e d r a t h e r t h a n e i t h e r o n l y c i t i n g t h e first a u t h o r o r u s i n g "at a l . " to i n d i c a t e c o a u t h o r s . B o t h c o l l a b o r a t e d e q u a l l y in t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d w r i t i n g of t h i s c h a p t e r

2 W e p r e f e r t h e s p e l l i n g subordinant b e c a u s e it p a r a l l e l s t h e t e r m u s e d t o refer t o d o m i n a n t s . W e d o n o t u s e t h e t e r m dominate t o refer t o t h o s e in t h e d o m i n a n t r o l e . T h e u s e of t h e t e r m subordinate, w h i c h is a m o d i f y - i n g a d j e c t i v e , s e e m s to c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e r e d u c t i o n a n d o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n of m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p t o w h i c h t h i s t e r m is a p p l i e d .

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1 1 4

Understanding Adultism

A Key to Developing Positive Youtti-Adult Relationstiips

John Bell

M o s t o f us are y o u t h w o r k e r s because w e care a b o u t y o u n g p e o p l e . P e r s o n a l l y w e w a n t to b o t h be e f f e c t i v e a n d h a v e g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h y o u n g p e o p l e . . . .

T o be s u c c e s s f u l i n o u r w o r k w i t h y o u n g p e o p l e , w e m u s t u n d e r s t a n d a p a r t i c u l a r c o n d i - t i o n of y o u t h : that y o u n g people are o f t e n m i s t r e a t e d a n d disrespected s i m p l y because they are y o u n g . T h e w o r d adultism r e f e r s to b e h a v i o r s a n d attitudes based o n the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a d u l t s are better t h a n y o u n g p e o p l e , a n d e n t i t l e d to act u p o n y o u n g p e o p l e w i t h o u t t h e i r a g r e e m e n t . T h i s m i s t r e a t m e n t is r e i n f o r c e d by s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , l a w s , c u s t o m s , a n d attitudes.

. . . [ E ] x c e p t f o r p r i s o n e r s a n d a f e w other i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d g r o u p s , y o u n g people are m o r e c o n t r o l l e d t h a n any other g r o u p in society. . . . [ M ] o s t y o u n g people are t o l d w h a t to eat, w h a t to w e a r , w h e n to go to b e d , w h e n they c a n t a l k , t h a t they w i l l go to s c h o o l , w h i c h f r i e n d s are okay, a n d w h e n they are to be i n the h o u s e . . . . [ T ] h e o p i n i o n s of m o s t y o u n g p e o p l e are n o t v a l u e d ; they are p u n i s h e d at the w i l l o r w h i m o f a d u l t s ; t h e i r e m o t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d " i m m a t u r e . " I n a d d i t i o n , a d u l t s reserve the r i g h t to p u n i s h , t h r e a t e n , h i t , take a w a y " p r i v i l e g e s , " a n d ostracize y o u n g people w h e n s u c h a c t i o n s are d e e m e d to be i n s t r u m e n t a l i n c o n t r o l l i n g or d i s c i p l i n i n g t h e m .

I f this w e r e a d e s c r i p t i o n of the w a y a g r o u p of adult s w a s t r e a t e d , w e w o u l d a l l agree t h a t t h e i r o p p r e s s i o n w a s a l m o s t t o t a l . H o w e v e r , f o r the m o s t p a r t , the a d u l t w o r l d c o n s i d e r s

U N D E R S T A N D I N G A D U L T I S M |

t h i s t r e a t m e n t of y o u n g p e o p l e as acceptable because w e w e r e treated i n m u c h the same w a y , a n d i n t e r n a U z e d the idea t h a t " t h a t ' s the w a y y o u treat k i d s . " . . .

THE HEART OF IT

A d u l t s h a v e e n o r m o u s i m p o r t a n c e i n the l i v e s o f a l m o s t e v e r y y o u n g p e r s o n . T h i s fact m a y m a k e it d i f f i c u l t to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t I a m c a l l i n g adultism. N o t e v e r y t h i n g the a d u l t w o r l d does i n r e l a t i o n to y o u n g people is adultist. I t is c e r t a i n l y t r u e that c h i l d r e n a n d y o u n g p e o p l e n e e d l o v e , g u i d a n c e , r u l e s , d i s c i p l i n e , t e a c h i n g , r o l e m o d e l i n g , n u r t u r a n c e , p r o t e c t i o n . C h i l d h o o d a n d adolescence are a steady series o f d e v e l o p m e n t a l stages, e a c h of w h i c h has a d i f f e r e n t set o f needs, issues, a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s . F o r e x a m p l e , a thre e y e a r o l d needs a d i f f e r e n t a m o u n t o f sleep t h a n a 15 y e a r o l d ; or, w h a t w o r k s to p h y s i c a l l y r e s t r a i n a s e v e n year o l d w i l l n o t w o r k w i t h a n 18 y e a r o l d ; or, h o w y o u e x p l a i n c o n c e p t i o n a n d b i r t h to a n i n q u i s i t i v e t o d d l e r w i l l be quite d i f f e r e n t f r o m h o w y o u e x p l a i n these to a s e x u a l l y a c t i v e teenager.

D i f f e r i n g c u l t u r a l , e t h n i c , gender, class, or reHgious a p p r o a c h e s to these d e v e l o p m e n t a l stages c a n f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of adultism. F o r e x a m p l e , w h a t is c o n s i d - e r e d " w e a k " i n one gender, m a y be c o n s i d e r e d " s t r o n g " i n a n o t h e r ; or, b e l c h i n g m a y be c o n s i d e r e d r u d e i n one c u l t u r e a n d a n e x p r e s s i o n of a p p r e c i a t i o n i n a n o t h e r ; or, c h i l d h o o d s e x p l a y m a y be c o n d o n e d i n one c u l t u r e a n d c o n d e m n e d i n a n o t h e r .

T h e p o i n t is that n o one act or p o l i c y or c u s t o m or belief is i n itself n e c e s s a r i l y adultist. S o m e t h i n g can be l a b e l e d adultist i f it i n v o l v e s a consistent p a t t e r n o f d i s r e s p e c t a n d m i s - t r e a t m e n t that has any or a l l o f the f o l l o w i n g affects o n y o u n g p e o p l e :

• a n u n d e r m i n i n g of s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e a n d s e l f - e s t e e m ; • a n i n c r e a s i n g sense o f w o r t h l e s s n e s s ; • a n i n c r e a s i n g f e e l i n g of p o w e r l e s s n e s s ; • a c o n s i s t e n t e x p e r i e n c e o f n o t b e i n g t a k e n s e r i o u s l y ; • a d i m i n i s h i n g a b i l i t y to f u n c t i o n w e l l i n the w o r l d ; • a g r o w i n g negative s e l f - c o n c e p t ; • i n c r e a s i n g d e s t r u c t i v e a c t i n g o u t ; • i n c r e a s i n g s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e a c t i n g " i n " (getting s i c k f r e q u e n t l y , d e v e l o p i n g h e a l t h c o n -

d i t i o n s , a t t e m p t i n g s u i c i d e , d e p r e s s i o n , e t c . ) ; • f e e l i n g u n l o v e d o r u n w a n t e d .

C e r t a i n l y these s e r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s do n o t e n t i r e l y stem f r o m adultism. O t h e r f a c t o r s l i k e s e x i s m , r a c i s m , poverty, p h y s i c a l or m e n t a l disabihty, a n d so o n , m a y also c o n t r i b u t e to these results. B u t s y s t e m a t i c disrespect a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t o v e r y e a r s s i m p l y because o f b e i n g y o u n g are m a j o r sources o f t r o u b l e .

EVIDENCE THAT ADULTISM EXISTS

O t h e r " i s m s " l i k e r a c i s m a n d s e x i s m are w e l l established a n d accepted as r e a l i t i e s . T h e y each have a huge b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e a n d r e s e a r c h d o c u m e n t i n g the effects a n d h i s t o r y o f the o p p r e s s i o n . T h e r e are n o v e l s , m o v i e s , m e d i a p r e s e n t a t i o n s , p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s d e v o t e d to i l l u m i n a t i n g a n d or e l i m i n a t i n g the e x i s t e n c e o f the " i s m . "

1 A G E I S M A N D A D U L T I S M

T h e c o n c e p t of adultism, the s y s t e m a t i c m i s t r e a t m e n t a n d disrespect of y o u n g p e o p l e , is r e l a t i v e l y n e w a n d has n o t been w i d e l y a c c e p t e d as a reaUty. T h e r e is c e r t a i n l y m u c h r e s e a r c h a n d l i t e r a t u r e o n c h i l d r e n a n d y o u t h , but v e r y Uttle that c o n c l u d e s that y o u n g p e o p l e are a n op pressed g r o u p i n o u r society, w i t h p a r a l l e l s to other s u c h g r o u p s . P a r t of m y e f f o r t i n this a r t i c l e is to d r a w f o r t h e n o u g h e x a m p l e s , p r i m a r i l y f r o m the U n i t e d States, to p o i n t to the r e a l i t y of adultism.

COMMON STATEMENTS

C o n s i d e r h o w the f o l l o w i n g c o m m e n t s are essentially d i s r e s p e c t f u l . W h a t are the a s s u m p - t i o n s b e h i n d each of t h e m ? D o y o u r e m e m b e r h a v i n g h e a r d a ny of these as a y o u n g e r p e r s o n ?

