2.0 PHYLLIS YOUNG

All Animals Are Equal Peter Singer

In recent years a number of oppressed groups have campaigned vigorously for equality. The classic in stance is the Black Liberation movement, which de mands an end to the prejudice and discrimination that has made blacks second-class citizens. The immedi ate appeal of the black liberation movement and its initial, if limited, success made it a model for other oppressed groups to follow. We became familiar with liberation movements for Spanish-Americans, gay people, and a variety of other minorities. When a majority group—women—began their campaign, some thought we had come to the end of the road. Discrimination on the basis of sex, it has been said, is the last universally accepted form of discrimina tion, practiced without secrecy or pretense even in those liberal circles that have long prided themselves on their freedom from prejudice against racial mi norities.

One should always be wary of talking of “the last remaining form of discrimination.” If we have learnt anything from the liberation movements, we should have learnt how difficult it is to be aware of latent prejudice in our attitudes to particular groups until this prejudice is forcefully pointed out.

A liberation movement demands an expansion of our moral horizons and an extension or reinterpre tation of the basic moral principle of equality. Prac tices that were previously regarded as natural and inevitable come to be seen as the result of an un justifiable prejudice. Who can say with confidence that all his or her attitudes and practices are beyond criticism? If we wish to avoid being numbered amongst the oppressors, we must be prepared to re think even our most fundamental attitudes. We need to consider them from the point of view of those most disadvantaged by our attitudes, and the prac tices that follow from these attitudes. If we can make

this unaccustomed mental switch we may discover a pattern in our attitudes and practices that consis tently operates so as to benefit one group—usually the one to which we ourselves belong—at the ex pense of another. In this way we may come to see that there is a case for a new liberation movement. My aim is to advocate that we make this mental switch in respect of our attitudes and practices to wards a very large group of beings: members of species other than our own—or, as we popularly though misleadingly call them, animals. In other words, I am urging that we extend to other species the basic principle of equality that most of us rec ognize should be extended to all members of our own species.

All this may sound a little far-fetched, more like a parody of other liberation movements than a seri ous objective. In fact, in the past the idea of “The Rights of Animals” really has been used to parody the case for women’s rights. When Mary Woll stonecroft, a forerunner of later feminists, published her Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792, her ideas were widely regarded as absurd, and they were satirized in an anonymous publication entitled A Viii dication of the Rights of Brutes. The author of this satire (actually Thomas Taylor, a distinguished Cam bridge philosopher) tried to refute Wollstonecroft’s reasonings by showing that they could be carried one stage further. If sound when applied to women, why should the arguments not be applied to dogs, cats, and horses? They seemed to hold equally well for these “brutes”; yet to hold that brutes had rights was manifestly absurd; therefore the reasoning by which this conclusion had been reached must be unsound, and if unsound when applied to brutes, it must also be unsound when applied to women, since the very same arguments had been used in each case.

Peter Singer. “All Animals Are Equal,” Philosophical Exchange 1 (1974): 103—16. Reprinted with permission of the author,

17

18 A

N IM

A L

L IB

E R

A T

IO N

A N

D T

H E

L A

N D

E T

H IC

A L

L A

N IM

A L

S A

R E

E Q

U A

L 19

O ne

w ay

in w

hi ch

w e

m ig

ht re

pl y

to th

is a rg

u m

en t

is by

sa yi

ng th

at th

e ca

se fo

r eq

ua li

ty be

tw ee

n m

en an

d w

om en

ca nn

ot va

li dl

y be

ex te

n d ed

to n o n

h u m

an an

im al

s. W

o m

en h

av e

a ri

g h

t to

v o te

, fo

r in

st an

ce ,

b ec

au se

th ey

ar e

ju st

as ca

p ab

le o

f m

ak in

g ra

ti o n al

d ec

is io

n s

as m

en ar

e; d o g s,

on th

e o

th er

ha nd

, ar

e in

ca p ab

le o

f u n d er

st an

d in

g th

e si

g n if

ic an

ce o

f v o ti

n g ,

so th

ey ca

n n o

t h av

e th

e ri

g h

t to

vo te

. T

h er

e ar

e m

an y

o th

er o b v io

u s

w ay

s in

w h

ic h

m en

an d

w o m

en re

se m

b le

ea ch

o th

e r

cl o

se ly

, w

h il

e h

u m

an s

an d

o th

er an

im al

s d if

fe r

g re

at ly

. S

o, it

m ig

h t

be sa

id .

m en

an d

w o m

en ar

e si

m il

ar b

ei n

g s.

an d

sh o

u ld

h av

e eq

ua l

ri g

h ts

, w

h il

e h u

m an

s an

d n o n h u m

an s

ar e

d if

fe re

n t

an d

sh o

u ld

no t

h av

e eq

u al

ri g

h ts

. T

h e

th o

u g

h t

b eh

in d

th is

re p

ly to

T ay

lo r’

s an

al o

g y

is co

rr ec

t up

to a

p o

in t,

b u

t it

d o

es no

t go

fa r

en o

u g

h .

T h er

e ar

e im

p o

rt an

t d if

fe re

n ce

s b

et w

ee n

h u

m an

s an

d o

th er

an im

al s,

an d

th es

e d if

fe re

n ce

s m

u st

g iv

e ri

se to

so m

e d

if fe

re n

ce s

in th

e ri

g h ts

th at

ea ch

ha ve

. R

ec o

g n

iz in

g th

is o b v io

u s

fa ct

, h o w

ev er

, is

no b

a r

ri er

to th

e ca

se fo

r ex

te n d in

g th

e b as

ic p

ri n

ci p

le o

f eq

u al

it y

to n o n h u m

an an

im al

s. T

h e

d if

fe re

n ce

s th

at ex

is t

b et

w ee

n m

en an

d w

o m

en ar

e eq

u al

ly u n d e n i

ab le

, an

d th

e su

p p

o rt

er s

o f

W o m

en ’s

L ib

er at

io n

ar e

aw ar

e th

at th

es e

d if

fe re

n ce

s m

ay g iv

e ri

se to

d if

fe r

en t

ri gh

ts .

M an

y fe

m in

is ts

h o ld

th at

w o

m en

h av

e th

e ri

g h t

to an

ab o rt

io n

on re

q u

es t.

It do

es no

t fo

ll o

w th

at si

n ce

th es

e sa

m e

p eo

p le

ar e

ca m

p ai

g n in

g fo

r eq

u al

it y

b et

w ee

n m

en an

d w

o m

en th

ey m

u st

su p p o rt

th e

ri g h t

o f

m en

to h av

e ab

o rt

io n

s to

o. S

in ce

a m

an ca

n n o t

h av

e an

ab o rt

io n

, it

is m

ea n in

g le

ss to

ta lk

o f

hi s

ri g h t

to ha

ve on

e. S

in ce

a pi

g ca

n ’t

vo te

, it

is m

ea n

in g

le ss

to ta

lk o f

it s

ri g h t

to vo

te .

T h

er e

is no

re as

o n

w hy

ei th

er W

o m

en ’s

L ib

er at

io n

or A

n im

al L

ib er

at io

n sh

o u

ld ge

t in

v o

lv ed

in su

ch n

o n

se n

se .

T he

ex te

n si

o n

o f

th e

b as

ic p ri

n ci

p le

o f

eq u al

it y

fr o m

on e

g ro

u p

to an

o th

er do

es no

t im

p ly

th at

w e

m u st

tr ea

t bo

th g ro

u p s

in ex

ac tl

y th

e sa

m e

w ay

, or

g ra

n t

e x

ac tl

y th

e sa

m e

ri g

h ts

to b o th

g ro

u p

s. W

h et

h er

w e

sh o u ld

do so

w il

l d ep

en d

on th

e n

at u

re o f

th e

m e m

be rs

o f

th e

tw o

g ro

u p

s. T

he b

as ic

p ri

n ci

p le

o f

e q

u a l

it y,

I sh

al l

ar g

u e,

is eq

u al

it y

o f

co n si

d er

at io

n ;

an d

eq ua

l co

n si

d er

at io

n fo

r d if

fe re

n t

b ei

n g

s m

ay le

ad to

d if

fe re

n t

tr ea

tm en

t an

d d if

fe re

n t

ri g h ts

.

