Research Paper Using SPSS 4500 WORDS
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Religiosity and Support for the Ban on the Veil in the U.S. and Western Europe
1
In September of 2003, two sisters, Alma and Lila Lévy, were expelled from their high
school in the Paris suburbs for refusing to remove their headscarves in class. 1 In October of the
same year, girls at a number of French high schools were sent home for a very different reason;
their thongs, visible because of their low-cut pants and short shirts, were deemed too provocative
for class. 2 Interestingly enough, it was the veil and not the thong that was viewed as the more
problematic article of clothing and the one that warranted legal intervention. A government
commission, the Stasi commission, was already studying a proposed bill to outlaw signs of
religious affiliation in public schools, which when combined with protestations of the Lévy girls
and others, created a national controversy 3 . In December 2003, the report was released,
recommending the ban of “conspicuous signs” of religious affiliation. 4 On March 15, 2004 the
French government officially passed the “ban on the veil.” 5
For the French government the ban was intended to preserve the highly valued French
principle of laïcité (i.e. the absence of religion in government affairs) and to protect the
Republic’s democracy. And while the law includes any conspicuous religious symbol, such as
Jewish yarmulkes or Sikh turbans, some still believe the law to be primarily aimed at Muslim
girls and, consequently, the European Muslim community at large. 6 The debate over the veil
continues as shortly after the passage of the ban in France similar legislation was proposed in
1 Joan Wallach Scott, The Politics Of The Veil, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2007),
p 30. 2 Joan Wallach Scott, The Politics of the Veil, p 112.
3 Ibid., 32-33
4 Ibid., 34-35.
5 Ibid., p 1.
6 Ibid, p 1. Stephen Croucher, Looking Beyond the Hijab, (Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.,
2009), p 7.
2
Belgium, Australia, Holland and Bulgaria 7 , along with the cities of Berlin, Frankfurt and
Moscow 8 .
Currently, France and Belgium are the only Western countries to have adopted such
measures, but a majority of citizens in countries across Western Europe approve of the idea. 9
Conversely, there is strong opposition to the adoption of a ban on the veil in the United States. 10
Why is there such dissention between these counties who share so many of the same democratic
principles? While the governments of Western Europe and the United States all regard the
separation of government and religion as a cornerstone of democracy, the United States is more
religious than most Western European countries. Could religiosity play a role in the divergence
over support for the ban on the veil? This paper will examine the relationship between religiosity
and support for the ban on the veil.
Literature Review
As proposals for a ban on the veil in Western countries have arisen only in the past
decade, very limited empirical research investigated the reasons why most Western Europeans
support the ban or why support varies between Western European countries and North American
countries. There have been studies, however, that have examined Muslim immigration in
Western Europe and much attention has been given to the rise of Islamic extremism and
terrorism among these immigrants. 11
Although research along these lines is increasingly
prevalent, it is still relatively recent having mainly emerged after September 11 th
.
7 Joan Wallach Scott. The Politics of the Veil, p 2.
8 Stepehen Croucher, Looking Beyond the Hijab, p 7.
9 Pew Global Attitudes Survey 2010, “Widespread Support for Banning Full Islamic Veil in Western
Europe,” Pew Global Attitudes Project, http://www.pewglobal.org/2010/07/08/widespread-support-for- banning-full-islamic-veil-in-western-europe/ 10
Pew Global Attitudes Survey 2010, “Widespread Support for Banning Full Islamic Veil in Western
Europe.” 11
Including: Pew Global Attitudes Survey 2005, “Islamic Extremism: Common Concern for Muslim and Western Publics,” Pew Global Attitudes Project, http://www.pewglobal.org/2005/07/14/islamic-
3
The Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project has conducted some of the most
extensive research on support for the ban on the veil. The Spring 2010 Pew Global Attitudes
Survey found that majorities in France, Germany, Britain and Spain (82%, 71%, 62%, and 59%,
respectively) approve of ban on Muslim women wearing a full veil in public places, while in the
United States 65% say they would disapprove of such a ban. 12
Data was collected via telephone
interviews using Random Digit Dialing (RDD) or Random Last Two Digit Dial (RL(2)D).