• " Y o u ' r e so s m a r t f o r f i f t e e n ! " • " W h e n are y o u g o i n g to g r o w u p ? " • " D o n ' t t o u c h that, y o u ' l l b r e a k i t ! " • " A s l o n g as y o u are i n m y h o u s e , y o u ' l l do i t ! • " Y o u ' r e being c h i l d i s h . " • " Y o u ' r e so s t u p i d (or c l u m s y , i n c o n s i d e r a t e , e t c . ) ! " • " G o to y o u r r o o m ! " • " D o n ' t ever y e l l at y o u r m o t h e r l i k e t h a t ! " ( y e l l i n g ) • " S h e d o e s n ' t u n d e r s t a n d a n y t h i n g . " (about a baby) • " Y o u are too o l d f o r t h a t ! " or " Y o u ' r e n o t o l d e n o u g h ! " • " O h , i t ' s o n l y p u p p y l o v e . " • " W h a t do y o u k n o w ? Y o u h a v e n ' t e x p e r i e n c e d a n y t h i n g ! " • " I t ' s j u s t a stage. Y o u ' l l o u t g r o w i t . "

COMMON OCCURRENCES

P H Y S I C A L A N D S E X U A L A B U S E

T h e r e are n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s of disrespect t o w a r d y o u n g p e o p l e . O f c o u r s e , there is the o b v i o u s o p p r e s s i v e t r e a t m e n t : p h y s i c a l a n d s e x u a l abuse of y o u n g p e o p l e . O f f i c i a l r e p o r t s o f c h i l d abuse r e a c h e d 2 . 7 m i U i o n i n 1 9 9 3 .

O T H E R P U N I S H M E N T A N D T H R E A T S

T h e r e is also a w h o l e r a n g e of n o n p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t s or t h r e a t s : b e i n g r o u t i n e l y c r i t i - c i z e d , y e l l e d at, i n v a l i d a t e d , i n s u l t e d , i n t i m i d a t e d , or made to f e e l g u i l t y w i t h the effect of u n d e r m i n i n g a c h i l d ' s sel f-respect; being a r b i t r a r i l y or u n f a i r l y " g r o u n d e d " or d e n i e d " p r i v i l e g e s . " I f y o u n g p e o p l e protest against t h e i r m i s t r e a t m e n t , they are o f t e n subjected to m o r e p u n i s h m e n t .

D E N I E D C O N T R O L

Y o u n g people are deni ed c o n t r o l a n d o f t e n even i n f l u e n c e o v e r m o s t of the decisions t h a t affect t h e i r bodies, t h e i r space, a n d t h e i r possessions. F o r e x a m p l e , m o s t adults seem to t h i n k they c a n p i c k u p htde c h i l d r e n or kiss t h e m or p u l l their c h e e k s or t o u c h t h e i r h a i r

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w i t h o u t a s k i n g or w i t h o u t its b e i n g m u t u a l . A d u l t s can o f t e n be seen g r a b b i n g things o u t of c h i l d r e n ' s hands w i t h o u t a s k i n g .

V E R B A L I N T E R A C T I O N S

M o s t y o u n g people k n o w that i n a d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h a n a d u l t , t h e i r w o r d w i l l n o t be t a k e n o v e r the a d u l t ' s . M o s t adults t a l k d o w n to c h i l d r e n , as i f c h i l d r e n c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e m . A d u l t s o f t e n t a l k about a y o u n g p e r s o n w i t h the y o u n g p e r s o n present as i f he or she w e r e n o t there. M a n y a d u l t s give y o u n g p e o p l e o r d e r s to do things or l a y d o w n r u l e s w i t h n o e x p l a n a t i o n . A d u l t s , i n g e n e r a l , do n o t r e a l l y l i s t e n to y o u n g p e o p l e , do not take the c o n c e r n s o f a y o u n g p e r s o n as s e r i o u s l y as they w o u l d an a d u l t ' s , a n d h a v e a h a r d tim e h e a r i n g the t h i n k i n g of y o u n g p e o p l e as w o r t h y of a d u l t respect, let a l o n e o n a par w i t h the q u a l i t y of a d u l t t h i n k i n g . Y e t y o u n g p e o p l e are e x p e c t e d to h s t e n to adults a l l the t i m e .

C O M M U N I T Y I N C I D E N T S

A d o l e s c e n t y o u n g people are frequently f o l l o w e d by s e c u r i t ) ' guards i n stores, passed o v e r by c l e r k s w h o serve adults in line b e h i n d t h e m , chased f r o m p a r k s or g a t h e r i n g places f o r n o good r e a s o n by p o l i c e , assumed by passing adults to "be u p to n o g o o d . " T h e m e d i a o f t e n p r o m o t e negative images a n d stereotypes of t h e m , especially of u r b a n y o u t h a n d b l a c k y o u t h .

SCHOOL EXAMPLES

S c h o o l s subject students to i n c r e d i b l e c o n t r o l t h r o u g h the use of h a l l passes, d e t e n t i o n , s u s p e n s i o n , e x p u l s i o n , a n d o t h e r p e n a l t i e s . A n y c o m m u n i t y c e r t a i n l y needs r u l e s to l i v e by, but the r u l e s i n m o s t s c h o o l c o m m u n i t i e s are imposed o n y o u n g p e o p l e a n d e n f o r c e d by the a d u l t staff.

C o n s i d e r these e x a m p l e s :

• T e a c h e r s s o m e t i m e s y e l l at students w i t h i m p u n i t y , but students are d i s c i p l i n e d if they y e l l b a c k at teachers.

• Y o u n g p e o p l e are s o m e t i m e s p u n i s h e d u n f a i r l y because adults feel f r u s t r a t e d . • S t u d e n t s are f o r c e d to accept t h e i r " g r a d e s " that, o v e r t i m e , cause students to e v e n t u -

a l l y i n t e r n a l i z e a l i f e l o n g v i e w of t h e m s e l v e s as " s m a r t " or " a v e r a g e " or " d u m b " — w i t h p r o f o u n d i m p a c t o n m a n y aspects of their l i v e s . H o w e v e r , students do n o t get to o f f i c i a l l y " g r a d e " teachers. I f a s t u d e n t receives a n " F , " it is a s s u m e d the s t u d e n t f a i l e d , n o t the teacher.

• Y o u n g p e o p l e h a v e n o r e a l p o w e r i n the i m p o r t a n t d e c i s i o n s t h a t affect t h e i r l i v e s i n s c h o o l .

SOCIETAL ADULTISM

L A W S

T h e r e is a d i f f e r e n t set o f l a w s f o r y o u n g p e o p l e . T h e y do n o t have the same r i g h t s as a d u l t s . O f c o u r s e , s o m e l a w s s p e c i f i c a l l y p r o t e c t y o u n g p e o p l e f r o m m i s t r e a t m e n t but other l a w s u n d u l y r e s t r i c t the life a n d f r e e d o m of y o u n g p e o p l e . C u r f e w o r d i n a n c e s that e x i s t i n m a n y c o m m u n i t i e s a p p l y to y o u n g people but n o t to a d u l t s . I n d i v o r c e cases, u n t i l

5 4 6 I A G E I S M A N D A D U L T I S M

a recent l a n d m a r k c u s t o d y case, y o u n g p e o p l e w e r e not even p e r m i t t e d to h a v e a v o i c e i n d e c i d i n g w h i c h p a r e n t , i f either, they w i s h e d to l i v e w i t h .

C H I L D D E V E L O P M E N T L I T E R A T U R E A N D E D U C A T I O N

A n i n s t i t u t i o n a l e x a m p l e of adultism c a n be f o u n d i n the l i t e r a t u r e o f c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h is f u l l of m i s i n f o r m a t i o n a n d u n f o u n d e d c l a i m s a b o u t y o u n g p e o p l e t h a t s e v e r e l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e s w h a t y o u n g people are capable of. F o r e x a m p l e , i n one classic t e x t b o o k used by m a n y students of c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t . The Magic Years by S e l m a F r e i b e r g , the a u t h o r states that the o n l y r e a s o n a n i n f a n t b e f o r e s i x m o n t h s of age cries is because of p h y s i c a l p a i n . A n i n f a n t has n o e m o t i o n a l p a i n before this age, she says, because " a n i n f a n t ' s i n t e l l i g e n c e has n o t y e t d e v e l o p e d the c o g n i t i v e a p p a r a t u s that gives rise to e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s . " M a n y p a r e n t s , i n c l u d i n g m y s e l f , i n o b s e r v i n g t h e i r o w n i n f a n t s closely, k n o w that this is not t r u e . Y e t , y o u n g c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l s , o f t e n w i t h o u t c h i l d r e n , are taught a d i s t o r t e d v i e w o f i n f a n t f u n c t i o n i n g as i f it w e r e gospel.

T H E E F F E C T O F C U L T U R A L P R A C T I C E S : A N I N T E R E S T I N G E X A M P L E

G e n e r a t i o n s of y o u n g p e o p l e i n w e s t e r n c u l t u r e h a v e g r o w n u p w i t h t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t l i m i t e d by vast c u l t u r a l biases that c o n s i s t e n t l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e h u m a n p o t e n t i a l or m i s u n - d e r s t a n d h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , J o s e p h C h i l t o n P i e r c e , i n h i s Crack in the Cosmic Egg, f o u n d that i n c e r t a i n U g a n d a n c u l t u r e s , i n f a n t s r e a c h the m i l e s t o n e s of s i t t i n g , w a l k i n g , a n d t a l k i n g i n h a l f the ti m e i t takes f o r c h i l d r e n i n the U n i t e d States. T h i s seems to c h a l l e n g e a c c e p t e d w e s t e r n n o r m s . R e s e a r c h e r s h y p o t h e s i z e d t w o reasons f o r such seem- i n g l y a c c e l e r a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t :

• F r o m the m o m e n t of b i r t h u n t i l w e l l i n t o the t o d d l e r stage, i n f a n t s spend m o s t of t h e i r time s t r a p p e d s k i n to s k i n n e x t to their m o t h e r s . F r o m this vantage p o i n t the i n f a n t s i n t i m a t e l y e x p e r i e n c e the r h y t h m s of b o d y m o v e m e n t a n d s p e e c h , the cues i n the e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t t h e i r m o t h e r s p a i d a t t e n t i o n to, a n d c o n s t a n t tactile closeness.

• W h e n n o t b e i n g c a r r i e d , i n f a n t s a n d t o d d l e r s w e r e g i v e n l o v i n g massages f o r l o n g p e r i o d s e v e r y day by t h e i r m o t h e r s a n d o t h e r w o m e n i n the c o m m u n i t y .