S o

th er

e is

a d if

fe re

n t

w ay

o f

re p ly

in g

to T

ay lo

r’ s

at te

m p t

to p ar

o d y

W o

li st

o n

ec ro

ft ’s

ar g

u m

en ts

, a

w ay

w h ic

h do

es no

t d en

y th

e d

if fe

re n

ce s

b et

w ee

n h u m

an s

an d

n o n h u m

an s,

bu t

go es

m o re

d ee

p ly

in to

th e

q u e s

ti on

o f

eq u al

it y ,

an d

co n cl

u d es

by fi

n d

in g

n o

th in

g ab

su rd

in th

e id

ea th

at th

e b as

ic p ri

n ci

p le

o f

e q

u a l

it y

ap p

li es

to so

ca ll

ed “b

ru te

s. ”

I b

el ie

v e

th at

w e

re ac

h th

is co

n cl

u si

o n

if w

e ex

am in

e th

e b as

is on

w h ic

h o

u r

o p p o si

ti o n

to d

is cr

im in

at io

n on

g ro

u n

d s

o f

ra ce

or se

x u lt

im at

el y

re st

s. W

e w

il l

th en

se e

th at

w e

w o u ld

be on

sh ak

y g

ro u

n d

if w

e w

er e

to d

em an

d eq

u al

it y

fo r

b la

ck s,

w o

m en

, an

d o th

er gr

oL ip

s o f o p

p re

ss ed

h u

m an

s w

h il

e d en

y in

g eq

u al

co n

si d

er at

io n

to n

o n

h u

m an

s. W

h en

w e

sa y

th at

al l

h u m

an b

ei n

g s,

w h at

ev er

th ei

r ra

ce ,

cr ee

d o r

se x,

ar e

eq u al

, w

h at

is it

th at

w e

ar e

as se

rt in

g ?

T h

o se

w h o

w is

h to

d ef

en d

a h ie

ra r

ch ic

al .

in eg

al it

ar ia

n so

ci et

y h

av e

o ft

en p

o in

te d

ou t

th at

by w

h at

ev er

te st

w e

ch o

o se

, it

si m

p ly

is no

t tr

ue th

at al

l h

u m

an s

ar e

eq u al

. L

ik e

it o r

no t,

w e

m u st

fa ce

th e

fa ct

th at

h u m

an s

co m

e in

d if

fe re

n t

sh ap

es an

d si

ze s:

th ey

co m

e w

it h

d if

fe ri

n g

m o ra

l ca

p ac

it ie

s, d if

fe ri

n g

in te

ll ec

tu al

ab il

it ie

s, d if

fe ri

n g

am o

u n

ts o f

b en

ev o

le n

t fe

el in

g an

d se

n si

ti v it

y to

th e

n ee

d s

o f o th

er s,

d if

fe ri

n g

ab il

it ie

s to

co m

m u

n ic

at e

ef fe

ct iv

el y ,

an d

d if

fe ri

n g

ca p

ac it

ie s

to ex

p er

ie n

ce p le

as u re

an d

pa in

. In

sh o rt

, if

th e

d em

an d

fo r

eq u

al it

y w

er e

b as

ed on

th e

ac tu

al eq

u al

it y

o f

al l

h u m

an b ei

n g s,

w e

w o u ld

h av

e to

st op

d em

an d

in g

eq u

al it

y .

It w

o u

ld be

an u

n ju

st if

ia b le

d em

an d

. S

ti ll

, o n e

m ig

h t

cl in

g to

th e

vi ew

th at

th e

d em

an d

fo r

eq u

al it

y am

o n

g h u m

an b ei

n g s

is b as

ed on

th e

a c

tu al

eq u

al it

y o f

th e

d if

fe re

n t

ra ce

s an

d se

x es

. A

l th

o u

g h

h u

m an

s d

if fe

r as

in d

iv id

u al

s in

v ar

io u s

w ay

s, th

er e

ar e

no d

if fe

re n

ce s

b et

w ee

n th

e ra

ce s

an d

se xe

s as

su ch

. F

ro m

th e

m er

e fa

ct th

at a

p er

so n

is b la

ck ,

o r

a w

o m

an ,

w e

ca n n o t

in fe

r an

y th

in g

el se

ab o u t

th at

p er

so n .

T h is

, it

m ay

be sa

id ,

is w

h at

is w

ro n

g w

it h

ra ci

sm an

d se

x is

m .

T h e

w h it

e ra

ci st

cl ai

m s

th at

w h

it es

ar e

su p er

io r

to b

la ck

s, bu

t th

is is

fa ls

e— al

th o

u g

h th

er e

ar e

d if

fe re

n ce

s b

et w

ee n

in d iv

id u al

s, so

m e

b la

ck s

ar e

su p er

io r

to so

m e

w h it

es in

al l

o f

th e

ca p ac

it ie

s an

d ab

il it

ie s

th at

co u

ld co

n ce

iv ab

ly be

re l

ev an

t. T

h e

o p

p o

n en

t o f

se x is

m w

o u

ld sa

y th

e sa

m e:

a p er

so n ’s

se x

is no

g u id

e to

h is

o r

h er

ab il

it ie

s, an

d

th is

is w

hy it

is u

n ju

st if

ia b

le to

d is

cr im

in at

e on

th e

ba si

s o

f se

x. T

hi s

is a

p o ss

ib le

li ne

o f

o b je

ct io

n to

ra ci

al an

d

se xu

al d is

cr im

in at

io n .

It is

no t,

h o w

ev er

, th

e w

ay

th at

so m

eo n e

re al

ly co

n ce

rn ed

ab o u t

eq u al

it y

w o u ld

ch oo

se ,

b ec

au se

ta k in

g th

is li

ne co

u ld

, in

so m

e c ir

cu m

st an

ce s,

fo rc

e on

e to

ac ce

p t

a m

o st

in eg

al it

ar ia

n

so ci

et y.

T he

fa ct

th at

h u m

an s

d if

fe r

as in

d iv

id u al

s,

ra th

er th

an as

ra ce

s or

se xe

s, is

a va

li d

re p ly

to so

m e

on e

w ho

d ef

en d s

a h ie

ra rc

h ic

al so

ci et

y li

ke ,

sa y,

S ou

th A

fr ic

a, in

w hi

ch al

l w

h it

es ar

e su

p er

io r

in st

a

tu s

to al

l b la

ck s.

T he

ex is

te n ce

o f

in d iv

id u al

v a ri

a

ti on

s th

at cu

t ac

ro ss

th e

li ne

s o f

ra ce

or se

x, h o w

ev er

,

p ro

v id

es us

w it

h no

d ef

en ce

at al

l ag

ai n st

a m

o re

s o

p h is

ti ca

te d

o p p o n en

t o

f eq

u al

it y ,

on e

w h o

p ro

p o se

s

th at

, sa

y, th

e in

te re

st s

o f

th o se

w it

h I.

Q .

ra ti

n g s

ab o v e

10 0

be p re

fe rr

ed to

th e

in te

re st

s o

f th

o se

w it

h I.

Q .s

be lo

w 10

0. W

o u ld

a h ie

ra rc

h ic

al so

ci et

y o

f th

is so

rt

re al

ly be

so m

uc h

b et

te r

th an

on e

b as

ed on

ra ce

o r

se x?

I th

in k

no t.

B ut

if w

e ti

e th

e m

or al

p ri

n ci

p le

o f

eq u al

it y

to th

e fa

ct ua

l eq

u al

it y

o f

th e

d if

fe re

n t

ra ce

s

or se

xe s,

ta ke

n as

a w

h o le

, o u r

o p p o si

ti o n

to ra

ci sm

an d

se x is

m do

es no

t p ro

v id

e us

w it

h an

y b as

is fo

r

o b je

ct in

g to

th is

k in

d o

f in

eg al

it ar

ia n is

m .

T h er

e is

a se

co n d

im p

o rt

an t

re as

o n

w hy

w e

o u g h t

no t

to b as

e o u r

o p

p o

si ti

o n

to ra

ci sm

an d

se x is

m on

an y

k in

d o

f fa

ct u al

eq u al

it y ,

ev en

th e

li m

it ed

k in

d w

hi ch

as se

rt s

th at

v ar

ia ti

o n

s in

ca p

ac it

ie s

an d

a b

il i

ti es

ar e

sp re

ad ev

en ly

b et

w ee

n th

e d

if fe

re n

t ra

ce s

an d

se xe

s: w

e ca

n h av

e no

ab so

lu te

g u

ar an

te e

th at

th es

e ab

il it

ie s

an d

ca p

ac it

ie s

re al

ly ar

e d

is tr

ib u

te d

ev en

ly ,

w it

h o u t

re g ar

d to

ra ce

or se

x, am

o n g

h u m

an b ei

n g s.