Sample sizes are as follows: France 752, Germany 750, Britain 750, Spain 755 and the United
States 1,002. 13
The Pew Global Attitudes Project analyzed the relationship between support for the ban
on the veil and age, gender, political ideology and income level in these five countries. Support
for the ban was determined by asking respondents if they approved or disapproved of a ban that
would forbid Muslim women from wearing a full veil that covers the entire face apart from the
eyes in public places. 14
Political ideology was measured in Britain, France, Spain, and Germany
by asking respondents, “Some people talk about politics in terms of left, center and right. On a
left-right scale from 0 to 6, with 0 indicating extreme left and 6 indicating extreme right, where
would you place yourself?” 15
In the United States political ideology was measured by asking
respondents if, in general, they would describe their political views as: 1) Very conservative 2)
extremism-common-concern-for-muslim-and-western-publics/, Pew Global Attitudes Survey 2007, “World Publics Welcome Global Trade – But Not Immigration,” Pew Global Attitudes Project,
http://www.pewglobal.org/2007/10/04/world-publics-welcome-global-trade-but-not-immigration/,
Esposito, John and Dalia Mogahed. Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think. New York: Gallup, 2008. 12
Ibid. 13
Ibid. 14
Ibid. 15
Pew Global Attitudes Survey Spring 2010, “Final Questionnaire,” Complete Report, Pew Global
Attitudes Project 2010, http://www.pewglobal.org/2010/07/08/widespread-support-for-banning-full-
islamic-veil-in-western-europe/
4
Conservative 3) Moderate 4) Liberal or 5) Very Liberal.” 16
Questions to measure income varied
in wording and responses form country to country but were grouped by Pew researchers into the
categories low income, middle income and high income. 17
Participants provided their age in
years as well as their gender.
Pew’s findings indicated that there was no relationship between gender and support for
the ban and that there was positive relationship between political ideology and support for the
ban in France, Germany and Britain, although the statistical strength of this relationship was not
provided. 18
Additionally, researchers noted that age influenced support in all countries with older
respondents favoring the ban. Again, statistical significance was not provided but researchers
states that, “In the four Western European countries surveyed as well as in the U.S., support for a
ban on Muslim women wearing a full veil is more pronounced among those who are age 55 and
older” 19
Finally, in the U.S., Britain and Germany researchers found that there was no significant
relationship between income level and ban support, but in Spain and German those in the middle
and higher income levels were more likely to approve of the ban. 20
The number of countries
included, and their large sample sizes greatly strengthen this study, but additional indicators for
political ideology and additional variables, such as religiosit y, political tolerance and prejudice,
could be included to improve the results.
The Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project also conducted a similar study in
2005, this time examining the relationship between support for the ban on the veil, concern about
Islamic extremism and the perception that Muslims want to be distinct from the larger society.
16
Pew Global Attitudes Survey Spring 2010, “Final Questionnaire” 17
Ibid. 18
Pew Global Attitudes Survey 2010, “Widespread Support for Banning Full Islamic Veil in Western
Europe.” 19
Ibid. 20
Ibid.
5
The 2005 Global Attitudes Survey data was collected through telephone interviews with sample
sizes for the North American and Western European countries relevant to this study as follows:
Britain 750, Germany 750, Spain 751, France 751, Netherlands 754, Canada 500 and the United
States 1001. 21
All respondents were 18 years or older. 22
Survey results in Britain, Germany,
Spain, France, the Netherlands and Canada all had a 4% margin of error while the United States
had a 3% margin of error.
