Article Review (3)

The effect of socio-demographic characteristics on the

information-seeking behaviors of police officers

Idris Guclu and Ali Can Department of Security Science, Police Academy, Ankara, Turkey

Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to determine the information-seeking behaviors of police officers who work in police stations in the context of staying current. Leckie et al.’s (1996) model of the information-seeking behavior of professionals is tested. Design/methodology/approach – A quantitative research design was employed for data collection. The sample includes 642 cases. It is both descriptive and exploratory. Findings – Police officers first rely upon their personal knowledge and experience, then their colleagues and then official documents. On the other hand, they rarely consulted informants, libraries, journals, books, and attendance at conferences as information sources. There were significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their gender in the context of staying current. Lastly, the results of this study indicated that service years in policing and the roles in police station were significantly correlated with the information sources used by police officers regarding staying current. Originality/value – This study, being the first, provides a huge theoretical base for future studies. It contributes to the discipline of information science by validating a theoretical model in a different context. In addition, it contributes to public safety by understanding the frontline police officers’ information needs and information-seeking behavior. Keywords Organization, Turkey, Police culture, Police, Information sharing, Quality of policing Paper type Research paper

Introduction A current trend that has emerged as a result of the information age is information-seeking behavior. From individuals to large social institutions, information-seeking behavior is utilized to attain a wide variety of goals. Studies on human information-seeking behavior date back to shortly after Second World War (Wilson, 2000). According to Wilson (2000), the Royal Society Scientific Information Conference (1948) in London, the International Conference on Scientific Information (1958) in Washington, and the United Kingdom’s Advisory Council on Scientific Policy’s studies (1965) were the cornerstones for future information-seeking behavior studies.

In the early 1960s, researchers began to focus on the information-seeking behavior of scientists and scholars (Fisher and Julien, 2009; Anderson et al., 2001). Library information researchers in particular extended the concept of information-seeking behavior beyond that of scientist and scholar to other professions such as doctors, engineers, librarians, nurses, lawyers, teachers, clergy, as well as business-related occupations in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Fisher and Julien, 2009; Leckie et al., 1996). Information-seeking behavior quickly became one of the most frequently researched areas in the study of social information (Jarvelin and Vakkari, 1990; Kim and Jeong, 2006; Pettigrew and McKechnie, 2001). Finally, researchers have focussed on information-seeking behavior of professionals especially since the 1960s.

Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management Vol. 38 No. 2, 2015 pp. 350-365 © Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1363-951X DOI 10.1108/PIJPSM-12-2014-0132

Received 24 December 2014 Revised 17 March 2015 Accepted 18 March 2015

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/1363-951X.htm

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However, there are scant studies that explore information-seeking behavior in the policing field, which disable scholars to evaluate how police officers keep their information current. Congruent to this argument, recent studies highlight that police officers have some difficulties to obtain information sources and in circulating information regarding their job (Demircioglu, 2010; Kilic, 2010). Having a sense on the information seeking behavior of police officers is highly important because inadequate level of current information in the information process of policing field may adversely affect public security. The ability of police officers to serve the public is directly related to meeting their information needs. As found in Baker’s (2004) study, there is a need for studying the information-seeking behavior of police officers within a different context from that of most other professions. Therefore, any efforts that try to understand information-seeking behavior of police officers may have a vital importance in terms of enhancing public security by correctly canalizing police officers to keep their information current.

Given this context, the aim of this study is to understand the information-seeking behaviors of police officers who work in police stations in the context of keeping current. This study utilizes Leckie et al.’s (1996) model of information-seeking behavior of professionals. If the theoretical aspect of this model explains information-seeking behavior of police officers who work in police stations, this framework might be useful in further studies. This study might also provide researchers in the field of information science with a model to test on other public services, such as traffic unit servicing.

Literature review The area of information-seeking behavior is one of the most researched areas within the field of information science (Kim and Jeong, 2006). The information-seeking behavior of professionals is considered one of the more important concentrations under the umbrella of information-seeking behavior and the information-seeking behavior of engineers, health care providers, and scientists in particular has been studied more often by researchers (Leckie et al., 1996). These groups were selected because they are inclusive of many similar professions and represent a wide variety of contexts. For instance, engineers focus on technical products and health care providers focus on human clients (Leckie et al., 1996).