S o

fa r

as ac

tu al

ab il

it ie

s ar

e co

n ce

rn ed

, th

er e

do se

em to

be ce

rt ai

n m

ea su

ra b

le d

if fe

re n

ce s

b et

w ee

n b o th

ra ce

s an

d se

x es

. T

h es

e d

if fe

re n

ce s

do no

t, o f

co u rs

e, ap

p ea

r in

ea ch

ca se

, bu

t o n ly

w h en

av er

ag es

ar e

ta ke

n. M

o re

im p

o rt

an t

st il

l, w

e do

n o t

ye t

k n o w

h o w

m uc

h o

f th

es e

d if

fe re

n ce

s is

re al

ly d u e

to th

e d if

fe r

en t

g en

et ic

en d

o w

m en

ts o f

th e

v ar

io u s

ra ce

s an

d se

x es

, an

d h o w

m uc

h is

d u e

to en

v ir

o n

m en

ta l

d if

fe re

n ce

s th

at ar

e th

e re

su lt

o f

p as

t an

d co

n ti

n u

in g

d is

cr im

in at

io n

. P

er h

ap s

al l

o f

th e

im p

o rt

an t

d if

fe r

en ce

s w

il l

ev en

tu al

ly p ro

v e

to be

en v

ir o

n m

en ta

l

ra th

er th

an g en

et ic

. A

n y o n e

o p

p o

se d

to ra

ci sm

an d

se x is

m w

il l

ce rt

ai n

ly h o p e

th at

th is

w il

l be

so ,

fo r

it w

il l

m ak

e th

e ta

sk o f

en d

in g

d is

cr im

in at

io n

a lo

t e a s

ie r;

n ev

er th

el es

s it

w o u ld

be d

an g

er o

u s

to re

st th

e ca

se ag

ai n st

ra ci

sm an

d se

x is

m on

th e

b el

ie f

th at

al l

si g

n if

ic an

t d

if fe

re n

ce s

ar e

en v

ir o

n m

en ta

l in

o ri

g in

. T

h e

o p

p o

n en

t of

, sa

y, ra

ci sm

w ho

ta k es

th is

li ne

w il

l be

u n ab

le to

av o id

co n

ce d

in g

th at

if d

if fe

re n

ce s

in ab

il it

y di

d af

te r

al l

p ro

v e

to h av

e so

m e

g en

et ic

c o n

n ec

ti o n

w it

h ra

ce ,

ra ci

sm w

o u ld

in so

m e

w ay

be d

ef en

si b

le .

It w

o u ld

be fo

ll y

fo r

th e

o p

p o

n en

t o

f ra

ci sm

to st

ak e

hi s

w h o le

ca se

on a

d o g m

at ic

co m

m it

m en

t to

o n e

p ar

ti cu

la r

o u tc

o m

e o

f a

d if

fi cu

lt sc

ie n ti

fi c

is su

e w

h ic

h is

st il

l a

lo n g

w ay

fr o m

b ei

n g

se tt

le d .

W h il

e at

te m

p ts

to p ro

v e

th at

d if

fe re

n ce

s in

ce rt

ai n

se le

ct ed

ab il

it ie

s b

et w

ee n

ra ce

s an

d se

x es

ar e

p ri

m ar

il y

g e

ne ti

c in

o ri

g in

h av

e ce

rt ai

n ly

n o t

be en

co n

cl u

si v

e, th

e sa

m e

m u st

be sa

id o

f at

te m

p ts

to p ro

v e

th at

th es

e d

if fe

re n

ce s

ar e

la rg

el y

th e

re su

lt o f

en v

ir o

n m

en t.

A t

th is

st ag

e o

f th

e in

v es

ti g

at io

n w

e ca

n n o t

be ce

rt ai

n w

h ic

h v ie

w is

co rr

ec t,

h o

w ev

er m

u ch

w e

m ay

h o p e

it is

th e

la tt

er .

F o

rt u

n at

el y

, th

er e

is no

n ee

d to

pi n

th e

ca se

fo r

eq u al

it y

to on

e p

ar ti

cu la

r o

u tc

o m

e o

f th

is sc

ie n ti

fi c

in v

es ti

g at

io n

. T

h e

ap p

ro p

ri at

e re

sp o n se

to th

os e

w ho

cl ai

m to

h av

e fo

u n

d ev

id en

ce o

f g

en et

ic al

ly -b

as ed

d if

fe re

n ce

s in

ab il

it y

b et

w ee

n th

e ra

ce s

o r

se xe

s is

n o t

to st

ic k

to th

e b el

ie f

th at

th e

g en

et ic

ex p

la n

at io

n m

u st

be w

ro n g ,

w h

at ev

er ev

id en

ce to

th e

co n tr

ar y

m ay

tu rn

up :

in st

ea d

w e

sh o u ld

m ak

e it

q u it

e cl

ea r

th at

th e

cl ai

m to

eq u al

it y

do es

n o t

d ep

en d

on in

te l

li g en

ce ,

m o ra

l ca

p ac

it y ,

p h y si

ca l

st re

n g th

, or

si m

il ar

m at

te rs

o f

fa ct

. E

q u al

it y

is a

m or

al id

ea l,

no t

a si

m pl

e as

se rt

io n

o f

fa ct

. T

h er

e is

no lo

g ic

al ly

co m

p el

li n

g re

as o n

fo r

as su

m in

g th

at a

fa ct

u al

d if

fe re

n ce

in a b il

it y

b et

w ee

n tw

o p eo

p le

ju st

if ie

s an

y d

if fe

re n

ce in

th e

am o

u n

t o

f co

n si

d er

at io

n w

e g iv

e to

sa ti

sf y in

g th

ei r

n ee

d s

an d

in te

re st

s. T

he p

ri n

ci p

le o

f th

e eq

u al

it y

o f

hu m

an b ei

n g s

is no

t a

d es

cr ip

ti o

n o f

an al

le g ed

a c

tu al

eq u

al it

y am

o n g

h u m

an s:

it is

a p

re sc

ri p

ti o

n o f

h o w

w e

sh o u ld

tr ea

t h u m

an s.

Je re

m y

B en

th am

in co

rp o

ra te

d th

e es

se n ti

al b as

is o

f m

or al

eq u

al it

y in

to hi

s u

ti li

ta ri

an sy

st em

o f

et h ic

s

A L

L A

N IM

A L

S A

R E

E Q

U A

L 21

20 A

N IM

A L

L IB

E R

A T

IO N

A N

D T

H E

L A

N D

E T

H IC

in th

e fo

rm u la

: “E

ac h

to co

u n t

fo r

o n e

an d

n o n e

fo r

m o re

th an

o n e.

” In

o th

er w

o rd

s, th

e in

te re

st s

o f

ev er

y b ei

n g

af fe

ct ed

by an

ac ti

o n

ar e

to be

ta k en

in to

a c

co u n t

an d

g iv

en th

e sa

m e

w ei

g h t

as th

e li

k e

in te

re st

s o f

an y

o th

er b ei

n g .

A la

te r

u ti

li ta

ri an

, H

en ry

S id

g w

ic k ,

p u t

th e

p o in

t in

th is

w ay

: “T

h e

g o o d

o f

an y

o n e

in d iv

id u al

is o f

no m

o re

im p o rt

an ce

, fr

o m

th e

po in

t of

vi ew

(i f

I m

ay sa

y so

) o f

th e

U ni

ve rs

e, th

an th

e go

od of

an y

o th

er .”

1 M

or e

re ce

nt ly

, th

e le

ad in

g fi

gu re

s in

co n te

m p o ra

ry m

or al

ph il

os op

hy ha

ve sh

ow n

a gr

ea t

de al

o f

ag re

em en

t in

sp ec

if yi

ng as

a fu

nd am

en ta

l p re

su p p o si

ti o n

o f

th ei

r m

or al

th eo

ri es

so m

e si

m il

ar re

q u ir

em en

t w

hi ch

op er

at es

so as

to gi

ve ev

er y o n e’

s in

te re

st s

eq ua

l co

n si

d er

at io

n —

al th

ou gh

th ey

ca nn

ot ag

re e

on ho

w th

is re

q u ir

em en

t is

be st

fo rm

u la

te d .

2 It

is an

im pl

ic at

io n

o f

th is

pr in

ci pl

e o f

eq ua

li ty

th at

ou r

co nc

er n

fo r

ot he

rs ou

gh t

no t

to de

pe nd

on w

ha t

th ey

ar e

li ke

, or

w ha

t ab

il it

ie s

th ey

p o ss

es s—

al th

ou gh

pr ec

is el

y w

ha t

th is

co nc

er n

re qu

ir es

us to

do m

ay va

ry ac

co rd

in g

to th

e ch

ar ac

te ri

st ic

s o f

th os

e af

fe ct

ed by

w h at

w e

do .

It is

on th

is b as

is th

at th

e ca

se ag

ai ns

t ra

ci sm

an d

th e

ca se

ag ai

ns t

se xi

sm m

us t

bo th

ul ti

m at

el y

re st

; an

d it

is in

ac co

rd an

ce w

it h

th is

pr in

ci pl

e th

at sp

ec ie

si sm

is al

so to

be co

nd em

ne d.

If po

ss es

si ng

a h ig

h er

de gr

ee o f

in te

ll ig

en ce

do es

no t

en ti

tl e

on e

hu m

an to

us e

an o th

er fo

r hi

s ow

n en

ds ,

ho w

ca n

it en

ti tl

e hu

m an

s to

ex p lo

it no

n- hu

m an

s? M

an y

ph il

os op

he rs

ha ve

pr op

os ed

th e

p ri

n ci

p le

of eq

ua l

co n si

d er

at io

n o f

in te

re st

s, in

so m

e fo

rm or

ot he

r, as

a ba

si c

m or

al pr

in ci

pl e;

bu t,

as w

e sh

al l

se e

in m

or e

de ta

il sh

or tl

y, no

t m

an y

o f

th em

ha ve

re c

og ni

ze d

th at

th is

pr in

ci pl

e ap

pl ie

s to

m em

be rs

of ot

he r

sp ec

ie s

as w

el l

as to

ou r

ow n.