In this study, support for the ban was determined by asking respondents, “Some countries
have decided to ban the wearing of head scarves by Muslim women in public places including
schools. Do you think this is a good idea or a bad idea?” 23
Concerns about Islamic extremism
were measured by asking respondents, “How concerned, if at all, are you about Islamic
extremism in our country these days? Are you very concerned, somewhat concerned, not too
concerned or not at all concerned about Islamic extremism in our country these days?” 24
Finally,
the perception that Muslims want to be distinct from the larger society of the respondent’s
country by asking, “Do you think most Muslims coming to our country today want to adopt
(survey country) customs and way of life or do you think that they want to be distinct from the
larger (survey country) society?” 25
Respondents answers were categorizes as 1) Adopt our ways
2) Want to be distinct and 3) Both (if respondent volunteered this answer). 26
The survey found that there was a relationship between concern about Islamic extremism
and support for the ban on the veil. Researchers did not include statistical significance but stated
that, “across Western Europe and North America, those supportive of the ban register greater
21
Pew Global Attitudes Survey 2005, “Islamic Extremism: Common Concern for Muslim and Western
Publics” 22
2005 “Methods in Detail” 23
Pew Global Atittudes Survery 2005 “Non-Muslim Questionnaire” 24
Ibid 25
Ibid 26
Ibid
6
concern about Islamic extremism in their countries” 27
Researchers also found a relationship
between an individual’s perception of Muslims and their support for the ban stating that, “people
in non-Muslim countries who think a ban is a good idea also are more likely to perceive Muslims
in their country as wanting to be distinct from the larger society.” 28
Again, the large sample sizes
and international coverage Pew includes in this study strengthen their findings. In regards to the
question of the veil, however, additional variables, such as religiosity, prejudice, political
tolerance, political ideology, income level and age could be included.
In 2010 Jolanada van der Noll of Jacobs University, Germany analyzed public support for
a ban on headscarves in the U.K., Germany, France and the Netherlands using data from the Pew
Research Center’s 2005 survey on Islamic extremism. Van der Noll conducted a cross-national
comparison of the effect of an individual’s overall attitude towards Muslims, an individual’s
perception of Muslims wanting to be distinct and an individual’s perceived security threat of
Muslims and Islam on their support the ban on the headscarf. The study is one of the few to
compare cross-national support for the ban and to emphasize the importance of the national
context. 29
As noted above, the Pew 2005 survey data was collected through telephone interviews
with sample sizes as follows: Britain 750, Germany 750, France 751, Netherlands 754. 30
All
respondents were 18 years or older. 31
Survey results in Britain, Germany, Spain, France, the
27 Pew Global Attitudes Survey 2005, “Islamic Extremism: Common Concern for Muslim and Western Publics” p 5. 28 Ibid. 29
Jolanda van der Noll, "Public Support for a Ban on Headscarves: A Cross-National Perspective," International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 4, no. 2 (2010): 191-204, http://search.proquest.com/
docview/863244215/fulltextPDF/139B378E7BC285F6195/6?accountid=11243 (accessed October 11,
2012). 30
Ibid. 31
2005 “Methods in Detail”
7
Netherlands and Canada all had a 4% margin of error while the United States had a 3% margin
of error. 32
The dependent variable, support for the ban on the veil, was measured through the
following question: “Some countries have decided to ban the wearing of head scarves by Muslim
women in public places including schools. Do you think this is a good idea or a bad idea?” 33
Respondents answered either “good idea” or “bad idea.” The variable “overall attitude towards
Muslims” was measured by asking respondents, “Please tell me if you have a very favorable,
somewhat favorable, somewhat unfavorable or very unfavorable opinion of Muslims?
Respondents were rated a 4-point scale and then recoded by van der Noll into a scale with 0
representing a very favorable opinion, .33 a favorable opinion, .67 an unfavorable opinion and 1
a very unfavorable opinion. 34
Perceived threat of Muslims was measured by three questions.