A study conducted by Von Seggern (1995) revealed that scientists first use their own collection of information then consult their colleagues and other friends. Cabrajec and Dukic’s (1991) results confirm this conclusion.

Flaxbart (2001) concluded that chemists and biochemists first use electronic journals through database systems due to their time-saving characteristics and convenient access to journals. However, Murphy’s (2003) study indicated that toxicologists, biochemists, and other scientists have difficulty regarding information-gathering tasks in terms of managing their time effectively. In another study, Majid et al. (2000) conducted a survey of 234 agricultural scientists. Accordingly, agricultural scientists consult print materials first to keep their knowledge up to date, then seek informal communication and consulting with their colleagues (Majid et al., 2000). Congruent to Majid and his colleagues’ findings, Nweke (1995) and Frank’s (1987) studies also revealed that agricultural scientists prefer informal communication rather than formal communication for gathering information. Similarly, according to Ellis and Haugan (1997), scientists first use their own collections and then consult their colleagues. They also prefer informal communication and the use of internal reports over journals.

Engineers are frequently researched professions in information-seeking behavior field. In this context, Yitzhaki and Hammershlag (2004) concluded that engineers prefer

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electronic textbooks and trade over promotional literature. In another study, focussing on engineers’ information sources, Fidel and Green (2004) interviewed 32 engineers and learned that engineers initially consult familiar sources, and prefer electronic sources over document sources. Leckie et al. (1996) also concluded that engineers consult their own collections first, and then their colleagues. In another study about engineers, Hertzum and Pejtersen (2000) concluded that engineers primarily consult their colleagues because it saves time for them. Therefore, colleagues shape the information- seeking behavior. In the same vein, Hertzum and Pejtersen (2000) and Kwasitsu (2003) conducted a study among engineers working in the design, process, and manufacturing divisions of an engineering company and found that engineers use their own collections before seeking out other alternatives.

Lawyers generally carry out four types of tasks: advocating, negotiating, drafting, and counseling (Mayer, 1966). According to Leckie et al. (1996), the work roles play a crucial role in determining the information-seeking behavior of lawyers. The type of organization in which lawyers work also influences their information-seeking behavior. If a lawyer works in a small firm, that lawyer needs to consult external information sources more often than a lawyer in a big firm who has access to the firm’s larger set of internal collections (Leckie et al., 1996; Wilkinson, 2001). Thus, a lawyer in big firm can meet their information needs through the firm’s internal collections.

The group of health care professionals has also attracted many scholars’ attention. Blythe and Royle (1993) conducted a study of a professional group of nurses revealing that nurses generally seek two main types of information for keeping up to date: one is information regarding the broader topics of nursing in general and another is information about the care of individual patients. Cogdill (2003) found that nurse practitioners primarily consult colleagues, textbooks, drug reference manuals, and protocol manuals. In contrast to Cogdill, McKnight’s (2007) results showed that the critical care nurses focus their attention on patient information above all else. Critical care nurses tended not to have the time or opportunity for seeking information through published sources while on duty.

Harrison et al. (2004) conducted a study of the information needs of social workers. Harrison et al. found that social workers lacking access to information resources, lack of internet access become one of the main obstacles in the work environment. Strother et al. (1986) studied the information needs of practicing dentists and found that the information-seeking behavior of dentists follows a similar systematic research pattern as that of nurses. The results of their study indicated that dentists prefer personal journal collections and professional colleagues for keeping their knowledge up to date on new techniques.

As noted above, a huge body of literature focusses on the information-seeking behavior of professionals. Professionals have many similarities with law enforcement officers in terms of information-seeking behavior and information need (Fisher and Julien, 2009). However, there are very limited studies on the information-seeking behavior of police officers until recent years and this issue has been attracted particular attention from researchers interested in security concerns. One of the first studies regarding the information-seeking behavior of police officers was conducted by Baker (2004). She examined the information-seeking behavior of undercover female vice- officers working undercover for controlling prostitution. Baker (2004) revealed that they, first, consulted their colleagues and then some official document (incident reports, etc.) as information sources. In addition, to meet their information needs they used both external and internal information sources. Aksakal (2005) examined the

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information-seeking behavior of undercover narcotics police officers in Dallas. He found that the undercover narcotics police officers have difficulties to obtain information. The police officers prefer to use departmental records, criminal histories, technical surveillance, informants, and open sources. They also are more voluntary to use internal information sources. Al-Daihani and Rehman (2007) explained the information literacy capabilities of police officers in Kuwait is based on the perceived value of the different information sources used.