B en

th am

w as

on e

o f

th e

fe w

w ho

di d

re al

iz e

th is

. In

a fo

rw ar

d- lo

ok in

g pa

ss ag

e, w

ri tt

en at

a ti

m e

w he

n bl

ac k

sl av

es in

B ri

ti sh

do m

in io

ns w

er e

st il

l be

in g

tr ea

te d

m uc

h as

w e

no w

tr ea

t no

nh um

an an

im al

s, B

en th

am w

ro te

:

T he

da y

m ay

co m

e w

he n

th e

re st

of th

e an

im al

cr e

at io

n m

ay ac

qu ir

e th

os e

ri gh

ts w

hi ch

ne ve

r co

ul d

ha ve

be en

w it

ho ld

en fr

om th

em bu

t by

th e

ha nd

of ty

ra nn

y. T

he Fr

en ch

ha ve

al re

ad y

di sc

ov er

ed th

at th

e bl

ac kn

es s

o f

th e

sk in

is no

re as

on w

hy a

hu m

an be

in g

sh ou

ld be

ab an

do ne

d w

it ho

ut re

dr es

s to

th e

ca pr

ic e

o f

a to

rm en

to r.

It m

ay on

e da

y co

m e

to be

re co

gn iz

ed th

at th

e nu

m be

r of

th e

le gs

, th

e v il

lo s

ity o f

th e

sk in

, or

th e

te rm

in at

io n

of th

e as

sa cr

um ,

ar e

re as

on s

eq ua

ll y

in su

ff ic

ie nt

fo r

ab an

do ni

ng a

S en

si ti

ve be

in g

to th

e sa

m e

fa te

. W

ha t

el se

is it

th at

sh ou

ld tr

ac e

th e

in su

pe ra

bl e

li ne

? Is

it th

e fa

cu lt

y o f

re as

on ,

or pe

rh ap

s th

e fa

cu lt

y of

di sc

ou rs

e? B

ut a

fu ll

gr ow

n ho

rs e

or do

g is

be yo

nd co

m pa

ri so

n a

m or

e ra

ti on

al ,

as w

el l

as a

m or

e co

nv er

sa bl

e a n i

m al

, th

an an

in fa

nt of

a da

y, or

a w

ee k,

or ev

en a

m on

th ,

ol d.

B ut

su pp

os e

th ey

w er

e ot

he rw

is e,

w ha

t w

ou ld

it av

ai l?

T he

qu es

ti on

is no

t, C

an th

ey re

a so

n? no

r C

an th

ey ta

lk ?

bu t,

C an

th ey

su fi

èr ?

3

In th

is p as

sa g e

B en

th am

p o in

ts to

th e

ca p ac

it y

fo r

su ff

er in

g as

th e

v it

al ch

ar ac

te ri

st ic

th at

g iv

es a

b e

in g

th e

ri g h t

to eq

u al

co n si

d er

at io

n .

T h e

ca p ac

it y

fo r

su ff

er in

g —

o r

m o re

st ri

ct ly

, fo

r su

ff er

in g

an d /o

r e n

jo y m

en t

o r

h ap

p in

es s—

is n o t ju

st an

o th

er c h a ra

c te

r is

ti c

li ke

th e

ca pa

ci ty

fo r

la ng

ua ge

, or

fo r

h ig

h er

m at

he m

at ic

s. B

en th

am is

no t

sa yi

ng th

at th

o se

w h o

tr y

to m

ar k

“t h e

in su

p er

ab le

li n e”

th at

d et

er m

in es

w h et

h er

th e

in te

re st

s o f

a b ei

n g

sh o u ld

b e

c o n si

d er

ed h ap

p en

to h av

e se

le ct

ed th

e w

ro n g

c h a ra

c te

ri s

ti c.

T h e

ca p ac

it y

fo r

su ff

er in

g an

d en

jo y in

g th

in g s

is a

p re

-r eq

u is

it e

fo r

h av

in g

in te

re st

s at

al l,

a co

n d it

io n

th at

m u st

b e

sa ti

sf ie

d b ef

o re

w e

ca n

sp ea

k o f

in te

r es

ts in

an y

m ea

n in

g fu

l w

ay .

It w

o u ld

be n o n se

n se

to sa

y th

at it

w as

n o t

in th

e in

te re

st s

o f

a st

o n e

to b e

k ic

k ed

al o n g

th e

ro ad

by a

sc h o o lb

o y .

A st

o n e

d o es

n o t

h av

e in

te re

st s

b ec

au se

it ca

n n o t

su ff

er .

N o th

in g

th at

w e

ca n

do to

it co

u ld

p o ss

ib ly

m ak

e an

y d if

fe r

en ce

to it

s w

el fa

re .

A m

o u se

, o n

th e

o th

er h an

d ,

d o es

h av

e an

in te

re st

in n o t

b ei

n g

to rm

en te

d ,

b ec

au se

it w

il l

su ff

er if

it is

. If

a be

in g

su ff

er s,

th er

e ca

n be

no m

or al

ju st

if i

ca ti

on fo

r re

fu si

ng to

ta ke

th at

su ff

er in

g in

to c o n

si de

ra ti

on .

N o

m at

te r

w ha

t th

e na

tu re

of th

e be

in g,

th e

p ri

n ci

p le

o f

eq ua

li ty

re qu

ir es

th at

its su

ff er

in g

be co

u n te

d eq

ua ll

y w

it h

th e

li ke

su ff

er in

g— in

so fa

r as

ro ug

h co

m p ar

is o n s

ca n

be m

ad e—

o f

an y

ot he

r b e

in g.

If a

be in

g is

no t

ca pa

bl e

o f

su ff

er in

g, or

of e x

pe ri

en ci

ng en

jo y m

en t

or ha

pp in

es s,

th er

e is

no th

in g

to be

ta ke

n in

to ac

co un

t. T

hi s

is w

hy th

e li

m it

o f se

n ti

en ce

(u si

ng th

e te

rm as

a co

nv en

ie nt

, if

no t

st ri

ct ly

ac cu

ra te

, sh

or th

an d

fo r

th e

ca pa

ci ty

to su

ff er

or e x

pe ri

en ce

en jo

y m

en t

o r

h ap

p in

es s)

is th

e on

ly d e fe

n

si bl

e b o u n d ar

y o f

co n ce

rn fo

r th

e in

te re

st s

o f

o th

er s.

T o

m ar

k th

is b o u n d m

y by

so m

e ch

ar ac

te ri

st ic

li k e

j01 li

g e n c e

or tj

o n a li

ty w

o u ld

be to

m ar

k it

in an

ar b it

r’ Y

w ay

. W

h y

no t

ch o o se

so lT

ie o th

er c h a ra

c

te ri

st ic

, li

ke sk

in co

lo r?

T he

ra ci

st v io

la te

s th

e p ri

n ci

p le

o f

eq u al

it y

by g iv

In C

gr ea

te r

w ei

g h t

to th

e in

te re

st s

o f

m em

b er

s o f

h is

ow n

ra ce

, w

h en

th er

e is

a cl

as h

b et

w ee

n th

ei r

in te

r

es ts

an d

th e

in te

re st

s o f

th o se

o f

an o th

er ra

ce .

S im

il ar

ly th

e sp

ec ie

S is

t al

lo w

s th

e in

te re

st s

o f

hi s

o w

n

sp ec

ie s

to o v er

ri d e

th e

g re

at er

in te

re st

s o f

m em

b er

s

of o th

er sp

e c ie

s. 4

T h e

p at

te rn

is th

e sa

m e

in ea

ch

ca se

. M

o st

h u m

a1 b ei

n g s

ar e

sp ec

ie si

S ts

. I

sh al

l fl

ow

ve ry

b ri

ef ly

d es

cr ib

e so

m e

o f

th e

p ra

ct ic

es th

at sh

ow

th is

. F o r

th e

g re

at m

aj o ri

ty o f

h u m

an b ei

n g s,

es p ec

ia ll

y

in ur

ba n,

in d u st

ri al

iz ed

so ci

et ie

s, th

e m

o st

d ir

ec t

fo rm

o f

co n ta

ct w

it h

m em

b er

s o f

o th

er sp

ec ie

s is

at

m ea

lt im

eS w

e ea

t th

em .

In d o in

g so

w e

tr ea

t th

em

pu re

ly as

m ea

n s

to o u r

en ds

. W

e re

g ar

d th

ei r

li fe

an d

w el

l- b ei

n g

as su

b o rd

in at

e to

o u r

ta st

e fo

r a

p a rt

ic u

la r

ki nd

of di

sh .

I sa

y “t

as te

” d el

ib er

at el

Y _ th

is is

pu re

ly a

m at

te r

of p le

as in

g ou

r pa

la te

. T

h er

e ca

n be

no d ef

en ce

o f

ea ti

n g

fl es

h in

te rm

s o f

sa ti

sf y in

g n u

tr it

io n al

n ee

d s,

si n ce

it h as

b ee

n es

ta b li

sh ed

b ey

o n d

d o u b t

th at

w e

co u ld

sa ti

sf y

o u r

n ee

d fo

r p ro

te in

an d

o th

er es

se n ti

al n u tr

ie n ts

fa r

m o re

ef fi

ci en

tl y

w it

h a

d ie

t th

at re

p la

ce d

an im

al fl

es h

by so

y b ea

n s,

or p ro

d uc

ts de

ri ve

d fr

om so

y be

an s,

an d

ot he

r h ig

h -p

ro te

in ve

ge ta

bl e

p ro

d u ct

s. 5

It is

no t

m er

el y

th e

ac t

of ki

ll in

g th

at in

di ca

te s

w h at

w e

ar e

re ad

y to

do to

o th

er sp

ec ie

s in

o rd

er to

g ra

ti fy

o u r

ta st

es .