First, to measure perceived symbolic threat, respondents were asked, ““Do you think most
Muslims coming to our country today want to adopt (survey country) customs and way of life or
do you think that they want to be distinct from the larger (survey country) society?” 35
Respondents answered either “adopt out ways” or “want to be distinct.” 36
Second, to measure a
perceived security threat the question, “How concerned, if at all, are you about Islamic
extremism in our country these days? Are you very concerned, somewhat concerned, not too
concerned or not at all concerned about Islamic extremism in our country these days?” 37
was
asked. Van der Noll reduced the original 4-point scale to a three-point scale by collapsing the
responses “not too concerned” and “not at all concerned.” 38
Finally, respondents were asked to
32 Ibid. 33
Pew Global Atittudes Survery 2005 “Non-Muslim Questionnaire” 34
Jolanda van der Noll, "Public Support for a Ban on Headscarves: A Cross-National Perspective," 196. 35
Pew Global Atittudes Survery 2005 “Non-Muslim Questionnaire” 36
Ibid. 37
Ibid 38
Jolanda van der Noll, "Public Support for a Ban on Headscarves: A Cross-National Perspective," 196.
8
choose between the statements “some religions are more prone to violence than others” and “all
religions are about the same when it comes to violence.” If respondents choose the first statement
they were then asked which religion they perceived as the most violent – Christianity, Islam,
Judaism and Hinduism. Responses were then divided into categories, those who said “all
religions are about the same” and those who indicated a religion other an Islam to be the most
violent. This measurement assumes that those who perceive Islam to be violent would also have
a perceived threat of Muslims.
Van der Noll found great differences in support for the ban on the veil from country to
country. For example, there was a moderate association between an individual’s perception of
Muslims wanting to be distinct and support for the ban in the U.K., France and the Netherlands
(p < .22), but not in Germany. 39
Additionally, the relationship between an individual’s perception
of Islam as a violent religion and support for the ban was stronger in Germany and the
Netherlands than in the U.K. and France. 40
Van der Noll concludes that these differences are due,
in part, to the strong secular and multicultural traditions that exist in France and the U.K.
respectively. 41
Overall, there was a weak relationship between fears of Islamic extremism and
support for the ban in all the countries analyzed (p < .19) 42
and a moderate relationship between
negative attitudes and support for the ban (p <.30). 43
Since this study utilized the 2005 Pew
Survey data it faced the same limitations, in that additional variables – like political ideology and
religiosity, were not included. Furthermore, additional measurements of an individual’s attitude
towards Muslims and an individual’s perceived threats could be included to strengthen the
results.
39
Ibid, 199. 40
Ibid, 200. 41
Ibid, 200. 42
Ibid, 199. 43
Ibid, 198.
9
In February 2009 scholars Vassilis Saroglou, Bahija Lamkaddem, Matthieu Van
Pachterbeke, Coralie Buxant from the Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium conducted two
studies analyzing the role of subtle prejudice, values and religion on Belgian society’s dislike of
the Islamic veil. For the first study a research assistant approached adult passengers at the central
train stations in three major cities in the French speaking part of Belgian (making an effort to
avoid passengers who appeared to belong to the Arab-Muslim community) and asked passengers
if they would like to participate in a study on the Belgian perception of the veil. The
questionnaire was distributed to 328 individuals who received no monetary compensation and
were instructed to mail the survey to a research assistant in two weeks. A total sample of size of
166 Belgian residents was retained for the first analysis with an average age of 46.86 years.
Women represented 60% of the sample and 68% of participants indicated a Christian
affiliation. 44
The key variables included anti-veil attitudes, religiousness and spirituality. Anti-veil
attitudes were measured through feelings of aversion to the veil and a willingness to ban the veil.
For example, participants indicated on a 7-point Likert scale their agreement with the statement
“The wearing of the Muslim veil should be prohibited in some places.” 45
Two separate indexes
were utilized to measure religiousness and spirituality and resulted in the classification of
participants into four categories: 1) literal (orthodox) believer, 2) symbolic believers, 3) symbolic
non-believer and 4) literal non-believers. To control for inter-correlated variables a multiple
44
Vassilis Saroglou, Bahija Lamkaddem, Matthieu Van Pacterbeke, and Coralie Buxant, "Host soceity’s
dislike of the Islamic veil: The role of subtle prejudice, values, and religion," International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 33, no. 5 (2009): 419-428,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147176709000194 (accessed October 10, 2012), 421. 45
Saroglou, “Host society’s dislike of the Islamic veil,” p 422.