Most recently, there are few valuable studies published out regarding the information-seeking behavior of police officers. Demircioglu (2010) revealed that crime scene investigators first consulted their own personal knowledge. Investigators with low educational level are more likely to look at their colleagues as a first primary information source. Kilic (2010) examined the effect of socio-demographic characteristics of police officers on the use of information sources in terms of their information literacy skills. He revealed that the number of years in police service and education has an important effect on the preference of information sources selection. Lastly, Yildirim (2010) examined the information-seeking behavior of digital evidence examiners and found that they most often consult technical journals as sources of information. In addition, Yildirim found that work environment also affect selection of information source.

Researchers have studied information-seeking behavior in a wide variety of professions for many years. However, the conceptualization related to a single profession’s information- seeking behaviors cannot be generalized to all other professions due to different work roles and tasks. The model presented by Leckie et al. (1996) aims to explicate general information-seeking behaviors of professionals. Even though the model is considered insufficient to explain all specific tasks in all contexts, it has strong potential to be a forerunner in future studies on this topic.

The greater portion of studies on information-seeking behavior is related to occupations in the general public ( Julien and Duggan, 2000). However, as noticed in the literature review, the studies related to policing are very limited in terms of information- seeking behavior. Policing as a profession includes many sub-branches, such as the traffic unit, forensic unit, community policing unit, anti-drug and smuggling unit, passport and immigration unit.

All professionals in policing have different structures, roles, tasks and information needs as well as different sources, all of which are essential to maintaining the social order both within the department and within the community they serve. Abraham Maslow’s (1970) hierarchy of needs highlights the importance of security. There are five levels of needs that motivate humans: physiological, safety and security, social and affiliative, esteem and recognition, and self-actualization. According to this order, safety and security is the second most important need to be fulfilled.

Information is important for the success of policing (Chen et al., 2004). Problem- oriented policing (POP) primarily identifies problems that need a wide range of information (Goldstein, 1990). POP is employing the Scanning, Analysis, Response, and Assessment (SARA) problem-solving model. The information seeking behavior of police officers governs each step process of the SARA model for effective crime prevention. The information collected by police officers leads to the development of a comprehensive problem solving plan. Some policing practices, such as counter-terrorism units, require rapid and accurate information owing to the risky nature of policing. In this sense, the information-seeking behavior of police officers deserves special attention from researchers.

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Taking together, the literature review of the information-seeking behavior of professions, including police officers, has some common and significant characteristics: professions try to find appropriate information to meet their needs even if it takes more than one attempt and there is a variation of information sources depending on work roles and tasks. Like other professionals, police officers tend to use informal communication rather than formal communication. Police officers that need to use coercive measures like seizures, wire-tapping in certain situations want to consult their own knowledge first as scientists, lawyers, and legal researchers do. The literature review also indicates that no study on the information-seeking behavior of police officers working in police stations has been conducted up to now. This study, to some extent, fills the gap in the literature of information-seeking behavior of police officers.

Methodology In this study, a quantitative methodology was used to explore the information needs and information-seeking behaviors of police officers in police stations. A primary cross- sectional sample was employed for the study. Considering the shortage of studies regarding the information-seeking behaviors of police officers in Turkey, this study also provides basic descriptive statistics and bivariate relationships between the interested variables and the outcome variable.