T h e

su ff

er in

g w

e in

fl ic

t on

th e

a n

im al

s w

h il

e th

ey ar

e al

iv e

is p er

h ap

s an

ev en

cl ea

re r

in di

ca ti

on of

ou r

sp ec

ie si

S m

th an

th e

fa ct

th at

w e

ar e

p re

p ar

ed to

k il

l th

em .

In o rd

er to

h av

e m

ea t

on th

e ta

b le

at a

p ri

ce th

at p eo

p le

ca n

af fo

rd ,

o u r

so ci

et y

to le

ra te

s m

et h o d s

o f

m ea

t p ro

d u ct

io n

th at

co n fi

n e

se n ti

en t

an im

al s

in cr

am p ed

, u n su

it ab

le co

n d it

io n s

fo r

th e

en ti

re d u ra

ti o n s

o f

th ei

r li

v es

. A

n im

al s

ar e

tr ea

te d

li k e

m ac

h in

es th

at co

n v er

t fo

d d er

in to

fl es

h ,

an d

an y

in n o v at

io n

th at

re su

lt s

in a

h ig

h er

“ c o n v e r

si on

ra ti

o ”

is li

ab le

to be

ad o p te

d .

A s

o n e

au th

o ri

ty on

th e

su b je

ct h as

sa id

, “c

ru el

ty is

ac k n o W

le d g ed

on ly

w h en

p ro

fi ta

b il

it y

c e a se

s. ”

6 S

o h en

s ar

e cr

o w

d ed

fo u r

o r

fi v e

to a

ca g e

w it

h a

fl o o r

ar ea

o f

tw en

ty in

ch es

by ei

g h te

en in

ch es

, o r

ar o u n d

th e

si ze

o f

a si

n g le

p ag

e o f

th e

N ew

Y or

k T

im es

. T

h e

ca g es

h av

e w

ir e

fl o o rs

, si

n ce

th is

re d u ce

s cl

ea n in

g co

st s,

th o u g h

w ir

e is

u n su

it ab

le fo

r th

e he

ns ’

fe et

; th

e fl

oo rs

sl o p e,

si n ce

th is

m ak

es th

e eg

g s

ro ll

d o w

n fo

r ea

sy co

ll ec

ti o n ,

al th

o u g h

th is

m ak

es it

d if

fi cu

lt fo

r th

e h en

s to

re st

co m

fo rt

ab ly

. In

th es

e co

nd it

io ns

al l

th e

b ir

d s’

n at

u ra

l in

st in

ct s

ar e

th w

ar te

d :

th ey

ca n n o t

st re

tc h

th ei

r w

in g s

fu ll

y ,

w al

k fr

ee ly

, d u st

-b at

h e.

sc ra

tc h

th e

g ro

u n d ,

or b u il

d a

ne st

. A

lt h o u g h

th ey

h av

e n ev

er k n o w

n o th

er co

n d it

io n s,

o b se

rv er

s h av

e n o ti

ce d

th at

th e

b ir

d s

v ai

n ly

tr y

to p er

fo rm

th es

e a c

ti on

s. F

ru st

ra te

d at

th ei

r in

ab il

it y

to do

so ,

th ey

o f

te n

d ev

el o p

w h at

fa rm

er s

ca ll

“v ic

es ,”

an d

p ec

k ea

ch o th

er to

d ea

th .

T o

p re

v en

t th

is ,

th e

b ea

k s

o f

y o u n g

b ir

d s

ar e

o ft

en cu

t o ff

. T

h is

k in

d o f

tr ea

tm en

t is

n o t

li m

it ed

to p o u lt

ry .

P ig

s ar

e n o w

al so

b ei

n g

re ar

ed in

ca g es

in si

d e

sh ed

s. T

h es

e an

im al

s ar

e co

m p ar

ab le

to d o g s

in in

te ll

i ge

nc e.

an d

ne ed

a va

ri ed

, st

im ul

at in

g en

v ir

o n m

en t

if th

ey ar

e no

t to

su ff

er fr

o m

st re

ss an

d bo

re do

m .

A n y

on e

w ho

ke pt

a do

g in

th e

w ay

in w

hi ch

pi gs

ar e

fr e

q u en

tl y

k ep

t w

ou ld

be li

ab le

to p ro

se cU

ti o n

in E

n gl

an d

at le

as t,

bu t

b ec

au se

ou r

in te

re st

in ex

p lo

it in

g pi

gs is

gr ea

te r

th an

ou r

in te

re st

in ex

p lo

it in

g do

gs ,

w e

o b je

ct to

cr u el

ty to

do gs

w hi

le co

n su

m in

g th

e pr

od uc

e of

cr ue

lt y

to pi

gs .

O f

th e

ot he

r an

im al

s, th

e co

n d it

io n

o f

v ea

l ca

lv es

is pe

rh ap

s w

or st

of al

l, si

nc e

th es

e an

im al

s ar

e so

cl o se

ly co

n fi

n ed

th at

th ey

c a n

n o t

ev en

tu rn

ar o u n d

o r

ge t

up an

d li

e d o w

n fr

ee ly

. In

th is

w ay

th ey

do no

t d ev

el o p

A L

L A

N IM

A L

S A

R E

E Q

U A

L 23

22 A

N IM

A L

L IB

E R

A T

IO N

A N

D T

H E

L A

N D

E T

H IC

sp ec

ie si

sm w

e m

us t

st op

th is

pr ac

ti ce

. an

d ea

ch o f

us ha

s a

m or

al ob

li ga

ti on

to ce

as e

su pp

or ti

ng th

e pr

ac ti

ce .

O ur

cu st

om is

al l

th e

su pp

or t

th at

th e

m ea

t- in

du st

ry ne

ed s.

T he

de ci

si on

to ce

as e

gi vi

ng it

th at

su pp

or t

m ay

be di

ff ic

ul t,

bu t

it is

no m

or e

di ff

ic ul

t th

an it

w ou

ld ha

ve be

en fo

r a

w hi

te S

o u th

er n er

to go

ag ai

ns t

th e

tr ad

it io

ns o f

hi s

so ci

et y

an d

fr ee

hi s

sl av

es :

if w

e do

no t

ch an

ge ou

r di

et ar

y ha

bi ts

, ho

w ca

n w

e ce

ns ur

e th

os e

sl av

eh ol

de rs

w ho

w ou

ld no

t ch

an ge

th ei

r ow

n w

ay of

li vi

ng ?

T he

sa m

e fo

rm of

d is

cr im

in at

io n

m ay

be ob

se rv

ed in

th e

w id

es pr

ea d

pr ac

ti ce

of ex

p er

im en

ti n g

on ot

he r

sp ec

ie s

in or

de r

to se

e if

ce rt

ai n

su bs

ta nc

es ar

e sa

fe fo

r hu

m an

be in

gs .

or to

te st

so m

e p sy

ch o lo

g ic

al th

e or

y ab

ou t

th e

ef fe

ct of

se ve

re p u n is

h m

en t

on le

a rn

in g,

or to

tr y

ou t

va ri

ou s

ne w

co m

po un

ds ju

st in

ca se

so m

et hi

ng tu

rn s

up .

P eo

pl e

so m

et im

es th

in k

th at

al l

th is

ex p er

im en

ta ti

o n

is fo

r vi

ta l

m ed

ic al

pu rp

os es

, an

d so

w il

l re

du ce

su ff

er in

g ov

er al

l. T

hi s

co m

fo rt

ab le

b el

ie f

is ve

ry w

id e

of th

e m

ar k.

D ru

g co

m p a

ni es

te st

ne w

sh am

po os

an d

co sm

et ic

s th

at th

ey ar

e in

te nd

in g

to pu

t on

th e

m ar

ke t

by dr

op pi

ng th

em in

to th

e ey

es o f

ra bb

it s,

he ld

op en

by m

et al

cl ip

s, in

o r

de r

to ob

se rv

e w

ha t

da m

ag e

re su

lt s.

F oo

d ad

di ti

ve s,

li ke

ar ti

fi ci

al co

lo ri

ng s

an d

p re

se rv

at iv

es ,

ar e

te st

ed by

w ha

t is

kn ow

n as

th e “ L

D 5 0

” —

a te

st de

si gn

ed to

fi nd

th e

le ve

l o f

co n su

m p ti

o n

at w

hi ch

50 %

o f

a gr

ou p

o f

an im

al s

w il

l di

e. In

th e

pr oc

es s,

ne ar

ly al

l of

th e

an im

al s

ar e

m ad

e ve

ry si

ck be

fo re

so m

e fi

na ll

y di

e, an

d ot

he rs

pu ll

th ro

ug h.