10
regression analysis was run. Researchers found that there was a weak and positive relationship
between anti-veil attitudes and literal anti-religious (B = .13, t = 1.81, p = .08). 46
In the second study questionnaires were distributed to participants using the snowball
methodology through the acquaintances of students at the university and research assistants. A
sample of 147 participants, 64% of who were women and 67.3% of whom were Catholic, with
an average age of 39.6 years was analyzed. 47
The same variables from the first study (anti-veil
attitudes, religiousness and spirituality) were used in this study. As in the first study, anti-veil
attitudes were measured through feelings of aversion to the veil and a willingness to ban the veil.
For example, participants indicated on a 7-point Likert scale their agreement with the statement
“The wearing of the Muslim veil should be prohibited in some places.” 48
Two separate indexes
were utilized to measure religiousness and spirituality and resulted in the classification of
participants into four categories: 1) literal (orthodox) believer, 2) symbolic believers, 3) symbolic
non-believer and 4) literal non-believers. In addition to these original variables, researchers
added measurements concerning an individual’s aversion to the veil. These measurements
included the questions, ‘‘Wearing the Muslim veil goes against the grain of modern society’’;
‘‘Ostensible religious signs should not be allowed in the public space’’; and ‘‘If they perceive it
to be a religious symbol, I find it normal that Muslim women have to respect the veil everywhere
they are’’ (reversed). 49
Responses to these questions were judged using the 7-point Likert scale.
The second study confirmed the results of the previous study, showing a positive and
moderate relationship between literal anti-religious thinking and anti-veil attitudes (B = .19, t =
46
Ibid, 424. 47
Ibid, 425. 48
Ibid, 422. 49
Ibid, 425.
11
2.10, p = .04). 50
A negative relationship anti-veil attitudes and both religiousness (-.15, p < .10)
and spirituality was also found (-.24, p < .01). 51
The second study also found that while orthodox
religious people, like literal anti-religious people, had negative representations of the veil they
were not in favor of a ban on the veil. 52
In conclusion, the researchers found religiousness and spirituality to be significant factors
in determining anti-veil attitudes. 53
The radical anti-religious identification was especially
critical in predicting negative attitudes towards the veil. 54
This is particularly important, as
Belgium, along with France, is one of the most secular countries in Europe. 55
While this study
carefully defined variables and examined a number of critical issues surrounding the veil, it was
very limited in size and since non-probability convenience and snowball samples were used the
information collected may be less valid.
As so little empirical research exists on support for the ban on the veil, theoretical
examinations of the origin of the ban remain critical resources for identifying potential
explanations of cross-national differences in support. Joan Wallach Scott, a well-known scholar
of French and gender studies, published The Politics of the Veil in 2007. This seminal work on
the headscarf controversy in France identified and examined four influences on support for the
ban: racism, secularism, individualism and sexuality. 56
Wallach concludes that the legacy of
colonialism – especially high number of Arab immigrants seeking work in under-employed
France – contributes to ongoing racism in France and influences French fear and dislike of the
50
Ibid, 424, 425. 51
Ibid, 424, 425. 52
Ibid, 426. 53
Ibid, 426, 427. 54
Ibid, 427. 55
Ibid, 426. 56
For the purposes of this paper only Wallach’s theories on racism, individualism and secularism will be examined.