Like military organizations, the structure of the Turkish National Police (TNP) is very centralized. The General Director of Security governs the Turkish police forces under the auspices of the Ministry of the Interior. Turkey has 81 cities that their populations range from 100,000 to several millions. TNP has its subdivisions in every town of these cities (Ozcan and Gultekin, 2000). Therefore, police stations exist even small areas of cities. TNP has over 180,000 ranked and non-ranked police officers nationwide (Ozmen, 2008). According to Ozmen (2008), the total number of non-ranking police officers is 167,000 in the TNP. The ranking system for police officers’ in the TNP is based on varying background information, such as experience, education, administrative system, and different political agendas.

In order to maintain homogeneity of sampling, sample of this study includes only non-ranking police officers because there is no clear role variation in Turkish police stations due to the lack of stable defined responsibilities of police officers working in police stations. Paper-based surveys were utilized to secure higher response rate. The unit of analysis of the current study is police officers working in police stations in Turkey. The use of information sources for keeping up-to-date (ISKD) is the dependent variable. The study utilized the roles of police officers, education, service years in policing, service years in police stations, gender, and age as independent variables.

Sampling method In this study, the sample size was derived from a sampling frame by using simple random sampling because obtaining a complete list of all police stations and employee list throughout Turkey is very difficult, time consuming and expensive. The names of the cities in Turkey were listed and eight out of 81 cities were randomly selected. The TNP is a national, highly centralized organization. Training of officers, education, regulatory laws/rules, and recruitment are governed from TNP headquarter. For this reason, centrality of management provides uniformity to policing in Turkey. Each member of TNP is subject to rotation and will be assigned to a different area of Turkey at least three times throughout their professional career. The total number of surveys sent out was 791 with a response rate of 81 percent. There were 149 samples not taken

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into account owing to being incomplete, which in turn reduced sample size to 642. The sample size (n ¼ 642) is adequate to produce reliable hypothesis tests (i.e. t-test).

Data collection method A pilot test with police officers working in police stations was conducted beforehand. In this study, the α values indicate that there was a high internal consistency and reliability for information sources for keeping up to date (ISKD) (Cronbach’s α ¼ 0.888). The possible threat may be that the concept of information-seeking behavior may not be well defined in information science.

Data analysis The data first were analyzed with descriptive statistics to provide a picture of the data set. After a bivariate correlation matrix, multivariate statistical analyses consisting of one model were performed. In the model, the dependent variable general use of ISKD was regressed on the socio-demographic variables (education, the roles of police officers, service years in policing, service years in police stations, gender, and age).

Research questions and hypotheses This study addresses the following a research question and hypotheses:

R1. To what extent is there a relationship between the information sources used by police officers in the context of keeping up to date and their socio-demographic characteristics?

H1. There are significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their educational level in the context of keeping up to date.

H2. There are significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their service years in policing in the context of keeping up to date.

H3. There are significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their service years in police stations in the context of keeping up to date.

H4. There are significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their gender in the context of keeping up to date.

H5. There are significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their age in the context of keeping up to date.

H6. There are significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their roles in the context of keeping up to date.

Analysis and findings The use of information sources for staying current was measured with a scale of 23 items. In order to create the outcome variable, 23 items were summed and then averaged to create the new variable ISKD. The small values of standard deviations compared to mean values imply having normally distributed variables. It is ranging from a minimum score of 1.59 to a maximum of 4.73 with a mean score of 3.19 and a 0.61 standard deviation value. Table I, relating to use of information sources in the context of keeping up to date, indicates that police officers consult legal documents

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more often than any other information source with a 3.91 average score. The next most frequently used information source was their colleagues in their shift with a mean score of 3.72. Station commander (3.67), shift commander (3.66), and departmental manuals and guides (3.64) were also important information sources for police officers. In addition, in order to stay current, police officers working in police stations more often used the Police Network (POLNET) (3.62) and internet web sites (3.52) as compared to other sources. However, police officers consulted libraries as the least used information source for keeping up to date with a 2.25 average score. Table I also presents that printed journals (2.43), attendance at conferences (2.53), citizens (2.67), and books (2.78) were among rarely used information sources.

The average age is 33.96 years with a standard deviation of 6.81, and ranging from 20 to 55 years of age. The largest category of age group of police officers in police stations was the age group of 36-40 (27.7 percent). The second largest age group among police officers was between 26 and 30 (26.6 percent) followed by age groups 31-35 (21.8 percent), 25 and younger (10.1 percent), 46 and older (7.2 percent), and 41-45 (6.5). The rate of female police officers in the sample is (12.9 percent) (n: 83) and for male officers (87.1 percent) (n: 559).