R e s e a r c h e r s c o n c l u d e d that the c o m b i n a t i o n s of these t w o p r a c t i c e s s t i m u l a t e c o m p l e x n e u r o l o g i c a l , m o t o r , a n d h o r m o n a l systems o f the i n f a n t s to speed s i t t i n g , w a l k i n g , a n d t a l k i n g c o m p a r e d to w h a t is c o n s i d e r e d " n o r m a l " i n the W e s t . T h e m e r e e x i s t e n c e of s u c h huge d i f f e r e n c e s i n the rate of d e v e l o p m e n t raises large questions a b o u t o u r a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t w h a t is n o r m a l .

( T h e i n t e r e s t i n g b a c k e n d o f the U g a n d a n e x a m p l e is that at age f i v e , after this e x t r e m e l y i n t i m a t e e a r l y c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e , the c h i l d r e n go t h r o u g h a r i t e o f passage that i n c l u d e s b e i n g sent alone i n t o the f o r e s t f o r s e v e r a l d a y s , then b e i n g f o r c e d to l e a v e t h e i r m o t h e r ' s h o m e a n d sent to l i v e w i t h a n o t h e r r e l a t i v e . T h i s s h o c k appears to arrest the earUer r a p i d d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d m a t u r a t i o n s l o w s w a y d o w n . )

GENERAL ADULT AHITUDES

M a n y of us h a v e h e a r d o l d e r p e o p l e say to us or other y o u n g p e o p l e s o m e t h i n g l i k e , " G r o w i n g u p is g i v i n g u p . Y o u ' d better get used to i t . " I t is the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f d i s a p p o i n t - m e n t s , losses, s m a s h e d d r e a m s , u n a c c e p t e d l o v e , a n d other s u c h p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e s that

U N D E R S T A N D I N G A D U L T I S M 1 5 4 7

l e a d adults to say things l i k e that. T h i s c r i p p l i n g attitude is g r a d u a l l y f o r c e d u p o n y o u n g p e o p l e . I t is l i k e a c o n t a g i o n , a v i r u s a b o u t aging.

INSTITUTIONAL EXAMPLES

Y o u n g p e o p l e i n this c o u n t r y are f o r c e d to go to s c h o o l f o r 1 2 y e a r s , w h e t h e r s c h o o l is a n e f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e m or n o t . T h e y are f o r c e d by l a w a n d by p a r e n t s ( w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f those w h o e x e r c i s e the d e m a n d i n g o p t i o n o f h o m e s c h o o l i n g ) . I f t h e i r s p i r i t , energy, or l e a r n i n g s t y l e does n o t d o v e t a i l w i t h the p r e v a i l i n g teacher, s c h o o l , or e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y , t h e y begin to " f a i l , " h a v e " s p e c i a l n e e d s , " are " t r a c k e d , " a n d m a y e v e n t u a l l y be l a b e l e d as a " d r o p o u t . " T h r o u g h o u t the 1 2 y e a r s , students have n o v o i c e , n o p o w e r , n o d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a v e n u e s to m a k e s i g n i f i c a n t changes. A c r i t i q u e o f o u r e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m is b e y o n d the scope o f t h i s a r t i c l e . S u f f i c e it to say h e r e t h a t w h i l e s o c i e t y ' s m o t i v a t i o n o f p r o v i d i n g e d u c a t i o n f o r a l l its y o u n g p e o p l e is l a u d a b l e , the s c h o o l s y s t e m as an i n s t i t u t i o n p e r p e t u a t e s adultism.

A n o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l e x a m p l e is the absence o f s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e , p r o d u c t i v e , a n d c o n n e c t e d r o l e s f o r y o u n g p e o p l e i n m o s t societies. C e r t a i n l y i n the U n i t e d States, y o u n g p e o p l e f i n d f e w jobs, no r e a l p o l i c y - m a k i n g r o l e s , n o p o s i t i o n s of p o l i t i c a l p o w e r , a n d no h i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s of y o u n g p e o p l e ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n s to society.

O n the o t h e r h a n d , the y o u t h m a r k e t is e x p l o i t e d f o r p r o f i t as the m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n d u s t r i e s m a n i p u l a t e s t y l e s , f a d s , p o p u l a r i t y , a n d a l l o t h e r aspects o f mass c u l t u r e .

A MIRROR

A h a n d y m i r r o r f o r r e f l e c t i n g w h a t m a y be adultist b e h a v i o r is to ask oneself questions l i k e the f o l l o w i n g :

• " W o u l d I treat a n a d u l t t h i s w a y ? " • " W o u l d I t a l k to a n a d u l t i n this tone of v o i c e ? " • " W o u l d I grab this out of an a d u l t ' s h a n d ? " • " W o u l d I m a k e t h i s d e c i s i o n f o r a n a d u l t ? " • " W o u l d I h a v e t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n f o r a n a d u l t ? " • " W o u l d I h m i t a n a d u l t ' s b e h a v i o r this w a y ? " • " W o u l d I l i s t e n to a n a d u l t f r i e n d ' s p r o b l e m i n this same w a y ? "

S o m e t i m e s the a n s w e r m a y be " n o " f o r g o o d r e a s o n , d e p e n d i n g o n the c i r c u m s t a n c e . F o r e x a m p l e , I i n s i s t t h a t m y s i x y e a r o l d s o n h o l d m y h a n d w h e n c r o s s i n g the street, b u t n o t m y 18 y e a r o l d daughter. H o w e v e r , m a n y t i m e s the re is n o j u s t i f i a b l e r e a s o n f o r t r e a t i n g a y o u n g e r p e r s o n d i f f e r e n t l y e x c e p t habit a n d a t t i t u d e . I f y o u r " n o " s o u n d s a l i t t l e h o l l o w , it m i g h t be w o r t h r e - e x a m i n i n g y o u r re aso ns f o r d o i n g i t .

THE EMOTIONAL LEGACY

I h o p e t h i s s h o r t list o f e x a m p l e s begins to p u t o u r w o r k w i t h y o u n g p e o p l e i n a l a r g e r c o n t e x t . M o s t of the e x a m p l e s I used h a v e been r e p o r t e d to me by y o u n g p e o p l e . T h e y

5 4 8 A G E I S M A N D A D U L T I S M

c o n s i s t e n t l y r e p o r t that the m a i n message they get f r o m the a d u l t w o r l d is that they are n o t as i m p o r t a n t as a d u l t s ; t h e y d o not feel that they are t a k e n s e r i o u s l y ; t h e y have l i t t l e o r n o p o w e r .

T h e y say t h a t the e m o t i o n a l legacy o f y e a r s o f this k i n d o f t r e a t m e n t is a h e a v y l o a d , w h i c h c a n i n c l u d e a n y or a l l o f the f o l l o w i n g : anger, feelings o f p o w e r l e s s n e s s , i n s e c u r i t y , d e p r e s s i o n , l a c k o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , l a c k of self-respect, hopelessness, f e e l i n g u n l o v e d a n d u n w a n t e d .

W h a t are some possible results of s u c h feelings o n t h e i r b e h a v i o r , e s p e c i a l l y as they get i n t o adolescence a n d e a r l y a d u l t h o o d ?

• S o m e act " o u t " by b u l l y i n g , being p r o n e to v i o l e n c e , r e b e l h n g against the " n o r m , " l e a v i n g h o m e early, a n d so o n .

• S o m e act " i n " by b e c o m i n g s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e : s u i c i d e , a l c o h o l a n d d r u g abuse, d e p r e s - s i o n , etc.

• S o m e g a i n a sense o f b e l o n g i n g or safety b y j o i n i n g a g a n g , a c l i q u e , a c l u b , teams • S o m e isolate t h e m s e l v e s , b e i n g l o n e l y , n o t a s k i n g f o r h e l p , n o t h a v i n g a n y close r e l a -

t i o n s h i p s , n o t t r u s t i n g .

A g a i n , adultism is n o t the o n l y s o u r c e of s u c h b e h a v i o r s , but it s u r e l y p l a y s a m a j o r r o l e .

A LINK TO OTHER FORMS OF OPPRESSION

T h e r e is a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d c h a l l e n g i n g adultism. T h e v a r i - ous w a y s w e w e r e di srespected a n d m i s t r e a t e d h a v e , o v e r t i m e , robbed us o f huge a m o u n t s o f o u r h u m a n p o w e r , access to o u r feelings, c o n f i d e n c e i n o u r t h i n k i n g a n d a b i l i t y to act, a n d e n j o y m e n t o f l i v i n g . T h e p a i n w e e x p e r i e n c e as y o u n g people helps c o n d i t i o n us to p l a y one o f t w o r o l e s as w e get o l d e r : to accept f u r t h e r m i s t r e a t m e n t as w o m e n , as p e o p l e o f c o l o r , as w o r k e r s , etc., or to flip to the other side o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d act i n o p p r e s - s i v e w a y s t o w a r d o t h e r s w h o are in r e l a t i v e l y less p o w e r f u l p o s i t i o n s t h a n o u r s .

A s i m p l e i l l u s t r a t i o n m i g h t h e l p m a k e this clear. P i c t u r e t h i s : a s i x t h g r a d e r is h u m i l i a t e d by the t e a c h e r i n f r o n t o f the class f o r n o t d o i n g the m a t h p r o b l e m at the b o a r d c o r r e c t l y . T h e recess b e l l r i n g s . H e is f u m i n g . H e feels d i s r e s p e c t e d . H e goes outside a n d p i c k s o n s o m e o n e to get h i s feelings o u t . W h o m does he p i c k on? S o m e o n e s m a l l e r a n d o f t e n s o m e o n e y o u n g e r . A n d so it goes: the 6 t h g r a d e r p i c k s o n the 5 t h grader. T h e 5 t h g r a d e r t u r n s a n d k n o c k s d o w n the 3 r d grader. T h e 3 r d grader h i t s the 1st grader. T h e 1st g r a d e r goes h o m e a n d p i c k s o n h i s l i t t l e sister. T h e l i t t l e sister t u r n s a n d k i c k s the cat.