If th

e su

bs ta

nc e

is re

la ti

ve ly

ha rm

le ss

, as

it of

te n

is ,

hu ge

do se

s ha

ve to

be fo

rc e-

fe d

th e

an im

al s,

un ti

l in

so m

e ca

se s

sh ee

r vo

lu m

e or

co nc

en tr

at io

n o f

th e

su bs

ta nc

e ca

us es

de at

h. M uc

h of

th is

po in

tl es

s cr

ue lt

y go

es on

in th

e u n i

ve rs

it ie

s. In

m an

y ar

ea s

o f

sc ie

nc e,

no n-

hu m

an a n i

m al

s ar

e re

ga rd

ed as

an it

em of

la bo

ra to

ry e q u ip

m en

t, to

be us

ed an

d ex

pe nd

ed as

de si

re d.

In ps

yc ho

lo gy

la bo

ra to

ri es

ex pe

ri m

en te

rs de

vi se

e n d

le ss

va ri

at io

ns an

d re

p et

it io

n s

o f

ex p er

im en

ts th

at w

er e

o f

li tt

le va

lu e

in th

e fi

rs t

pl ac

e. T

o qu

ot e

ju st

on e

ex am

pl e,

fr om

th e

ex p er

im en

te r’

s ow

n ac

co un

t in

a ps

yc ho

lo gy

jo u rn

al :

at th

e U

ni ve

rs it

y o f

P e n n

sy lv

an ia

, P

er ri

n S.

C oh

en hu

ng si

x do

gs in

h a m

m oc

ks w

it h

el ec

tr od

es ta

pe d

to th

ei r

hi nd

fe et

. E

le c

tr ic

sh oc

k o f

va ry

in g

in te

ns it

y w

as th

en ad

m in

is te

re d

th ro

ug h

th e

el ec

tr od

es .

If th

e do

g le

ar nt

to pr

es s

it s

he ad

ag ai

ns t

a pa

ne l

on th

e le

ft ,

th e

sh oc

k w

as tu

rn ed

of f,

bu t

ot he

rw is

e it

re m

ai n ed

on in

de fi

ni te

ly .

T hr

ee of

th e

do gs

, ho

w ev

er ,

w er

e re

qu ir

ed to

w ai

t pe

ri od

s va

ry in

g fr

om 2

to 7

se co

nd s

w hi

le be

in g

sh oc

ke d

b e

fo re

m ak

in g

th e

re sp

on se

th at

tu rn

ed o ff

th e

cu rr

en t.

If th

ey fa

il ed

to w

ai t,

th ey

re ce

iv ed

fu rt

h er

sh oc

ks .

E ac

h do

g w

as gi

ve n

fr om

26 to

46 “s

es si

on s”

in th

e ha

m m

oc k,

ea ch

se ss

io n

co ns

is ti

ng o f

80 “t

ri al

s” or

sh oc

ks ,

ad m

in is

te re

d at

in te

rv al

s o f

on e

m in

ut e.

T he

ex p er

im en

te r

re po

rt ed

th at

th e

do gs

, w

ho w

er e

u n

ab le

to m

ov e

in th

e h am

m o ck

, ba

rk ed

or bo

bb ed

th ei

r he

ad s

w he

n th

e cu

rr en

t w

as ap

pl ie

d. T

he re

po rt

ed fi

nd in

gs o f

th e

ex p er

im en

t w

er e

th at

th er

e w

as a

d e

la y

in th

e do

gs ’

re sp

on se

s th

at in

cr ea

se d

p ro

p o r

ti on

at el

y to

th e

ti m

e th

e do

gs w

er e

re qu

ir ed

to e n

du re

th e

sh oc

k, bu

t a

gr ad

ua l

in cr

ea se

in th

e in

te ns

it y

of th

e sh

oc k

ha d

no sy

st em

at ic

ef fe

ct in

th e

ti m

in g

of th

e re

sp on

se .

T he

ex p er

im en

t w

as fu

nd ed

by th

e N

at io

na l

In st

it ut

es of

H ea

lt h,

an d

th e

U ni

te d

S ta

te s

P ub

li c

H ea

lt h

S er

v ic

e. 7

In th

is ex

am pl

e, an

d co

un tl

es s

ca se

s li

ke it,

th e

po ss

ib le

be ne

fi ts

to m

an ki

nd ar

e ei

th er

n o n -e

x is

te n t

or fa

nt as

ti ca

ll y

re m

ot e;

w hi

le th

e ce

rt ai

n lo

ss es

to m

em be

rs of

ot he

r sp

ec ie

s ar

e ve

ry re

al .

T hi

s is

, ag

ai n,

a cl

ea r

in di

ca ti

on o f

sp ec

ie si

sm .

In th

e pa

st ,

ar g u m

en t

ab ou

t vi

vi se

ct io

n ha

s of

te n

m is

se d

th is

po in

t, be

ca us

e it

ha s

be en

pu t

in a b so

lu ti

st te

rm s:

W ou

ld th

e ab

ol it

io ni

st be

pr ep

ar ed

to le

t th

ou sa

nd s

di e

if th

ey co

ul d

be sa

ve d

by ex

p er

im en

t in

g on

a si

ng le

an im

al ?

T he

w ay

to re

pl y

to th

is pu

re ly

hy po

th et

ic al

qu es

ti on

is to

po se

an ot

he r:

W ou

ld th

e ex

p er

im en

te r

be pr

ep ar

ed to

pe rf

or m

hi s

ex p er

im en

t on

an or

ph an

ed hu

m an

in fa

nt ,

if th

at w

er e

th e

on ly

w ay

to sa

ve m

an y

li ve

s? (I

sa y

“ o r

ph an

” to

av oi

d th

e co

m p li

ca ti

o n

o f

pa re

nt al

fe el

in gs

, al

th ou

gh in

do in

g so

I am

be in

g o v er

fa ir

to th

e e x

pe ri

m en

te r,

si nc

e th

e no

nh um

an su

bj ec

ts of

e x p e ri

m en

ts ar

e no

t or

ph an

s. )

If th

e ex

p er

im en

te r

is no

t pr

ep ar

ed to

us e

an o rp

h an

ed hu

m an

in fa

nt ,

th en

hi s

re ad

in es

s to

us e

no n-

hu m

an s

is si

m pl

e d is

cr im

in a

ti on

, si

nc e

ad ul

t ap

es ,

ca ts

, m

ic e

an d

ot he

r m

am m

al s

ar e

m or

e aw

ar e

o f

w ha

t is

ha pp

en in

g to

th em

, m

or e

se lf

-d ir

ec ti

n g

an d,

so fa

r as

w e

ca n

te ll

, at

le as

t as

se ns

it iv

e to

pa in

, as

an y

hu m

an in

fa nt

. T

he re

se em

s

to be

no re

le v an

t ch

ar ac

te ri

st ic

th at

hu m

an in

fa nt

s

po ss

es s

th at

ad ul

t m

am m

al s

do no

t ha

ve to

th e

sa m

e

or a

hi gh

er de

gr ee

. (S

om eo

ne m

ig ht

tr y

to ar

gu e

th at

w ha

t m

ak es

it w

ro ng

to ex

p er

im en

t on

a hu

m an

in

fa nt

is th

at th

e in

fa nt

w il

l, in

ti m

e an

d if

le ft

al on

e,

de ve

lo p

in to

m or

e th

an th

e no

nh um

an ,

bu t

on e

w ou

ld

th en

, to

be co

ns is

te nt

, ha

ve to

op po

se ab

or ti

on ,

si nc

e

th e

fe tu

s ha

s th

e sa

m e

po te

nt ia

l as

th e

in fa

n t—

in de

ed ,

ev en

co n tr

ac ep

ti o n

an d

ab st

in en

ce m

ig ht

be

w ro

ng on

th is

gr ou

nd ,

si nc

e th

e eg

g an

d sp

er m

, c o n

si de

re d

jo in

tl y ,

al so

ha ve

th e

sa m

e po

te nt

ia l.

In an

y

ca se

, th

is ar

g u m

en t

st il

l gi

ve s

us no

re as

o n

fo r

s e

le ct

in g

a no

nh um

af l,

ra th

er th

an a

hu m

an w

it h

se ve

re

an d

ir re

ve rs

ib le

br ai

n da

m ag

e, as

th e

su bj

ec t

fo r

ou r

ex pe

ri m

en ts

.) T

he ex

pe ri

m en

te r,

th en

, sh

ow s

a bi

as in

fa v o r

of

hi s

ow n

sp ec

ie s

w h en

ev er

he ca

rr ie

s ou

t an

ex p er

i

m en

t on

a no

nh um

an fo

r a

pu rp

os e

th at

he o u ld

no t

th in

k ju

st if

ie d

hi m

in us

in g

a hu

m an

be in

g at

an eq

ua l

or lo

w er

le ve

l of

se nt

ie nc

e, aw

ar en

es s,

ab il

it y

to be

se lf

-d ir

ec ti

ng ,

et c.