The education level covered five categories: high school, college, university, master degree, and doctoral degree. In this study, no respondent had a doctoral degree. Half of the participants (50 percent) had a two-year college degree, about a third (34.6 percent) completed a four-year college, and 12.9 percent police officers with high school diploma.

The service years in policing was categorized in six groups based on five-year intervals. Over 78 percent of police officers have less than 15 years’ experience. In Turkey, five years’ experience qualifies an officer to be as an expert. Thus, almost

Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis

Legal documents (codes) 3.91 1.015 −0.708 −0.174 The colleagues in my shift 3.72 1.049 −0.486 −0.449 Station commander 3.67 1.215 −0.582 −0.688 My shift commander 3.66 1.069 −0.491 −0.485 Departmental manuals and guides 3.64 1.022 −0.457 −0.418 Police network (POLNET) 3.62 1.106 −0.460 −0.550 Official circulars and memos 3.56 1.048 −0.386 −0.511 Internet web sites 3.52 1.219 −0.421 −0.838 Personal files and folders 3.43 1.129 −0.306 −0.681 The colleagues in other shift 3.29 1.050 −0.060 −0.644 In-service training documents 3.24 1.079 −0.208 −0.560 Departmental archives 3.19 1.203 −0.135 −0.877 Governmental documents (e.g. official gazette) 3.12 1.202 −0.111 −0.932 Another shifts’ commander 3.09 1.095 0.042 −0.685 Prosecutor 3.07 1.388 0.009 −1.297 Mass media (newspapers, TV) 3.03 1.162 −0.121 −0.868 Books 2.78 1.101 0.123 −0.736 Databases (i.e. crime, personnel etc.) 2.77 1.159 0.199 −0.789 Citizens 2.67 1.221 0.170 −1.009 Attendance at conferences 2.53 1.033 0.330 −0.430 Printed journals 2.43 1.013 0.332 −0.517 Libraries 2.25 1.072 0.593 −0.304 Note: n ¼ 642

Table I. Descriptive statistics for use of information sources related to keep current

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75 percent of police officers can be considered experts. Service years in a police station were broken down by four-year intervals. Over 63 percent of police officers had a one to four years’ experience in police stations. It was followed by the group of five to eight years (21.3 percent). Approximately 40 percent of police officers had at least five and more years’ experience in a police station.

The data are obtained from the following cities in Turkey: Ankara, Bitlis, Diyarbakir, Kars, Kayseri, Samsun, Siirt, and Sivas. The city populations vary from approximately the hundreds of thousands to several millions. In this study, the lowest city population is Kars (126,127), and the highest, Ankara (4,513,921). Before performing the multivariate analysis for the variable context of keeping up to date and the variable conducting police station tasks, a bivariate correlation matrix was created to present the levels of linear relationships (bivariate only) between the dependent and independent variables.

Generally, the correlation coefficient can be interpreted as r values of o0.35 are low or weak, 0.36-0.67 modest or moderate, and 0.68-1.0 strong or high correlations (Taylor, 1990). In this sense, H2, H4 and H6 examine the relationship between the information sources used by police officers in the context of keeping up-to-date and their socio- demographic characteristics. First, there was a statistically significant positive linear relationship between the information sources used by police officers in the context of keeping up-to-date and their years policing (r ¼ 0.078, po0.05). That is, spending more years as a police officer, more frequent use of information sources, supporting H2. As presented in Table II, there was a statistically significant negative relationship between the information sources used by police officers and their gender in the context of keeping up-to-date (H4) (r ¼ −0.085, po0.05). H6 examines the relationship between the information sources used by police officers and their roles in the context of keeping up-to-date (r ¼ −0.129, po0.01).