W e can ob s erve a m o n g a g r o u p o f c h i l d r e n the m i s t r e a t m e n t b e i n g passed d o w n a m o n g t h e m . I t is b e i n g passed d o w n the l i n e of p h y s i c a l p o w e r , bigger to s m a l l e r , a n d o f t e n o l d e r to y o u n g e r .

T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e becomes c l e a r e r w h e n it is g e n e r a h z e d to o t h e r f o r m s o f the abuse of p o w e r . M e n , f o r e x a m p l e , w h o w e r e r o u t i n e l y beaten as l i t t l e b o y s , g r o w u p to be w i f e beaters. T h i s is a c l i n i c a l t r u i s m . S i m i l a r l y , w h i t e p e o p l e , d i s r e s p e c t e d as c h i l d r e n , t u r n the sam e a t t i t u d e , e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h m i s i n f o r m a t i o n , o n p e o p l e o f c o l o r .

T h i s is one o f the p e r v a s i v e a n d l a s t i n g effects o f the m i s t r e a t m e n t of y o u n g p e o p l e . B u l l i e s h a v e been b u l l i e d . A b u s e r s h a v e been a b u s e d . People w h o h a v e been p u t d o w n p u t o t h e r s d o w n . I f a p e r s o n h a d n o t been di srespected a n d m i s t r e a t e d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n as a c h i l d a n d y o u n g p e r s o n , that p e r s o n w o u l d n o t w i l l i n g l y accept b e i n g treated that w a y as he got older, n o r w o u l d he w i U i n g l y heap d i s r e s p e c t o n o t h e r s .

Adultism, r a c i s m , s e x i s m , a n d o t h e r " i s m s " a l l r e i n f o r c e e a c h other. T h e p a r t i c u l a r w a y s y o u n g p e o p l e are t r e a t e d or m i s t r e a t e d are i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e i r class, gender, or e t h n i c

" L O O K O U T , K I D , IT'S S O M E T H I N G Y O U D I D " | 5 4 9

b a c k g r o u n d . H o w e v e r , the p h e n o m e n a of being disrespected s i m p l y because of b e i n g y o u n g h o l d s t r u e across d i v e r s e b a c k g r o u n d s .

A s e i s m i c change has t a k e n p l a c e . Y o u n g s t e r s are to be f e a r e d . O u r w o r s t e n e m y is a m o n g u s . C h i l d r e n m u s t be p u n i s h e d , h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e , e x p e l l e d . W e h a v e d e v e l o p e d z e r o - t o l e r a n c e f o r c h i l d r e n .

T h e tragedy at C o l u m b i n e f u r t h e r escalated the d e c a d e - l o n g process o f c r i m i n a l i z i n g the b e h a v i o r of c h i l d r e n , r e c a s t i n g an a d d i t i o n a l i c o n to a c c o m p a n y the f e a r f u l , r a c i a l l y c o d e d language d e s c r i b i n g some y o u t h i n t r o u b l e w i t h the l a w as " s u p e r p r e d a t o r s . " T h e n e w l y s e n s a t i o n a l i z e d s c h o o l s h o o t i n g s of 1 9 9 7 - 1 9 9 9 i n v o l v e d s u b u r b a n or s m a l l - t o w n r e l i g i o u s W h i t e boys w i t h guns, k i l l i n g their f e l l o w students, s p a w n i n g a W h i t e , u p p e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s d i s c o u r s e of v i o l e n t y o u t h based o n a h e n a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i o n . S c h o o l shootings h a v e become a t r o p e — a n i n s p i r a t i o n f o r p o l i t i c i a n s , f u n d i n g s t r e a m s , e d u c a t i o n a l p a n d e m o n i u m , a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t e x p a n s i o n . Y e t p e r h a p s m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y , beneath the r a r e l y o c c u r r i n g b u t d o m i n a n t f o c u s o n y o u t h h o m i c i d e s , n o r m a l y o u t h b e h a v i o r a n d m i s b e h a v i o r became f u r t h e r c r i m i n a l i z e d , a l l i n the n a m e of safety. C h i l d r e n bore the b r u n t o f the n a t i o n a l s o u l - s e a r c h i n g into the c o n d i t i o n s o f c h i l d h o o d i n A m e r i c a at the e n d o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y .

N o one c a n i g n o r e the s h o c k i n g f a c t that i n the decade of 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 9 4 , 2 5 , 0 0 0 c h i l - d r e n w e r e m u r d e r e d i n the U n i t e d States. I n f a c t , there is the e q u i v a l e n t of a C o l u m b i n e v i r t u a l l y e v e r y day i n A m e r i c a . T h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f l e t h a l h a n d g u n s i n the poss es s io n of c h i l d r e n t h a t r e s u l t e d i n c h i l d r e n k i l l i n g c h i l d r e n ( 8 3 % of v i c t i m s aged 1 2 - 1 8 w e r e k i l l e d by h a n d g u n s ) ; the s y n d i c a t i o n of y o u t h gangs i n t o i l l e g a l - d r u g c a r t e l s ; the f l o u r i s h i n g of y o u t h v i o l e n c e r e p o r t e d on l o c a l T V n e w s s t a t i o n s ; the r e s u l t i n g p u b l i c fear a n d p a n d e r i n g o f p o U t i c i a n s a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o f f i c i a l s ; a n d the p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f y o u t h d e m o n i z a t i o n by n o t e d a c a d e m i c s — t h e s e are the tangled elements that r e i n f o r c e a n d s t r e n g t h e n one a n o t h e r , s p i r a l i n g i n t o an o v e r l a p p i n g s y s t e m of causes a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d q u a l i t a t i v e changes i n h o w society p e r c e i v e s , a n d even t h i n k s about, its adolescents.

T o d a y , b e h a v i o r s that w e r e once p u n i s h e d or s a n c t i o n e d by the s c h o o l v i c e - p r i n c i p a l , f a m i l y m e m b e r s , a neighbor, or a c o a c h are m o r e l i k e l y to lead to a n a d o l e s c e n t b e i n g a r r e s t e d , r e f e r r e d to j u v e n i l e or c r i m i n a l c o u r t , f o r m a l l y a d j u d i c a t e d , i n c a r c e r a t e d i n a d e t e n t i o n center, w a i v e d or t r a n s f e r r e d to a d u l t c r i m i n a l c o u r t f o r t r i a l , s e n t e n c e d u n d e r m a n d a t o r y s e n t e n c i n g g u i d e l i n e s , a n d i n c a r c e r a t e d w i t h a d u l t s . T h e i n c r e a s e i n d i s c r e t i o n ceded to p r o s e c u t o r s a n d p o l i c e has t r a n s f o r m e d the d e c i s i o n of w h a t to c h a r g e f o r a g i v e n o f f e n s e : Y e s t e r d a y ' s battery m a y be i n f l a t e d i n t o assault, s i m p l e assault i n t o aggravated assault, a s c h o o l y a r d f i g h t i n t o m u l t i p l e f e l o n y charges. T h e a r r e s t of m u l t i p l e j u v e n i l e d e f e n d a n t s f o r e a c h i n c i d e n t f u r t h e r escalates y o u t h c r i m e statistics.

1 1 5

Look Out, Kid, It's Something You Did"

The Criminalization ot Children

Bernadine Dohrn

5 5 0 I A G E I S M A N D A D U L T I S M

T h i s m a s s i v e s h i f t t o w a r d c r i m i n a h z i n g y o u n g s t e r s is e v i d e n t i n the i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s of c o u r t cases, d e t a i n e d a n d i n c a r c e r a t e d y o u t h i n o v e r c r o w d e d f a c i l i t i e s , a n d l e g i s l a t i v e c r a c k d o w n s o n j u v e n i l e c r i m e . I n the past decade, the n u m b e r of f o r m a l l y p r o c e s s e d d e l i n - q u e n c y cases i n c r e a s e d 7 8 % .

W i t h i n this c l i m a t e , a less v i s i b l e , less s e n s a t i o n a l s h i f t has q u i e t l y been e x e c u t e d . T h i s change p r o f o u n d l y i m p a c t s m i U i o n s of c h i l d r e n , t h e i r classmates a n d f a m i l i e s , a n d o u r c o m m o n f u t u r e .

T h i s decade of relentless r e c o n d i t i o n i n g of h o w c i t i z e n s t h i n k about c h i l d r e n — o n the p a r t of l a w e n f o r c e m e n t , l e g i s l a t o r s , p r o f e s s i o n a l s , a c a d e m i c s , the m e d i a , a n d f r i g h t e n e d n e i g h b o r h o o d r e s i d e n t s — h a s s h i f t e d the p a r a d i g m . T h r o u g h the c a t a l y s t of changes i n c r i m i n a l a n d j u v e n i l e l a w , m u c h of adolescent b e h a v i o r has been c r i m i n a l i z e d a n d y o u n g s t e r s t h e m s e l v e s d e m o n i z e d . C a s t i n g c h i l d r e n as f r i g h t e n i n g m a k e s f u l l use o f r a c i a l , e t h n i c , a n d gender s t e r e o t y p i n g , r e s u l t i n g i n b o t h d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e i m p a c t as w e l l as g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i m p a c t i n g a l l y o u t h . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n h o w w e t h i n k about o u r s e l v e s t h i n k i n g a b o u t c h i l d r e n has t a k e n an i n c a l c u l a b l e t o l l o n adults a n d c h i l d r e n a l i k e . T h e d a i l y d i s c o u r s e about c h i l d r e n has s h i f t e d f r o m i n n o c e n c e to g u i l t , f r o m p o s s i b i h t ) ' to p u n i s h m e n t , f r o m p r o t e c t i o n to fear. T h i s sinister c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n of c h i l d h o o d n o w p e r m e a t e s basic l i f e : the s c h o o l s , the p a r k s a n d n e i g h b o r h o o d s , c h i l d p r o t e c t i o n , a n d h e a l t h c a r e .