N o

on e

fa m

il ia

r w

it h

th e

ki nd

of

re su

lt s

yi el

de d

by m

os t

ex pe

ri m

en ts

on an

im al

s ca

n

ha ve

th e

sl ig

ht es

t do

ub t

th at

if th

is bi

as w

er e

e li

m i

na te

d th

e nu

m be

r of

ex p er

im en

ts p er

fo rm

ed w

ou ld

be a

m in

ut e

fr ac

ti on

of th

e n u m

b er

p er

fo rm

ed to

da y.

E x p er

im en

ti n g

on an

im al

s, an

d ea

ti ng

th ei

r fl

es h,

ar e

pe rh

ap s

th e

tw o

m aj

or fo

rm s

of sp

ec ie

si sm

in ou

r

so ci

et y.

B y

co m

pa ri

so n,

th e

th ir

d an

d la

st fo

rm of

sp ec

ie si

sm is

so m

in or

as to

be in

si g n if

ic an

t, bu

t it

is pe

rh ap

s of

so m

e sp

ec ia

l in

te re

st to

th os

e fo

r w

ho m

th is

ar ti

cl e

w as

w ri

tt en

. I

am re

fe rr

in g

to sp

ec ie

si sm

in co

nt em

po ra

ry ph

il os

op hy

. P

hi lo

so ph

y ou

gh t

to qu

es ti

on th

e ba

si c

as su

m p

ti on

s of

th e

ag e.

T hi

nk in

g th

ro ug

h, cr

it ic

al ly

an d

ca re

fu ll

y, w

ha t

m os

t pe

op le

ta ke

fo r

gr an

te d

is ,

I b e

li ev

e, th

e ch

ie f

ta sk

of ph

il os

op hy

, an

d it

is th

is ta

sk

th at

m ak

es ph

il os

op hy

a w

o rt

h w

h il

e ac

ti vi

ty .

R e

gr et

ta bl

y, ph

il os

op hy

do es

no t

al w

ay s

li ve

up to

its

hi st

or ic

ro le

. P

h il

o so

p h er

s ar

e hu

m an

be in

gs an

d

th ey

ar e

su bj

ec t

to al

l th

e pr

ec on

ce pt

io ns

of th

e so

ci et

y to

w hi

ch th

ey be

lo ng

. S

om et

im es

th ey

su cc

ee d

in br

ea ki

ng fr

ee of

th e

p re

v ai

li n g

id eo

lo gy

: m

or e

o f

te n

th ey

be co

m e

it s

m os

t so

p h is

ti ca

te d

de fe

nd er

s. S

o,

in th

is ca

se ,

ph il

os op

hy as

p ra

ct ic

ed in

th e

u n iv

er si

ti es

to da

y do

es no

t ch

al le

ng e

an yo

ne ’s

p re

co n ce

p

ti on

s ab

ou t

ou r

re la

ti on

s w

it h

ot he

r sp

ec ie

s. B

y th

ei r

w ri

ti ng

s, th

os e

ph il

os op

he rs

w ho

ta ck

le pr

ob le

m s

th at

to uc

h up

on th

e is

su e

re ve

al th

at th

ey m

ak e

th e

sa m

e un

qu es

ti on

ed as

su m

pt io

ns as

m os

t ot

he r

h u

m an

s. an

d w

ha t

th ey

sa y

te nd

s to

co nf

ir m

th e

re ad

er

in hi

s or

he r

co m

fo rt

ab le

sp ec

ie si

st ha

bi ts

. I

co ul

d il

lu st

ra te

th is

cl ai

m by

re fe

rr in

g to

th e

w ri

ti ng

s of

p h il

o so

p h er

s in

va ri

ou s

fi el

d s—

fo r

in

st an

ce ,

th e

at te

m pt

s th

at ha

ve be

en m

ad e

by th

os e

in te

re st

ed in

ri gh

ts to

dr aw

th e

bo un

da ry

of th

e

sp he

re of

ri gh

ts so

th at

it ru

ns pa

ra ll

el to

th e

b io

lo gi

ca l

bo un

da ri

es of

th e

sp ec

ie s

ho m

o sa

li en

s, in

-

ch id

in g

in fa

nt s

an d

ev en

m en

ta l

de fe

ct iv

es ,

bu t

ex cl

ud in

g th

os e

ot he

r be

in gs

of eq

ua l

or gr

ea te

r c a

pa ci

ty w

ho ar

e so

us ef

ul to

us at

m ea

lt im

es an

d in

ou r

la bo

ra to

ri es

. I

th in

k it

w ou

ld be

a m

or e

ap p ro

pr ia

te co

n cl

u si

o n

to th

is ar

ti cl

e, ho

w ev

er ,

if I

c o n

ce nt

ra te

d on

th e

pr ob

le m

w it

h w

hi ch

w e

ha ve

be en

ce nt

ra ll

y co

nc er

ne d,

th e

pr ob

le m

o f

eq ua

li ty

. It

is si

gn if

ic an

t th

at th

e pr

ob le

m of

eq ua

li ty

, in

m or

al an

d po

li ti

ca l

ph il

os op

hy ,

is in

va ri

ab ly

fo rm

u

la te

d in

te rm

s of

hu m

an eq

ua li

ty .

T he

ef fe

ct of

th is

is th

at th

e qu

es ti

on of

th e

eq ua

li ty

of ot

he r

an im

al s

do es

no t

co n fr

o n t

th e

ph il

os op

he r,

or st

ud en

t, as

an

is su

e it

se lf

— an

d th

is is

al re

ad y

an in

di ca

ti on

o f

th e

fa il

ur e

of ph

il os

op hy

to ch

al le

ng e

ac ce

pt ed

be li

ef s.

S ti

ll ,

p h il

o so

p h er

s ha

ve fo

un d

it di

ff ic

ul t

to di

sc us

s

th e

is su

e of

hu m

an eq

ua li

ty w

it ho

ut ra

is in

g, in

a p a ra

gr ap

h or

tw o,

th e

qu es

ti on

of th

e st

at us

of ot

he r

a n

im al

s. T

he re

as on

fo r

th is

, w

hi ch

sh ou

ld be

ap pa

re nt

fr om

w ha

t I

ha ve

sa id

al re

ad y,

is th

at if

hu m

an s

ar e

to be

re ga

rd ed

as eq

ua l

to on

e an

ot he

r, w

e ne

ed so

m e

se ns

e of

“e qu

al ”

th at

do es

no t

re qu

ir e

an y

ac tu

al , d e

sc ri

pt iv

e eq

ua li

ty of

ca pa

ci ti

es ,

ta le

nt s

or ot

he r

q u a l

it ie

s. if

eq ua

li ty

is to

be re

la te

d to

an y

ac tu

al c h a r

ac te

ri st

ic s

of hu

m an

s, th

es e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

m u s t

b e

so m

e lo

w es

t co

m m

on d en

o m

in at

o r,

pi tc

he d

so lo

w

th at

no hu

m an

la ck

s th

em —

b u t

th en

th e

p h il

o so

p h er

co m

es up

24 A

N IM

A L

L IB

E R

A T

IO N

A N

D T

H E

L A

N D

E T

H IC

eq u al

, th

at is

, to

ea ch

o th

er an

d to

h u m

an s.

If ,

on th

e o th

er h an

d ,

w e

re g ar

d th

e st

at em

en t

“A ll

h u m

an s

ar e

eq u al

” in

so m

e n o n -f

ac tu

al w

ay ,

p er

h ap

s as

a p re

sc ri

p ti

o n ,

th en

, as

I h av

e al

re ad

y ar

g u ed

, it

is ev

en m

o re

d if

fi cu

lt to

ex cl

u d e

n o n -h

u m

an s

fr o m

th e

sp h er

e o f

eq u al

it y .

T h is

re su

lt is

n o t

w h at

th e

eg al

it ar

ia n

p h il

o so

p h er

o ri

g in

al ly

in te

n d ed

to as

se rt

. In

st ea

d o f

ac ce

p ti

n g

th e

ra d ic

al o u tc

o m

e to

w h ic

h th

ei r

o w

n re

as o n in

g s

n a t

u ra

ll y

p o in

t, h o w

ev er

, m

o st

p h il

o so

p h er

s tr

y to

re c

o n ci

le th

ei r

b el

ie fs

in h u m

an eq

u al

it y

an d

an im

al in

eq u al

it y

by ar

g u m

en ts

th at

ca n

o n ly

be d es

cr ib

ed as

d ev

io u s.

A s

a fi

rs t

ex am

p le

, I

ta k e

W il

li am

F ra

n k en

a’ s

w el

l- k n o w

n ar

ti cl

e “T

h e

C o n ce

p t

o f

S o ci

al Ju

st ic

e .”

8 F

ra n k en

a o p p o se

s th

e id

ea o f

b as

in g

ju st

ic e

on m

er it

, b ec

au se

he se

es th

at th

is co

u ld

le ad

to h ig

h ly

m e

g al

it ar

ia n

re su

lt s.