Similarly, an independent samples t-test is used for analyzing H4. The hypothesis assumes that there are significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their gender in the context of keeping up-to-date. Both Tables III and IV indicate that there is a statistically significant difference between gender and the

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ISKD – Years in policing 0.078* – Years in police stations 0.077 0.627** – Age 0.067 0.933** 0.602** – Gender −0.085* 0.107** 0.113** 0.175** – Education 0.015 −0.405** −0.269** −0.376** −0.071 – Marital status 0.013 0.387** 0.248** 0.439** 0.027 −0.102** – Position in police station −0.129** 0.040 0.027 0.041 0.272** −0.075 −0.096* – Notes: **,*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 and 0.05 levels (1-tailed), respectively

Table II. Bivariate analysis

F t df Sig. (two-tailed) Mean difference

Equal variances assumed 1.386 2.148 640 0.032 0.154 Equal variances not assumed 2.020 103.7 0.046 0.154

Table III. Independent samples test: ISKD vs gender

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frequency of information sources used by police officers in the context of keeping up-to- date (t ¼ 2.148, po0.05). Thus, the results do support H4.

In the same vein, one-way ANOVA was employed in order to understand the relationship between education level and the information sources used by police officers in the context of keeping up-to-date (H1). The findings of Tables V and VI indicate that there are no significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their educational level in the context of keeping up-to-date (F ¼ 2.57, p ¼ 0.053). The value of η2 indicates that 1.2 percent of the variance was accounted for by educational level (η2 ¼ 0.012).

Table V also indicates that there is, to some extent, a significance difference between the master’s level and university (p ¼ 0.053). However, considering α 0.05 level, the results do not support H1. Since one-way ANOVA only reports whether there is a general difference between the categories of independent variable, an additional test is needed in order to see which categories of the independent variable significantly differ from each other. This step is basically conducting a t-test for the categories/groups of education level.

In this context, Table VI reports individual t-test results. Table VI displays the t-test results among the categories of education variable. As Table VI suggests, the only significant difference (even though it is not smaller than 0.05.) is between master-level graduates and the university/college graduates. More specifically, Master graduates have significantly higher level up to date information source compared to university graduates.

In order to examine the relationship between the roles of police officers working in police stations and their use of information sources, one-way ANOVA was utilized in this study. Tables VII indicates that there are significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their roles in the context of keeping up-to-date (F ¼ 3.80, p ¼ 0.002). The value of η2 indicated that 3 percent of the variance was accounted for by differing roles in the police station (η2 ¼ 0.030).

Gender n Mean SD

Female 83 3.24 0.65 Male 559 3.17 0.60

Table IV. Group statistics: ISKD vs gender

Sum of squares df Mean square F η2 Sig.

Between groups 2.89 3.00 0.96 2.57 0.012 0.053 Within groups 238.98 638.00 0.37 Total 241.87 641.00

Table V. ANOVA ISKD vs education level

ISKD score High school Two-year college University n Mean SD Mean D Sig. Mean D Sig. Mean D Sig.

High school 83 3.15 0.64 2-year college 321 3.22 0.58 0.07 0.85 University 222 3.14 0.64 −0.01 1.00 −0.07 0.60 Master degree 16 3.55 0.64 0.40 0.13 0.33 0.22 0.40 0.053*

Table VI. Multiple comparisons ISKD vs education levels

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Table VIII presents that the respondents performing different roles (M ¼ 3.056) in police stations reported a statistically significant different ISKD score than justice police officers (p ¼ 0.04). One-way ANOVA test suggests that there is a significant general difference between the categories of “roles police station” variable. Based on this result, we obtained Tukey test results, which report individual t-tests for the categories of the independent variable. Given this context, Table VIII reports that there is a significant difference between patrol officers and justice police officers at the 0.05 p level. Except patrol officers and the other roles in police stations, roles have no significant effect on ISKD scores. Finally, the results of Table VIII support H1.

The OLS model in Table IX attempts to estimate the impacts of education, gender, service years in policing, roles, and service years in police stations on the information sources used by police officers in the context of keeping up-to-date (ISKD). There was an overall 3.1 percent explained variation in the outcome variable (R² ¼ 0.031). That is, based on the F value in the model, at least one independent variable has a non-zero relationship with the dependent variable (F ¼ 4.010, po0.01).