12
veil. 57
Wallach also explains that the tension between individualism and communalism has
motivated support for the ban as well. She explains that many saw the headscarf as an instrument
of repression forced on young girls by their families who adhered to ancient communitarian
practices. The French place a high value on individualism – not communalism – and
consequently, “those who supported the ban conceived of it as a valiant action by the modern
French state to rescue girls from the obscurity and oppression of traditional communities, thus
opening their loves to knowledge and freedom…the contractions – that legislation designed to
provide choice ended up denying it – was not perceived as such by the law’s champions” 58
Of particular interest in the context of religiosity and support for the veil are Scott’s
descriptions of the role of secularism in France and in the United States. She recounts that, “in
America, the home to religious minorities who fled persecution at the hands of European rulers,
the separation between church and state was meant to protect religions from unwarranted
government intervention,” while in France, “separation was intended to secure the allegiance of
individuals to the republic and so break the political power of the Catholic church.” 59
These
descriptions give insight into the way governments, and to an extent their citizens, view religion
and its role in daily life. They explain why in France the ban may be seen as a defense of civil
liberties, while in the United States it is more likely to be seen as a violation. While Scott’s work
does focus specifically on France, the conclusions it draws are applicable to other Western
European countries who support the ban on the veil as they share may of the same cultural norms
and historical experiences. Furthermore, as France was the first Western country to implement a
ban on the veil, it has critical impact on the narrative of the headscarf debate.
57
Joan Wallach Scott. The Politics of the Veil, 42-89. 58
Ibid, 125. 59
Ibid, 91.
13
Dr. Stephen Croucher also examines support for the ban on the veil in his work Looking
Beyond the Hijab a case study, which examines the cultural integration of France’s Muslim
population through face-to-face interviews with both Muslims and non-Muslims in France. In
2009, Croucher conducted his interviews in the following French cities: Lille, Lyon, Bordeaux
and Paris so as include a wide geo-graphic range and cities with varying number of Muslim
inhabitants. 60
Croucher used a convenience sample to find non-Muslims participants by asking
acquaintances in each city to introduce him to their friends, co-workers, neighbors etc. 61
Croucher interviewed 23 Non-Muslim participants, 13 males and 10 female, all of whom were
born in France. 62
Interviews were conducted in either French or English (the participant chose)
and all French to English translations were double checked by a bilingual speaker. 63
Croucher’s research finds that most non-Muslims believe the law protects France’s
highly valued secularity, but many also see it as protection against the growing number of
Muslims in France who in the opinion of the interviewees) do not want to adapt to French
culture. 64
The role of religion in relation to the ban is addressed by Catherine, a 52-year-old
psychologist. Catherine explains, “I think it is very difficult [pause] at least for people in France
to understand why people need to be open about religion…I think it is because we think religion
is a very personal choice and not a public one.” 65
Another participant, 29-year-old Andrew,
offers a similar explanation, observing:
In France we have long tradition of free religion because state is secular…It is not like in
the U.S. [pause] our currency does not have God on it. So when girls want to wear veils
60
Stephen Croucher, Looking Beyond the Hijab, Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc., 2009, 55. 61
Stephen Croucher, Looking Beyond the Hijab57 62
Ibid 60 63
Ibid 62 64
Ibid 104 65
Ibid 105
14
to schools or when others want crosses [pause] they each being God to schools. This is
[pause] well it is totally against all that is secular. 66
Thus, Croucher’s case study indicates that an individual’s opinion on the role religion in public
can certainly influence one’s support for the ban on the veil. Like the Pew Global Attitudes 2005
Survey team and researcher Joalanda van der Noll, Croucher also finds that an individual’s
perception of Muslims and Islam impacts their opinion on the ban on the veil.
While not empirical, Croucher’s work does offer first hand evidence of possible reasons
for support for the ban on the veil in Western. It suggests that differences in religion in the
United States and France might explain cross-national differences in support for ban. While this
case study is limited to France, only includes a select number of participants who were chosen
via an non-statistical convenience sample, and does not include any empirical evidence, it is
valuable as a case-study that provides descriptive explanations of a difficult topic.
In conclusion, Stephen Croucher and J.W. Scott have examined the social, political and
economic circumstances surrounding the ban on the veil in France and discovered potential
causes for the public’s support of the ban. They also suggest possible explanations for the cross-
national differences in support for the ban on the veil. The ban on the veil is an extremely
complicated subject that includes a number of concepts that are difficult to empirically measure
(prejudice, tolerance, religiosity) so non-empirical evaluations like Croucher’s and Scott’s are
crucial to any researcher.