I n the 1 9 9 0 s , f i s c a l p r i o r i t i e s s h i f t e d f r o m e d u c a t i o n , c h i l d p r o t e c t i o n , a n d s c h o l a r s h i p s to p r i s o n c o n s t r u c t i o n , l a w e n f o r c e m e n t g r o w t h , a n d e x p a n d e d m e c h a n i s m s f o r the s o c i a l c o n t r o l a n d e x i l e o f sectors of y o u t h . C o r r e c t i o n a l s p e n d i n g n a t i o n a l l y n o w exceeds $ 4 0 b i l l i o n p e r y e a r , to p a y f o r a 5 0 0 % rise i n the p r i s o n p o p u l a t i o n since 1 9 7 2 . I n t w o s h o r t decades, budgets f o r p r i s o n s g r e w t w i c e as fast as f o r e d u c a t i o n ; p r i s o n s p e n d i n g i n c r e a s e d 8 2 3 % b e t w e e n 1 9 8 8 a n d 1 9 9 5 , w h i t e e d u c a t i o n e x p e n d i t u r e s g r e w o n l y 3 7 4 % . M o r e s o b e r i n g , the vast m a j o r i t y o f the states n o w spend at least one a n d a h a l f t i m e s as m u c h o n p r i s o n s as t h e y d o o n e d u c a t i o n .

I n the past decade, N e w Y o r k State spent m o r e t h a n $ 7 0 0 m i l l i o n o n p r i s o n s , w h i l e s l a s h i n g the state a n d city college budgets by $ 6 0 0 m i U i o n , w i t h one r e s u l t being that the n u m b e r of p e o p l e o f c o l o r e n r o l l e d i n N e w Y o r k ' s state colleges a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s is sub- s t a n t i a l l y l o w e r t h a n the n u m b e r c u r r e n t l y i n c a r c e r a t e d t h e r e . N o t o n l y are m o r e c h i l d r e n c u r r e n t l y seeing the i n s i d e of p r i s o n w a l l s r a t h e r t h a n c l a s s r o o m s , there is a n e w m o v e m e n t to place m o r e , a n d y o u n g e r , c h i l d r e n i n t o the a d u l t c r i m i n a l s y s t e m .

O n e h u n d r e d y e a r s ago i n C h i c a g o , the w o r l d ' s f i r s t j u v e n i l e c o u r t f o r c h i l d r e n w a s p r e - m i s e d o n the r e m o v a l of c h i l d r e n f r o m a d u l t j a i l s a n d a d u l t p o o r h o u s e s . A t the c e n t e n n i a l o f the j u v e n i l e c o u r t , c h i l d r e n are b e i n g r e i n c a r c e r a t e d w i t h a d u l t s , t r i e d as ad ults i n a d u l t c r i m i n a l c o u r t , a n d subject to i m p u t a t i o n of a d u l t mens rea w i t h m a n d a t o r y - s e n t e n c i n g statutes that reject r e h a b i l i t a t i o n as a g o a l .

CRIMINALIZING YOUTH BEHAVIORS

A m a j o r cons equence o f the t i d a l w a v e o f fear, v i o l e n c e , a n d t e r r o r associated w i t h c h i l d r e n has been a d u l t legislative a n d p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s to c r i m i n a l i z e vast sectors of y o u t h b e h a v i o r . I n p a r t , this t e n d e n c y is f u e l e d by an o r g a n i z e d d r i v e on the p a r t of c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s to "get t o u g h o n y o u t h v i o l e n c e " ; i n p a r t the changes h a v e r e s u l t e d f r o m a n a c c u m u l a t i o n o f l e g i s l a t i v e r e a c t i o n s to a p a r t i c u l a r s e n s a t i o n a l i z e d case, the h a c k n e y e d m a n t r a to " d o s o m e t h i n g . "

T h e s u m t o t a l o f a decade's legal responses is the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the s o c i a l landscape that c h i l d r e n i n h a b i t . S c h o o l s h a v e become m i l i t a r y f o rtre sse s. H a n g i n g out becomes

L O O K O U T , K I D , I T ' S S O M E T H I N G Y O U D I D " | 5 5 1

i l l e g a l . F e w e r systems w a n t to w o r k w i t h adolescents i n n e e d . Y o u n g s t e r s w h o have t h e m - selves been neglected or abused by adults pose too m a n y c h a l l e n g e s a n d h a v e too m a n y p r o b l e m s to be a d d r e s s e d . H e a l t h care a n d m e n t a l h e a l t h s e r v i c e s are r a r e l y o r g a n i z e d f o r adol escents. S c h o o l s w a n t to get r i d of the t r o u b l e m a k e r s a n d the k i d s w h o b r i n g d o w n the test scores. M i n o r offenses are n o longer dealt w i t h by r e t a i l stores, s c h o o l d i s c i p l i n a r i a n s , p a r e n t s , or y o u t h w o r k e r s , but r a t h e r the poUce are c a l l e d , arrests are m a d e , p e t i t i o n s are f i l e d .

S i x of seven j u v e n i l e arrests are f o r a n o n v i o l e n t o f f e n s e . O f the 2 . 7 m i l l i o n arrests o f y o u n g p e o p l e u n d e r 18 years of age, p r o p e r t y offenses ( p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r c e n y / t h e f t ) , d r u g offenses, d i s o r d e r l y c o n d u c t , r u n a w a y s , c u r f e w a n d l o i t e r i n g , a n d l i q u o r l a w v i o l a t i o n s a c c o u n t f o r the vast m a j o r i t y o f the arrests. I r o n i c a l l y , i f a l l m a l e c h i l d r e n aged 1 0 - 1 8 w e r e i n c a r c e r a t e d u n t i l t h e i r 2 5 t h b i r t h d a y , e l i m i n a t i n g y o u t h c r i m e t o m o r r o w , there w o u l d s t i l l be 9 0 % o f v i o l e n t c r i m e : the a d u l t o f f e n d e r s . T h e intense f o c u s o n a y o u t h c r i m e e p i d e m i c thus is a s o c i a l c h o i c e r a t h e r t h a n a strategic response to the facts about c r i m e a n d p u b l i c safety.

T h e c r i m i n a l i z i n g o f a d o l e s c e n t b e h a v i o r takes place i n m u l t i p l e w a y s . M a j o r s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r y o u t h have c o n s t r i c t e d e l i g i b i l i t y a n d eased m e t h o d s f o r e x p u l s i o n . S c h o o l s , c h i l d w e l f a r e systems, p r o b a t i o n , a n d h e a l t h s e r v i c e s h a v e a l l m a d e it easier to v i o l a t e , t e r m i n a t e , e x c l u d e , a n d e x p e l y o u n g s t e r s . W h e r e these y o u t h go f o r s u r v i v a l , h e l p , s o c i a l - i z a t i o n d e v e l o p m e n t , c a r e , a n d a t t e n t i o n is u n c l e a r . O n e d o o r that a l w a y s r e m a i n s o p e n is the g a t e w a y to j u v e n i l e a n d c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e . O v e r c r o w d e d j u v e n i l e c o r r e c t i o n a l i n s t i t u - t i o n s , d e f i c i e n t y o u t h f a c i l i t i e s , a n d d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e m i n o r i t y c o n f i n e m e n t are a m o n g the c o n s e q u e n c e s .

P O L I C I N G T H E S C H O O L S

I w o u l d there w e r e n o age b e t w e e n ten a n d three- a n d t w e n t y , or that y o u t h w o u l d sleep out the r e s t ; f o r there is n o t h i n g i n the b e t w e e n but getting w e n c h e s w i t h c h i l d , w r o n g i n g the a n c i e n t r y , s t e a l i n g , f i g h t i n g .

— S h a k e s p e a r e , The Winter's Tale, act I I I , scene I I I . 11. 61-66

S c h o o l s h a v e become a m a j o r feeder of c h i l d r e n i n t o j u v e n i l e a n d a d u l t c r i m i n a l c o u r t s ; s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , s c h o o l s themselves are b e c o m i n g m o r e p r i s o n l i k e . C l o s e d c a m p u s e s , l o c k e r searches, c o n t r a b a n d , i n t e r r o g a t i o n s a n d i n f o r m e r s , h e a v i l y a r m e d t a c t i c a l p o l i c e p a t r o l s , u n i f o r m s ( M . M . H a r r i g a n , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 1 9 9 8 ) — t h e s e are elements of p u b l i c a n d even p r i v a t e h i g h s c h o o l l i f e today. I t is p a r a d o x i c a l but f u n d a m e n t a l that a h a n d f u l o f h i g h - p r o f i l e s c h o o l s h o o t i n g s m a s k s a b r o a d e r a n d deeper c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n of s c h o o l l i f e , a c c o m p a n i e d by the p o l i c i n g of s c h o o l s , w h i c h has t r a n s f o r m e d pubUc s c h o o l s across A m e r i c a i n t o a p r i n c i p a l r e f e r r a l s o u r c e f o r j u v e n i l e - j u s t i c e p r o s e c u t i o n .

T w o p o l i c i e s c o n t r i b u t e to this d r a m a t i c n e w role f o r s c h o o l s : f i r s t , the i n c r e a s e d p o l i c - i n g of s c h o o l s , l e a d i n g to a s i g n i f i c a n t increase in s c h o o l - b a s e d arrests a n d the s i m u l t a n e o u s a b d i c a t i o n of e d u c a t o r s ; a n d s e c o n d , the s u b s t a n t i a l increase i n s c h o o l e x c l u s i o n s , i n c l u d - i n g suspensions/expulsions o f students, p r o p e l l e d i n i t i a l l y by the l e g i s l a t i v e g r e e n h g h t that m a n d a t e d " z e r o - t o l e r a n c e " p o l i c i e s f o r gun possession as a c o n d i t i o n o f f e d e r a l f u n d i n g . T h a t l i m i t e d d e f i n i t i o n of z e r o - t o l e r a n c e r a p i d l y e x p l o d e d , i n p r a c t i c e , to i n c l u d e m i s d e e d s of a l l sorts, both i n s c h o o l a n d outside o f s c h o o l . R a t h e r t h a n i n s i s t i n g o n the t e a c h i n g p o t e n t i a l i n a d o l e s c e n t m i s b e h a v i o r f o r b o t h the m i s c r e a n t a n d the other s t u d e n t s , r a t h e r t h a n s e i z i n g the " t e a c h a b l e m o m e n t , " r a t h e r t h a n k e e p i n g an e d u c a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e o n s a n c t i o n i n g a n d s o c i a l a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , p r i n c i p a l s a n d t e a c h e r s — a d m i t t e d l y u n d e r pressure f r o m f r i g h t e n e d p a r e n t s — h a v e ceded t h e i r a u t h o r i t y to l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p e r s o n n e l , par- t i c u l a r l y to p o l i c e a n d p r o s e c u t o r s , a n d w i l l i n g l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n e x c l u d i n g t r o u b l e m a k e r s .