Table IX clearly indicates that the only significant predictor in the model was “roles in police stations” when the other independent variables in the equation were taken into account (β ¼ −0.112). The remaining variables (gender service years in police stations, and education) were not significantly related to the dependent variable in this model. Table II indicated that age variable is highly correlated with service years in policing (r ¼ 0.933), therefore, age is excluded from the multivariate model in order to avoid multicollinearity.

Taken together, OLS regression model in Table IX attempt to estimate the impact of education, gender, service years in policing, roles, and service years in police stations on the information sources used by police officers in the context of keeping up to date. The outcomes of OLS regression indicated that (in the expected direction) the role of police officers had a statistically significant impact on the information sources used by police officers in the context of keeping up to date. However, the remaining variables did not have statistically significant effect on the outcome variable.

Discussion and conclusion The information-seeking behavior of police officers, to some extent, differed from other occupations regarding the context of keeping up to date. The findings indicated that the most frequently used information source was colleagues, followed by departmental manuals and guides, POLNET, and internet web sites.

The current study reports both bivariate findings and multiple regression (OLS) results for the study hypotheses. Even though “gender” and “roles in police station” were significantly related to the outcome variable, multiple regression suggests that the only significant predictor for the context of keeping up to date was “roles used by police officers.” In addition, the current study suggests an insignificant relationship between the information sources used by police officers and their educational level in terms of

Sum of squares df Mean square F η2 Sig.

Between groups 7.01 5 1.40 3.80 0.030 0.002 Within groups 234.86 636 0.37 Total 241.87 641

Table VII. ANOVA ISKD vs

roles in police station

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IS K D sc or e

A dm

in is tr at iv e of fi ce r

Ju st ic e po lic e of fi ce r

P at ro l of fi ce r

O ff ic er

on du

ty D is pa tc h of fi ce r

n M ea n

SD M ea n D

Si g.

M ea n D

Si g.

M ea n D

Si g.

M ea n D

Si g.

M ea n D

Si g.

A dm

in is tr at iv e of fi ce r

11 7

3. 23 5

0. 61 60

Ju st ic e po lic e of fi ce r

14 2

3. 35 3

0. 58 96

0. 11 7

0. 79 3

P at ro l of fi ce r

24 3

3. 14 1

0. 58 58

− 0. 09 4

0. 86 2

− 0. 21 2

0. 05

O ff ic er

on du

ty 49

3. 04 8

0. 60 58

− 0. 18 7

0. 65 7

− 0. 30 5

0. 10

− 0. 09 3

0. 97

D is pa tc h of fi ce r

16 3. 26 4

0. 72 67

0. 02 9

1. 00

− 0. 08 9

1. 00

0. 12 3

0. 99

0. 21 6

0. 91

O th er

75 3. 05 6

0. 67 00

− 0. 18 0

0. 55 1

− 0. 29 7*

0. 04

− 0. 08 5

0. 95

0. 00 8

1. 00

− 0. 20 8

0. 91

Table VIII. Multiple comparisons ISKD vs roles in police station

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staying current (H1). Likewise, Stefl-Mabry (2005) revealed that education had no effect on the choosing of information sources. Al-Daihani and Rehman (2007) also found no significant differences regarding use of information sources and educational level. Given the findings of other studies, the outcome variable can be more related to the task of the police officers carry out in their routine work. Another underlying reason can be the simplicity of task that police officers conduct; therefore, they may not feel enough motivation to keep their information current.

On the other hand, recent studies regarding information-seeking behavior in law enforcement conducted in Turkey found relationships in different directions. Kilic (2010), for instance, revealed that there was a positive relationship between education and the frequency of using information sources. Demircioglu (2010) also concluded that the educational level of crime scene investigators was highly correlated with the use of information sources related to staying current. Therefore, the results of this study were not consistent with the expected direction.

The number of years in police service is another important variable investigated in order to explore its effect on the use of information sources. This variable was called as “experiences” in some studies. The findings show that there were statically significant differences in the information sources used by police officers in the context of keeping up to date (H2). Brand-Gruwel et al. (2005) underscored important differences in the use of information sources between novices and experts in various professions. For example, they found that experts were more likely to evaluate the information compared to novices. Contrary to these studies, “years in police service” was not significantly associated with the dependent variable in the current study.