In st

ea d

he p ro

p o se

s th

e p ri

n ci

p le

th at

:

al l

m en

ar e

to be

tr ea

te d

as eq

ua ls

, no

t be

ca us

e th

ey ar

e eq

ua l,

in an

y re

sp ec

t, bu

t si

m pl

y be

ca us

e th

ey ar

e hu

m an

. T

he y

ar e

hu m

an be

ca us

e th

ey ha

ve em

ot io

ns an

d de

si re

s, an

d ar

e ab

le to

th in

k, an

d he

nc e

ar e

ca pa

bl e

of en

jo yi

ng a

go od

li fe

in a

se ns

e in

w hi

ch ot

he r

an im

al s

ar e

no t.

B u t

w h at

is th

is ca

p ac

it y

to en

jo y

th e

g o o d

li fe

w h ic

h al

l h u m

an s

h av

e, b u t

no o th

er an

im al

s? O

th er

an im

al s

h av

e em

o ti

o n s

an d

d es

ir es

, an

d ap

p ea

r to

be ca

p ab

le o f

en jo

y in

g a

g o o d

li fe

. W

e m

ay d o u b t

th at

th ey

ca n

th in

k —

al th

o u g h

th e

b eh

av io

r o f

so m

e ap

es ,

d o lp

h in

s an

d ev

en d o g s

su g g es

ts th

at so

m e

o f

th em

ca n —

b u t

w h at

is th

e re

le v an

ce o f

th in

k in

g ?

F ra

n k en

a g o es

on to

ad m

it th

at by

“t h e

g o o d

li fe

” h e

m ea

n s

“n o t

so m

u ch

th e

m o ra

ll y

g o o d

li fe

as th

e h ap

p y

o r

sa ti

sf ac

to ry

li fe

,” so

th o u g h t

w o u ld

ap p ea

r to

be u n

n ec

es sa

ry fo

r en

jo y in

g th

e g o o d

li fe

; in

fa ct

to e m

p h as

iz e

th e

n ee

d fo

r th

o u g h t

w o u ld

m ak

e d if

fi cu

lt ie

s fo

r th

e eg

al it

ar ia

n si

n ce

o n ly

so m

e p eo

p le

ar e

c a p a

b le

o f

le ad

in g

in te

ll ec

tu al

ly sa

ti sf

y in

g li

v es

, o r

m o ra

ll y

g o o d

li v es

. T

h is

m ak

es it

d if

fi cu

lt to

se e

w h at

F ra

n k en

a’ s

p ri

n ci

p le

o f

eq u al

it y

h as

to do

w it

h si

m p ly

b ei

n g

hu m

an .

S u re

ly ev

er y

se n ti

en t

b ei

n g

is ca

p ab

le o f

le ad

in g

a li

fe th

at is

h ap

p ie

r o r

le ss

m is

-

er ab

le th

an so

m e

al te

rn at

iv e

li fe

, an

d h en

ce h as

a cl

ai m

to b e

ta k en

in to

ac co

u n t.

In th

is re

sp ec

t th

e d is

ti n ct

io n

b et

w ee

n h u m

an s

an d

n o n -h

u m

an s

is n o t

a sh

ar p

d iv

is io

n ,

b u t

ra th

er a

co n ti

n u u m

al o n g

w h ic

h w

e m

o v e

g ra

d u al

ly ,

an d

w it

h o v er

la p s

b et

w ee

n th

e sp

ec ie

s, fr

o m

si m

p le

ca p ac

it ie

s fo

r en

jo y m

en t

an d

sa ti

sf ac

ti o n ,

or p ai

n an

d su

ff er

in g ,

to m

o re

co m

p le

x o n es

. F

ac ed

w it

h a

si tu

at io

n in

w h ic

h th

ey se

e a

n ee

d fo

r so

m e

b as

is fo

r th

e m

o ra

l g u lf

th at

is co

m m

o n ly

th o u g h t

to se

p ar

at e

h u m

an s

an d

an im

al s,

b u t

fi n d in

g no

co n cr

et e

d if

fe re

n ce

th at

w il

l do

th e

jo b

w it

h o u t

u n d er

m in

in g

th e

eq u al

it y

o f

h u m

an s,

p h il

o so

p h er

s te

n d

to w

af fl

e. T

h ey

re so

rt to

h ig

h -s

o u n d in

g p h ra

se s

li ke

“t h e

in tr

in si

c d ig

n it

y o f

th e

h u m

an in

d iv

id u a l”

; 9

th ey

ta lk

o f

th e

“i n tr

in si

c w

o rt

h o f

al l

m en

” as

if m

en (h

u m

an s?

) h ad

so m

e w

o rt

h th

at o th

er b ei

n g s

d id

n o t,

1 0

o r

th ey

sa y

th at

h u m

an s,

an d

o n ly

h u m

an s,

ar e

“e n d s

in th

em se

lv es

,” w

h il

e “e

v er

y th

in g

o th

er th

an a

p er

so n

ca n

o n ly

h av

e v al

u e

fo r

a p e rs

o n .”

T h is

id ea

o f

a d is

ti n ct

iv e

h u m

an d ig

n it

y an

d w

o rt

h ha

s a

lo n g

h is

to ry

; it

ca n

be tr

ac ed

b ac

k d ir

ec tl

y to

th e

R en

ai ss

an ce

h u m

an is

ts ,

fo r

in st

an ce

to P

ic o

d el

la M

ir an

d o la

’s O

ra ti

o n

on th

e D

ig ni

ty o fM

an .

P ic

o an

d o th

er h u m

an is

ts b as

ed th

ei r

es ti

m at

e o f

h u m

an d ig

n it

y on

th e

id ea

th at

m an

p o ss

es se

d th

e ce

n tr

al , p iv

o ta

l p o si

ti o n

in th

e “G

re at

C h ai

n o f

B ei

n g ”

th at

le d

fr o m

th e

lo w

li es

t fo

rm s

o f

m at

te r

to G

o d

h im

se lf

; th

is v ie

w o f

th e

u n iv

er se

, in

tu rn

, g o es

b ac

k to

b o th

cl as

si ca

l an

d Ju

d eo

-C h ri

st ia

n d o ct

ri n es

. C

o n te

m p o

ra ry

p h il

o so

p h er

s h av

e ca

st o ff

th es

e m

et ap

h y si

ca l

an d

re li

g io

u s

sh ac

k le

s an

d fr

ee ly

in v o k e

th e

d ig

n it

y o f

m an

k in

d w

it h o u t

n ee

d in

g to

ju st

if y

th e

id ea

at al

l. W

h y

sh o u ld

w e

n o t

at tr

ib u te

“i n tr

in si

c d ig

n it

y ”

o r

“i n tr

in si

c w

o rt

h ”

to o u rs

el v es

? F

el lo

w -h

u m

an s

ar e

u n li

k el

y to

re je

ct th

e ac

co la

d es

w e

so g en

er o u sl

y b e

st o w

on th

em ,

an d

th o se

to w

h o m

w e

d en

y th

e h o n o r

ar e

u n ab

le to

o b je

ct .

In d ee

d ,

w h en

on e

th in

k s

o n ly

o f

h u m

an s,

it ca

n be

ve ry

li b er

al ,

v er

y p ro

g re

ss iv

e, to

ta lk

o f

th e

d ig

n it

y o f

al l

h u m

an b ei

n g s.

In so

d o

in g,

w e

im p li

ci tl

y co

n d em

n sl

av er

y ,

ra ci

sm ,

an d

o th

er v io

la ti

o n s

o f

h u m

an ri

g h ts

. W

e ad

m it

th at

w e

o u rs

el v es

ar e

in so

m e

fu n d am

en ta

l se

n se

on a

p ar

w it

h th

e p o o re

st ,

m o st

ig n o ra

n t

m em

b er

s o f

o u r

o w

n sp

ec ie

s. It

is o n ly

w h en

w e

th in

k o f

h u m

an s

as no

m or

e th

an a

sm al

l su

b g ro

u P

o f

al l

th e

b ei

n g s

th at

in ha

bi t

ou r

p la

n et

th at

w e

m ay

re al

iz e

th at

in e le

a ti

fl g

ou r

o w

n sp

ec ie

s w

e ar

e at

th e

sa m

e ti

m e

lo w

er in

g th

e re

la ti

st at

u s

of al

l o th

er sp

ec ie

s.

T h e

tr u th

is th

at th

e ap

p ea

l to

th e

in tr

in si

c d ig

n it

y

of h u m

an b ei

n g s

ap p ea

rs to

so lv

e th

e eg

al it

ar ia

n ’s

pr ob

le m

s on

ly as

lo n g

as it

g o es 0c h a ll

g e d

O n ce

w e

as k

w hy

it sh

o u ld

b e

th at

al l f f in

s _ in

c lu

n g

in fa

nt s,

m en

ta l

d e fe

c ti

s ,

p sy

ch o p at

h s

H it

le r,

S ta

li n

an d

th e

re st

_ h a v e

so m

e k in

d o f

d ig

n it

y or

w or

th th

at fl

O el

ep h an

t, p ig

, or

ch im

p an

ze e

ca n

ev er

a c h ie

w e

se e

th at

th is

q u es

ti o n

is as

d if

fi cu

lt to

an sw

er as

ou r

o ri

g in

al re

q u es

t fo

r so

m e

re le

v an

t fa

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