5 5 2 I A G E I S M A N D A D U L T I S M

d i f f i c u l t k i d s , d i s a b l e d y o u t h , a n d c h i l d r e n i n t r o u b l e f r o m the v e r y e d u c a t i o n that is t h e i r p r i m a r y h o p e . T h e s e s o - c a l l e d z e r o - t o l e r a n c e a n d s e c u r i t y p o h c i e s w e r e e s c a l a t i n g before the h i g h - p r o f i l e s c h o o l s h o o t i n g s of 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 a n d the 1 9 9 9 C o l u m b m e H i g h S c h o o l t r a - gedy. S i n c e t h e n , the p o l i c i e s , the d o l l a r s , a n d the h a r d w a r e f o r p o h c i n g a n d m i l i t a r i z i n g s c h o o l s h a v e m u s h r o o m e d , a n d the t r e n d is l i k e l y to c o n t i n u e i n t o the n e x t decade.

School-Based Arrests. H o w g r a v e is the s c h o o l c r i m e p r o b l e m ? I n 1 9 9 7 , there w e r e m o r e t h a n 1 8 0 , 0 0 0 s c h o o l f i g h t s l e a d i n g to arrests, a l m o s t 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 thefts i n s c h o o l s l e a d - i n g to a rres ts , n e a r l y 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 i n c i d e n t s of s c h o o l v a n d a l i s m l e a d i n g to a r r e s t s , a n d f e w e r t h a n 2 0 , 0 0 0 v i o l e n t c r i m e s . S e r i o u s v i o l e n t c r i m e is e x t r e m e l y r a r e w i t h i n s c h o o l s a n d c o n s t i t u t e s a s m a l l percentage o f the t o t a l a m o u n t of s c h o o l o f f e n d i n g . N i n e t y p e r c e n t of p r i n c i p a l s s u r v e y e d r e p o r t e d no m a j o r s e r i o u s , v i o l e n t c r i m e i n t h e i r s c h o o l s . I n f a c t , v i c t i m s e l f - r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e that a c t u a l s c h o o l c r i m e n u m b e r s h a v e n o t c h a n g e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y d u r i n g the past 2 0 y e a r s .

T h e f i r s t three categories (some 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 arrests) are n o t e w o r t h y . M o s t s c h o o l c r i m e is theft, s o m e 6 2 % . S c h o o l - b a s e d i n c i d e n t s s u c h as f i g h t i n g , theft, a n d v a n d a l i s m h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y been h a n d l e d w i t h i n a s c h o o l d i s c i p l i n a r y s y s t e m . F o r t y y e a r s ago, a n o f f e n d e r w o u l d be sent to the o f f i c e of the v i c e - p r i n c i p a l , a p a r e n t m i g h t be c a l l e d , d e t e n t i o n h a l l ( r e m a i n i n g f o r a n h o u r after s c h o o l ) m i g h t be m a n d a t e d , a letter of a p o l o g y m i g h t be r e q u i r e d . I t w o u l d h a v e been d i f f i c u l t to i m a g i n e poUce b e i n g c a l l e d , arrests a n d h a n d c u f f s e m p l o y e d , c o u r t f i l i n g s a n d i n c a r c e r a t i o n b e i n g o p t i o n s .

I n t o d a y ' s C h i c a g o p u b l i c s c h o o l s , a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y i n s u b u r b a n a n d r u r a l s c h o o l d i s - t r i c t s , p o l i c e are r o u t i n e l y e m p l o y e d by s c h o o l s . S o m e s c h o o l s e m p l o y pohce o f f i c e r s i n t h e i r teacher s a l a r y l i n e s , a n d encourage p o l i c e i n u n i f o r m s , a r m e d , t a c t i c a l - u n i t p o h c e , a n d p l a i n c l o t h e s p o l i c e to p a t r o l t h e i r s c h o o l s . Police o f f i c e r s m a y m a k e h a l f again t h e i r s a l a r y by m o o n l i g h t i n g w i t h the p u b h c s c h o o l s outside t h e i r regular d u t ) ' h o u r s . S c h o o l - assigned p o l i c e m a y be e v a l u a t e d based o n t h e i r n u m b e r s o f arrests. P o l i c e m a y be u n d e r n o o b l i g a t i o n to c o n s u l t w i t h the s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l a b o u t h o w to r e s p o n d to a p a r t i c u l a r y o u t h ' s m i s b e h a v i o r or to a p a r t i c u l a r i n c i d e n t . I n c e r t a i n l o c a t i o n s , p o l i c e f a i l to i n f o r m p r i n c i p a l s or s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s that a s t u d e n t has been a r r e s t e d d u r i n g s c h o o l h o u r s , o n s c h o o l g r o u n d s . O n e a u t h o r i t y has r e p l a c e d a n o t h e r .

A t P a u l R o b e s o n H i g h S c h o o l i n C h i c a g o , f o r e x a m p l e , l o c a l p o l i c e p r e c i n c t data i n d i c a t e t h a t 1 5 8 students w e r e a r r e s t e d at R o b e s o n i n 1 9 9 6 - 9 7 . T h e b r e a k d o w n of those a r r e s t charges, f r o m a m a j o r u r b a n h i g h s c h o o l , is r e v e a l i n g : 6 1 arrests f o r pager p o s s e s s i o n , 2 1 f o r d i s o r d e r l y c o n d u c t , 14 f o r m o b a c t i o n , 16 f o r ( n o n f i r e a r m s ) w e a p o n p o s s e s s i o n . I n 1 9 9 8 , after the s c h o o l a d o p t e d a strategy of s m a l l - s c h o o l r e f o r m — b r e a k i n g the m a s s i v e h i g h s c h o o l i n t o s m a l l e r u n i t s w h e r e no y o u t h shps t h r o u g h the c r a c k s — a r r e s t s p l u m m e t e d to 2 8 , 2 2 o f those f o r pager v i o l a t i o n s !

M a s s i v e l o c k e r searches began i n 1 9 9 4 - 9 5 i n C h i c a g o s c h o o l s , r e s u l t i n g i n n u m e r o u s s t u d e n t arrests d u r i n g a single d a y ' s l o c k d o w n : 4 0 students at W e s t i n g h o u s e H i g h S c h o o l , 4 6 at K e n w o o d H i g h S c h o o l , 5 0 at R o o s e v e l t H i g h S c h o o l , a n d 5 7 at L i n c o l n H i g h S c h o o l . I n each case, the s u b s t a n t i a l m a j o r i t y of teens w e r e c h a r g e d w i t h possession o f beepers. Possession o f pagers appears to be a n offense that is b o t h a status offense ( f o r w h i c h a d u l t s w o u l d n o t be a r r e s t e d ) a n d a n e x p a n s i o n of d r u g l a w s by l a b e l i n g pagers as " d r u g p a r a - p h e r n a l i a " or c o n t r a b a n d : t r a n s f o r m i n g a t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o n v e n i e n c e i n t o a c r i m e . S c h o o l - based arrests f o r possession of pagers is a classic e x a m p l e of the c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n of y o u t h .

A d d i t i o n a l s c h o o l - b a s e d arrests i n c l u d e offense charges s u c h as d i s o r d e r l y c o n d u c t or m o b a c t i o n , d i s c r e t i o n a r y d e c i s i o n s that c o u l d be based o n i n c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g s i g n i f i c a n t d i s r u p t i o n s or m e r e l y m i n o r o c c u r r e n c e s . D e c i s i o n s to c a l l a s h o u t i n g m a t c h , a n o - h a r m tussle, or l o c k e r g r a f f i t i a c r i m e , to a r r e s t r a t h e r t h a n see a teachable m o m e n t , to p r o s e c u t e r a t h e r t h a n res olve d i s p u t e s — t h e s e p r a c t i c e s are t u r n i n g s c h o o l s i n t o p o l i c e d t e r r i t o r y . R e s e a r c h e r s suggest that the e x p e c t a t i o n of s c h o o l c r i m e i n f a c t creates i t .

" L O O K O U T , K I D , I T ' S S O M E T H I N G Y O U D I D " | 5 5 3

T h i s p a t t e r n of a c c e l e r a t i n g s c h o o l i n c i d e n t s i n t o d e l i n q u e n c y offenses ot c r i m i n a l acts f u r t h e r heightens d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e m i n o r i t y arrests a n d c o n f i n e m e n t i n j u v e n i l e j u s t i c e . T o date, it is the l a r g e , p u b l i c , u r b a n h i g h s c h o o l s t h a t h a v e become sites o f s u b s t a n t i a l p o h c e p r e s e n c e , t h a t are u n d e r p r e s s u r e to c o n t r o l y o u t h m i s b e h a v i o r , a n d t h a t are w i t h o u t i n f l u - e n t i a l parents w i t h r e s o u r c e s to b u f f e r t h e i r c h i l d r e n f r o m the j u v e n i l e justice s y s t e m . S i n c e J o n e s b o r o a n d L i t t l e t o n , s u b u r b a n a n d r u r a l h i g h s c h o o l s are also b e c o m i n g f o r t r e s s e s , a n d arrests a n d m a n d a t o r y e x p u l s i o n s are e s c a l a t i n g . T h i s b l e e d i n g of u r b a n responses i n t o m i d d l e - c l a s s l i f e has its o w n d y n a m i c a n d m o m e n t u m , f o c u s i n g m o r e , p e r h a p s , o n d r u g s , t o b a c c o , dress, a n d b e h a v i o r t o w a r d a u t h o r i t y , w i t h m o r e p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of y o u t h as a c o n s e q u e n c e .