Aksakal (2005) pointed out that experience is an important part of information- seeking behavior of undercover professionals. For example, O’Connor’s (2003) studies indicated that the process of information-seeking behavior can be improved through experience, such as in the case of a bounty hunter and a submarine chaser. Lloyd (2007) also found that a significant relationship existed between years in service as a police officer and the use of information. Like Lloyd (2007), Kilic (2010) concluded that police officers with more experience had a stronger tendency to use information sources than less experienced police officers. According to bivariate analysis, the results showed that there were significant differences in the information sources used by police officers based on their experience in terms of keeping current (H5), however, the same relationship had been washed out by multiple regression. In this respect, there can be some reasons why experienced police officers are more likely to stay current by seeking information relative to novice police officers. The reason could be related to the experienced police officers’ position in work place. That is, they generally occupy the

B (SE) β

Years in policing 0.007 (0.005) 0.075 Years in police stations 0.007 (0.007) 0.053 Gender −0.118 (0.075) −0.065 Education 0.041 (0.037) 0.047 Roles in police stations −0.055** (0.020) −0.112 Model R2 0.031 Model F 4.010** Note: **po0.01

Table IX. OLS regression

results for information sources

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position in the police station as mentor or leader. Therefore, they used the information sources for helping novice police officers as well.

Policy implications The findings of this study provide a couple of implications. As noted, educational level did not correlate with the information sources used by police officers regarding staying current. On the other hand, bivariate results (one-way ANOVA), to some extent, indicates significant differences for the education-level variable. Therefore, this result may underline the importance of training programs for police officers. Certain education programs can be arranged to provide appropriate information sources for police officers in police stations in terms of keeping up to date. In addition to education, bivariate results of experience, age, and gender variables report significant results. Therefore, policy makers might make an adjustment to TNP’s organizational structure in order to encourage more experienced officers to mentor newer officers in the process of finding up to date information sources. The bivariate results also suggest that younger police officers were more likely to use the internet and POLNET than older officers. There are obvious advantages using these sources for both keeping up to date and for finding useful information. Thus, a policy might be created to encourage older police officers to take advantage of these powerful tools, including training programs teaching the use of computers and the internet.

Theoretical implication This study employed a model similar to Leckie’s and found similar results, that may contribute to the generalibility function of Leckie’s model to other countries One important contribution is to add to the literature review of future studies on information-seeking behavior related to police officers working in police stations as professionals and to professionals in general. Therefore, the study may create a stepping stone for scholars to study law enforcement and their information-seeking behavior. Context plays an important function in information-seeking behavior. The literature indicates that information-seeking behavior research has emphasized specific contexts, such as an individual’s situation and setting (Fisher and Julien, 2009). Fisher and Julien (2009) see context as dynamic and complex. For Kari and Savolainen (2007), context is a driving force of information seeking. Many factors may be contextual, such as the rules and structure of an organization or the behaviors of professionals. Fidel and Pejtersen (2004) argue that under defined boundaries, the expected information behavior may be easily analyzed in a particular context. Taken together, the findings of this study confirmed Leckie et al.’s (1996) concern about context. Based on the findings, future studies may provide a better understanding of task complexity and other professionals’ information-seeking behavior in different context for extending Leckie et al.’s (1996) model, and in turn, illuminate any unknown factors in the Information- seeking behavior of the professional.

Methodological implication Taking into account the complexity of human information behavior, many scholars argue that multiple methods are essential to fully grasp human information-seeking behavior. Simply using only qualitative or only quantitative research method designs is not enough to see the whole picture. It is necessary to use multiple approaches. In this sense, using a mixed method approach might be more helpful for a broad

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understanding of the information-seeking behavior of police officers. A mixed approach provides the researcher with two or more different research strategies for collecting data. This increases the validity of the data gathered from various sources. In this study, the use of information sources for staying current was measured with a scale of 23 items. The complexity of police tasks required the use of a variety of information sources. However, categorizing of information sources into six groups, as Leckie et al. (1996) proposed, may produce better outcomes.

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Corresponding author Professor Idris Guclu can be contacted at: [email protected]

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