Furthermore, while the body of empirical research examining causes behind support the
ban of the veil (or lack thereof) in Western Europe is limited, researchers have found a number
of variables that influence support for the ban on the veil. Researchers at the Pew Research
Center and scholar Jolanada van der Noll found that fear of extremism and perceptions of Islam
66 105
15
and Muslims effected support for the ban on the veil. Pew researches also found that political
ideology and income influence support. In terms of the effect of religiosity, while support for the
ban on the veil was not directly measured, Vassilis Saroglou and her team did find a significant
relationship between religiousness and spirituality and opinions on the Islamic veil. None of
these studies, however, directly considered the effect of religiosity on support for the ban on the
veil and only one study emphasized cross-national comparison. Consequently, further research
analyzing the role of religion (either as the sole independent variable or in combination with
other variables) on support for the ban on the veil in Europe and the United States and the reason
behind the differences in support in Western Europe and the U.S. is greatly needed.
Data Analysis
This study examined the relationship between a person’s religiosity and their support for
the ban on the veil among citizens of France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Spain and the
United States. The data utilized for analysis was acquired by the Pew Global Attitudes Project, a
subset of the Pew Research Center, a non-partisan fact tank that conducts independent research
through public opinion surveys. The Pew Global Attitudes Project has conducted research since
its inception in 2001, sampling nations across the globe. In 2010, the Pew Global Attitudes
Project conducted a 22-nation survey, surveying public opinion on a variety of topics including
religion and the ban on the veil for Muslim women. Sample sizes for the data collected in the
countries examined in this study include: 1) United States: 1002 2) Britain: 750 3) France: 752 4)
Germany: 750 and 5) Spain: 755. 67
All countries had a margin of error between 4% and 5%. The
67
Pew Global Attitudes Survey Spring 2010, “Methods in Detail,” Complete Report, Pew Global
Attitudes Project, 2010, http://www.pewglobal.org/2010/07/08/widespread-support-for-banning-full- islamic-veil-in-western-europe/
16
data was collected via telephone interviews using Random Digit Dialing (RDD) or Random Last
Two Digit Dial (RL(2)D). 68
The independent variable, religiosity, is commonly known as religious commitment. The
concept was extensively studied by researchers Glock and Stark who defined religiosity using
five dimensions: experiential, ritualistic, ideological, intellectual and consequential. 69
For this
study, religiosity was conceptually defined as how religious an individual is. Religiosity was
measured by the variable “RELGIOSTY” which was calculated by posing the following question
to participants in Britain, France, Germany, Spain and the United States: “People practice their
religion in different ways. Outside of attending religious services, do you pray several times a
day, once a day, a few times a week, once a week or less, or never?”70 Participants then choose
an answer from the categories: 1) Several times a day, 2) Once a day, 3) A few times a week, 4)
Once a week or less, 5) Never, 8) Don’t know, 9) Refused.71 Central Tendency was measured
using the median which was 5) Never (See Table 1). Variability was measured using frequency
percentages and was found to be moderate with 37.1 percent responding 5) Never, 20.9%
responding 4) Once a week or less, 10.7 responding 3) A few times a week, 15.4% responding 2)
Once a day, 14.7% responding 1) Several times a day and 1.3% not knowing or refusing to
respond (See Table 1). A bar chart is included to graphically display the data (See Figure 1).