T h e i n c r e a s i n g r e g i m e n t a t i o n of s c h o o l t i m e results i n f e w b r e a k s , l i t t l e t i m e f o r l u n c h , less p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n , a n a t t r i t i o n of m u s i c , a r t , a n d h u m a n i t i e s classes, a n d c l o s e d c a m - puses i n h i g h s c h o o l s . C l o s e d c a m p u s e s r e s u l t f r o m n e i g h b o r h o o d r e s i d e n t s ' a n d p a r e n t s ' c o m p l a i n t s about the m o b i l e p re se nce of c h i l d r e n d u r i n g the s c h o o l day. T e a c h e r s m o n i t o r s t u d e n t l u n c h p e r i o d s a n d m o v e t h e i r o w n l u n c h time to the e n d o f the day, s h o r t e n i n g the s c h o o l day. I n f a c t , s c h o o l s are i n c r e a s i n g l y s i m u l a t i n g p r i s o n s , as i f p r e p a r i n g t h e i r s t u - dents f o r a l i k e l y f u t u r e ; l o c k e d i n , r e g i m e n t e d , s e a r c h e d , u n i f o r m e d , p r e s s u r e d to b e c o m e i n f o r m e r s , a n d o b s e r v e d w i t h s u s p i c i o n .

S e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e of s t u d e n t l o c k e r s , b a c k p a c k s , a n d p e r s o n s is l e g i t i m i z e d . A c u l t u r e o f i n f o r m i n g o n f e l l o w students is e n c o u r a g e d a n d m a n d a t e d by s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s , w i t h o u t e x p l o r a t i o n o f e t h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d c o n f l i c t i n g v a l u e s i n v o l v e d . T h e b l u r r i n g of s c h o o l d i s c i p l i n e a n d d e U n q u e n c y accelerates.

W h e n s c h o o l s a n c t i o n i n g is h a n d e d o v e r to l a w e n f o r c e m e n t in the first instance f o r the vast m a j o r i t y of m i n o r s c h o o l i n f r a c t i o n s , n o t o n l y do the o f f e n d e r a n d the v i c t i m f a i l to l e a r n f r o m the i n c i d e n t , a n d n o t o n l y is the c o n s e q u e n c e m o r e l i k e l y to be c r u s h i n g r a t h e r t h a n i l l u m i n a t i n g , but the e n t i r e c o m m u n i t y f a i l s to take h o l d o f the p r o b l e m as a s c h o o l - c o m m u n i t y matter.

T h e f a i l u r e to p l a c e s e r i o u s r e l i a n c e o n peer j u r i e s , teen c o u r t s , or c o m m u n i t y - j u s t i c e a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d to r e l y i n s t e a d o n a r m e d p o l i c e f o r s c h o o l safety has s t a r t l i n g a n d p r o f o u n d c o n s e q u e n c e s . I t is a n a b d i c a t i o n of a d u l t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d engagement w i t h y o u n g s t e t s . I t creates a j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y r e c o r d f o r vast n u m b e r s of y o u t h w h o m i g h t o t h e r w i s e n o t be i n t r o u b l e w i t h the law. H a v i n g a n y d e H n q u e n c y or c r i m i n a l r e c o r d has i n c r e a s i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r s c h o l a r s h i p s , h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , job ehgibiUty, a n d escalated s a n c t i o n s i f there is a subsequent p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n or arrest.

School Exclusion: Suspensions and Expulsions. S u s p e n s i o n s a n d e x p u l s i o n s f r o m s c h o o l s h a v e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p l o d e d as a n e w n a t i o n a l t r e n d , e x e m p l i f i e d by the struggle o v e r the e x p u l s i o n o f s i x D e c a t u r , I l l i n o i s , h i g h s c h o o l students a n d t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t a r r e s t . F u e l e d by f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n i n 1 9 9 4 m a n d a t i n g a o n e - y e a r " e x c l u s i o n " f o r possession o f a f i r e a r m o n s c h o o l p r o p e r t y ( G u n F r e e S c h o o l s A c t , 1 9 9 4 ) , n e w l e g i s l a t i o n w a s passed i n e v e r y state w i t h i n a 5 - m o n t h p e r i o d to m a i n t a i n f e d e r a l - f u n d i n g eligibility. O n e y e a r later, the Safe S c h o o l A c t ( 1 9 9 4 ) r e v i s e d a n d e x p a n d e d the p r o h i b i t i o n to " d a n g e r o u s w e a p o n " r a t h e r t h a n " f i r e a r m " ; a n d " d a n g e r o u s w e a p o n " w a s d e f i n e d , i n the a m e n d e d l a n g u a g e , as " a w e a p o n , d e v i c e , i n s t r u m e n t , m a t e r i a l , or substance, a n i m a t e or i n a n i m a t e , that is used f o r , or is readily capable of, c a u s i n g death or s e r i o u s b o d i l y i n j u r y . " T h i s o p e n e d the d o o r f o r a s t a m p e d e — a n d f o r w i d e d i s c r e t i o n a r y e x p a n s i o n of the n e w e x c l u s i o n p o l i c y by s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l t h a t is a p p l i e d d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y to A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n a n d L a t i n o s t u d e n t s . I n D e c a t u r , f o r e x a m p l e , 8 2 % o f a l l e x p u l s i o n s of students f o r o v e r 3 y e a r s i n v o l v e d A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n y o u t h , a l t h o u g h they c o n s t i t u t e o n l y 4 6 % o f s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t . T h e s e y o u t h are f r e q u e n t l y left w i t h d u b i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e e d u c a t i o n , l e a d i n g to d r o p p i n g out or i n c a r c e r a - t i o n , or w i t h n o e d u c a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s or s u p p o r t s .

5 5 4 I A G E I S M A N D A D U L T I S M

I n M a s s a c h u s e t t s , f o r e x a m p l e , the n u m b e r of s c h o o l e x p u l s i o n s or e x c l u s i o n s u n d e r state l a w rose to m o r e t h a n 1 , 5 0 0 i n 1 9 9 6 - 9 7 , w i t h a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e r a c i a l i m p a c t . S t a t e w i d e , a l t h o u g h A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n students m a d e u p 8 . 4 % of the s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n , i n 1 9 9 6 - 9 7 they s u f f e r e d 2 3 % of the e x p u l s i o n s ; L a t i n o s , w h o w e r e 1 0 % of the s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n , c o n s t i t u t e d 3 3 . 8 % o f the e x p e l l e d s t u d e n t s . T h i s p a t t e r n is d o u b l y t r o u b l i n g i n states s u c h as M a s s a c h u s e t t s w h e r e there is n o m a n d a t o r y a l t e r n a t i v e e d u c a t i o n . F u r t h e r , i t is r a r e to f i n d students w i t h legal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n at the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x p u l s i o n h e a r i n g s . I n C h i c a g o , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 h e a r i n g s p e r d a y are s c h e d u l e d o n e x p u l s i o n o f C h i c a g o p u b l i c s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . A l l b u t a h a n d f u l of students are e x p e l l e d , a c c o r d i n g to the l a w students w h o sit as a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h e a r i n g o f f i c e r s .

T h i s s y n e r g i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p of p o l i c e a n d p r i n c i p a l s goes f u r t h e r i n C h i c a g o , w h e r e l a w p e r m i t s s c h o o l s to s u s p e n d or e x p e l students w h o h a v e been c h a r g e d or c o n v i c t e d of v i o l a t i n g the la w, even w h e n the alleged d e l i n q u e n t or c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r d i d n o t o c c u r o n s c h o o l p r o p e r t y or d u r i n g s c h o o l h o u r s . T h e s e l a w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s p r e s u m e that p r i n c i - pals w i l l f i n d out a b o u t n o n - s c h o o l - b a s e d f e l o n y arrests a n d c o n v i c t i o n s of students f r o m t h e i r closer r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h p o l i c e a n d p r o s e c u t o r s . T h i s e m b r a c e is c o d i f i e d i n a series o f l a w s r e c e n t l y passed by the I l l i n o i s l e g i s l a t u r e that f a c i l i t a t e e v e n greater e x c h a n g e o f i n f o r m a t i o n b e t w e e n l a w e n f o r c e m e n t p e r s o n n e l , s c h o o l s , a n d c h i l d w e l f a r e p e r s o n n e l .

T h e I l l i n o i s S c h o o l R e c o r d s A c t ( 1 0 5 I L C S 10/6, 1 9 9 9 ) p e r m i t s state's a t t o r n e y s a n d p o l i c e o f f i c e r s u n r e s t r i c t e d access to s t u d e n t r e c o r d s a n d f u r t h e r r e q u i r e s the s c h o o l to m a k e l a w e n f o r c e m e n t requests p a r t o f the c h i l d ' s p e r m a n e n t r e c o r d ; other p r o v i s i o n s ( 7 0 5 I L C S 4 0 5 / 5 - 3 2 5 ) r e q u i r e s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s to p r o v i d e to the State's A t t o r n e y , u p o n request, i n f o r m a t i o n or a w r i t t e n r e p o r t r e l a t i n g to the alleged c o m m i s s i o n of a n o f f e n s e ; a n d I l l i n o i s P u b l i c A i d C o d e ( 3 0 5 I L C S 5 . 1 1 - 9 , 1 9 9 9 ) p e r m i t s l a w e n f o r c e m e n t access to c e r t a i n p u b l i c a i d r e c o r d s w i t h o u t s u b p o e n a or n o t i c e r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e U . S . H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s seeks to o f f e r i n c e n t i v e s to states to a c c o m m o d a t e e v e n greater e x c h a n g e of i n f o r m a t i o n b e t w e e n s c h o o l s a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t by i n c l u d i n g i n a p r o p o s e d j u v e n i l e justice b i l l a p r o v i s i o n that gives states a d d i t i o n a l f u n d s i f they m a k e j u v e n i l e r e c o r d s a v a i l - able to s c h o o l s ( J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e a n d D e l i n q u e n c y P r e v e n t i o n A c t , 1 9 9 9 ) .

T h i s w h o l e s a l e r e l a x a t i o n o f c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y p r o t e c t i o n s f o r y o u t h , p r o t e c t i o n s t h a t w e r e a f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e o f the o r i g i n a l J u v e n i l e C o u r t A c t f o u n d e r s i n C h i c a g o i n 1 8 9 9 , has f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d the i n c i d e n c e o f suspensions/expulsions a n d o f s c h o o l - b a s e d arrests. S c h o o l s are r o u t i n e l y n o t i f i e d o f a s t u d e n t ' s n o n - s c h o o l - s i t e arrests, p r o b a t i o n , or d e t e n - t i o n . T h e k n o w l e d g e that a s t u d e n t is i n t r o u b l e or is a t r o u b l e m a k e r m a y be a f a c t o r i n a s t u d e n t b e i n g m o r e i n t e n s e l y s c r u t i n i z e d or being seen as a " b a d k i d . "

I t is w o r t h n o t i n g that the s c h o o l f r o n t d o o r , as w e l l as the e x i t d o o r , has been t r a n s - f o r m e d . S c h o o l p r i n c i p a l s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s have w i d e r d i s c r e t i o n to refuse to e n r o l l a s t u d e n t , e v e n a p u b l i c s c h o o l s t u d e n t w h o resides i n the a p p r o p r i a t e d i s t r i c t . T h i s c o n - s t r i c t e d e l i g i b i l i t y f o r s c h o o l r e g i s t r a t i o n is e v i d e n t to those w o r k i n g w i t h s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n s t u d e n t s , y o u t h b e i n g r e l e a s e d f r o m j u v e n i l e d e t e n t i o n or c o r r e c t i o n s , or y o u n g s t e r s i n c r i s i s w h o m a y m a n i f e s t b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s . S c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n , once a s s u m e d to be a r i g h t , has b e c o m e a n a r e n a o f vast d i s c r e t i o n a n d t e r r a i n f o r f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l e x c l u s i o n .

J a n e A d d a m s a n d the o t h e r H u l l H o u s e w o m e n , a c e n t u r y ago, w e r e p r o p o n e n t s o f c o m p u l s o r y e d u c a t i o n , the a b o l i t i o n of c h i l d labor, a n d the c r e a t i o n o f a separate c o u r t f o r c h i l d r e n . T h e s e i n n o v a t i o n s w e r e i n t e r r e l a t e d , f o r the p r i m a r y g o a l w a s e d u c a t i o n a n d o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c h i l d r e n , n o t the e x p l o i t a t i o n of h a z a r d o u s l a b o r or i n c a r c e r a t i o n w i t h a d u l t s i n p r i s o n s or a d u l t p o o r h o u s e s . G r a c e A b b o t t a n d her colleagues c o n t i n u e d to d o c u - m e n t s c h o o l a t t e n d a n c e f o r decades as a b e l l w e t h e r f o r the w e l l - b e i n g of c h i l d r e n . W h a t i r o n y that 1 0 0 years after the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the w o r l d ' s f i r s t j u v e n i l e c o u r t , s c h o o l s a n d

" L O O K O U T , K I D , I T S S O M E T H I N G Y O U D I D " 5 5 5

c o u r t s h a v e a g a i n p a r t n e r e d , but this t i m e to e x c l u d e , a r r e s t , e x p e l , a n d s u s p e n d c h i l d r e n from s c h o o l a n d to p u n i s h , p r o s e c u t e , a n d i m p r i s o n t h e m i n the c r i m i n a l justice s y s t e m .

Loitering, Curfew, and Association Offenses. L o c a l m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , f r e q u e n t l y a u t h o r i z e d by state legislatures, h a v e r u s h e d to enact n e w c u r f e w o r d i n a n c e s , s o m e 1 , 0 0 0 since 1 9 9 0 . C u r f e w l a w s , d i r e c t e d at y o u t h to p r e v e n t y o u t h c r i m e i n the late e v e n i n g , f a i l to address the p e a k j u v e n i l e c r i m e t i m e s , b e t w e e n 2 P . M . a n d 5 P . M . d u r i n g the s c h o o l y e a r . G a n g o f f e n d i n g is s i m i l a r l y c o n c e n t r a t e d in m i d to late a f t e r n o o n .

I n 1 9 9 2 , the C h i c a g o C i t y C o u n c i l enacted the G a n g C o n g r e g a t i o n O r d i n a n c e , w h i c h p r o h i b i t s c r i m i n a l street gang m e m b e r s f r o m l o i t e r i n g w i t h one a n o t h e r or w i t h others in a n y p u b l i c place [City of Chicago v. Morales, 1999). T h e o r d i n a n c e c r e a t e d a c r i m i n a l offense p u n i s h a b l e by a f i n e of up to $ 5 0 0 , i m p r i s o n m e n t f o r n o t m o r e t h a n 6 m o n t h s , a n d a r e q u i r e m e n t to p e r f o r m up to 1 2 0 h o u r s of c o m m u n i t y s e r v i c e . D u r i n g the 3 y e a r s of its e n f o r c e m e n t , p o l i c e made m o r e t h a n 4 2 , 0 0 0 arrests a n d issued m o r e t h a n 8 9 , 0 0 0 d i s p e r s a l o r d e r s . T h e o r d i n a n c e w a s o v e r t u r n e d by a n appellate c o u r t , the I l l i n o i s S u p r e m e C o u r t , a n d the U . S . S u p r e m e C o u r t as u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y vague a n d f a i l i n g to p r o v i d e n o t i c e to the p u b h c about w h a t c o n d u c t w a s i l l e g a l .

C u r f e w o r d i n a n c e s are n o t o r i o u s f o r b e i n g subject to r a c i a l a n d e t h n i c d i s p a r i t i e s i n e n f o r c e m e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , arrests o f g i r l s f o r c u r f e w v i o l a t i o n s i n c r e a s e d by 1 5 5 . 2 % b e t w e e n 1 9 8 7 a n d 1 9 9 6 . C u r f e w v i o l a t i o n s h a v e v a s t l y w i d e n e d the net of c r i m i n a l i n v o l v e m e n t f o r y o u t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y y o u t h o f c o l o r a n d y o u n g w o m e n .

Y O U N G W O M E N I N J U V E N I L E J U S T I C E

E a c h year, g i r l s a c c o u n t f o r one i n f o u r arrests o f y o u t h i n A m e r i c a , y e t their presence i n the j u v e n i l e justice system r e m a i n s l a r g e l y i n v i s i b l e . Y o u n g w o m e n h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y been a r r e s t e d a n d i n c a r c e r a t e d in large n u m b e r s f o r status offenses: arrests a n d p r o s e c u t i o n s of y o u n g w o m e n d e c l i n e d after the J J D P of 1 9 7 4 m a n d a t e to d e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e a n d d i v e r t y o u t h c h a r g e d w i t h status offenses i n t o p r o g r a m s p r o v i d i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s to legal a d j u d i c a - t i o n . B u t the past decade of c r i m i n a l i z i n g y o u t h has r e s u l t e d i n i n c r e a s i n g arrests of g i r l s , once a g a i n , f o r status offenses or other m i n o r v i o l a t i o n s of law.

F u l l y one q u a r t e r of a l l female d e l i n q u e n c y arrests are f o r status offenses (as c o m p a r e d w i t h less t h a n 1 0 % for b o y s ) , w h i l e a n o t h e r q u a r t e r of g i r l s a r r e s t e d are c h a r g e d w i t h l a r c e n y theft (basically, s h o p U f t i n g ) ! G i r l s a r r e s t e d f o r r u n n i n g a w a y f r o m h o m e i n c r e a s e d by 2 0 . 7 % , a n d as n o t e d a b o v e , c u r f e w arrests of g i r l s m u s h r o o m e d a n a s t o n i s h i n g 1 5 5 . 2 % . A l t h o u g h m e d i a r e p o r t s suggest that g i r l s , as w e l l as male d e l i n q u e n t s , h a v e become v i o l e n t p r e d a t o r s , the facts a g a i n belie this c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f v i o l e n c e .

A r r e s t s o f g i r l s f o r v i o l e n t c r i m e i n d e x offenses d u r i n g the decade 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 9 6 d i d s k y r o c k e t , u p 1 1 8 . 1 % . F e m a l e d e l i n q u e n c y charges f o r " o t h e r a s s a u l t " i n c r e a s e d 1 4 2 . 6 % i n the same p e r i o d . A s s a u l t charges can range f r o m c o n d u c t i n v o l v i n g s i m p l e v e r b a l aggression a n d t h r e a t s , to m i n o r s c h o o l c o n f l i c t s , n o n s e r i o u s d i s p u t e s , a n d h a r m l e s s f i g h t s ; i n c r e a s i n g l y g i r l s h a v e been a r r e s t e d f o r s i m p l e assault. A n a l y s i s suggests that m u c h of the " t y r a n n y o f s m a l l n u m b e r s " (this p h r a s e is a t t r i b u t e d to B a r r y K r i s b e r g , 1 9 9 4 ) results f r o m r e l a b e l i n g or b o o t s t r a p p i n g — t h e p r a c t i c e by poUce, p r o s e c u t o r s , or judges that t r a n s f o r m s a n o n d e l i n q u e n c y , n o n c r i m i n a l offense i n t o an offense subject to i n c a r c e r a t i o n . G i r l s , f o r e x a m p l e , are m o r e l i k e l y to be a r r e s t e d f o r n o n i n j u r y assaults or as b y s t a n d e r s or c o m p a n - i o n s to m a l e s i n v o l v e d i n f i g h t i n g . V i r t u a l l y e v e r y p e r s o n - t o - p e r s o n offense a m o n g g i r l s i n the M a r y l a n d j u v e n i l e justice system ( 9 7 . 9 % ) i n v o l v e d assault, a n d h a l f o f those w e r e a f i g h t w i t h a f a m i l y m e m b e r , g e n e r a l l y a p a r e n t . T h i s f o r m o f escalated c h a r g i n g is m o s t p r o n o u n c e d against A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n g i r l s .