68
Pew Global Attitudes Survey Spring 2010, “Methods in Detail” 69
Barbara Holdcroft, "What Is Religiosity?" Catholic Education, 10, no. 1 (2006): 89-103. 70
Pew Global Attitudes Survey Spring 2010, “Final Questionnaire” 71
Pew Global Attitudes Survey Spring 2010, “Final Questionnaire”
17
Figure 1: Bar Graph of the Independent Variable, Religiosity
Table 1: Frequency Distribution Table for the Independent Variable, Religiosity
18
Table 2: Frequency Table for the Independent Variable, Support For The Ban On The Veil
The dependent variable, support for the ban on the veil, was conceptually defined as a
person’s approval or disapproval of a national ban on Muslim women wearing a full veil in
public places. The variable “SPRTBAN” measured support by asking citizens in Britain,
France72, Germany, Spain and the United States the following question, “Some countries are
considering a ban on Muslim women wearing full veils that cover all of the face except the eyes
in public places including schools, hospitals, and government offices. Would you approve or
disapprove of such a ban in (survey country)?”73 Survey participants indicated their responses
with the choices 1) Approve 2) Disapprove 8) Don’t Know or 9) Refused. Central tendency was
measured using modem which was 1) Approve (See Table 2). Variability was measured using
frequency percentages, which indicated high variability as 58.2% approved and 41.8%
disapproved (See Table 2). A bar graph graphically displays the data for the SPRTBAN variable
(See Figure 2).
72
Note: In France the wording of the questions was slightly changed as the French government was actively considering such a ban on the veil. The question was worded as follows: “The government is
considering a ban on Muslim women wearing full veils that cover all of the face except the eyes in public
places including schools, hospitals, and government offices. Do you approve or disapprove of such a
ban?” For this study the answers to both questions were aggregated to create the variable “SPRTBAN.” 73
Pew Global Attitudes Survey Spring 2010, “Final Questionnaire”
19
Figure 2: Bar Chart for the Dependent Variable, Support For The Ban On The Veil
The hypothesis and null hypothesis utilized were:
H1: There is a negative relationship between religiosity and support for the ban on the veil
H0 : There is no relationship between religiosity and support for the ban on the veil.
The column percentages from the cross tabulation test indicated that there was a
moderate relationship between the two variables as there was as there was a 21.5% difference
between the column “several times a day” and the column “Never” across the row “Approve”
(See Table 3). As the probability is less than .05 (chi-square = 102.209, DF = 4.0, and p = 0.000)
the relationship was statistically significant and the null hypothesis was rejected (See Figure 3).
Cramer’s V indicated a weak degree of association between religiosity and support for the ban
on the veil (Crammer’s V = .164) (See Table 3).
20
Table 3: Frequency Table with Column Percentages for “SPRTBAN” and “RELIGIOSTY
Figure 3: Cross Tabulation Results for “SPRTBAN” and “RELIGIOSTY”
21
Conclusion
In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that there is a relationship between
religiosity and support for the ban on the veil in the United States and Western Europe. Those
individuals who demonstrate higher religiosity are less likely to support the ban on the veil.
Therefore, religiosity could be a key component to understanding the vast differences between
for support of the ban on the veil that are seen between the United States in Western Europe,
especially considering that the United States has a higher rate of religiosity than Western
Europe. 74
These results, however, are preliminary. While the data contained large sample sizes
that increased credibility, only one measurement of religiosity was used and control variables
were not included.
As the Pew Research Center, Joalanda van der Noll and Vassilis Saroglou find in their
research there are multiple factors that influence support for the ban on the veil. These researches
found that political ideology, negative perceptions of Islam and Muslims and age were important
factors in determining support for the ban on the veil. Consequently, additional empirical
analyses should be conducted that combine these variables. Future researchers should examine
the relationship between the independent variables religiosity, political ideology, negative
perceptions of Muslims and Islam (and/or prejudice) and age and the dependant variable support
for the ban on the veil. And, as J.S. Wallach notes, different ideas of secularity and immigrant
assimilation can contribute to support for the ban on the veil, so these concepts should be
operationalized and incorporated as well. Additional measurements of religiosity should also be
74
The Pew Global Attitudes Survey 2010 finds that: “Religious commitment is similarly low among
Western Europeans – only about a quarter in Germany, Italy and Spain, and somewhat fewer in Britain
and France say religion is very important to them. By comparison, a majority of Americans say that
religion is very important and that they pray at least once a day. Nearly four-in-ten (38%) say they attend religious services at least once a week.”
22
included in future studies. Cross-national comparisons should also consider the size of the
Muslim population in each compared country as this could influence support for the ban as well.
23
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