Write a minimum of a 150-word express your thoughts and opinions on the Biological Implications of Social Networking

Social scientists recently reported that in less than two decades “the number of people saying there is no one with whom they discuss impor- tant matters nearly tripled”. The number of both kin and non-kin confidants is de- scribed as “dramatically smaller” (McPher- son et al, 2006).

Britons now spend approximately 50 minutes a day interacting socially with other people (ONS, 2003). Couples now

spend less time in one another’s company and more time at work, commuting, or in the same house but in separate rooms us- ing different electronic media devices. Par- ents spend less time with their children than they did only a decade ago. Britain has the lowest proportion of children in all of Europe who eat with their parents at the table. The proportion of people who work on their own at home continues to rise.

Biologist | Volume 56 Number 1, February 200914

Well connected? The biological implications of ‘social networking’

Title image: Man at computer. Photo:

Geoff Tompkinson/ SPL

Aric Sigman

One of the most pronounced changes in the daily habits of British citizens is a reduction in the number of minutes per day that they interact with another human being. Recent his- tory has seen people in marked retreat from one another as Britain moves from a culture of greater common experience to a society of more isolated experience. She is in good com- pany, as Americans too step back from one another in unprecedented magnitude.

The Office for National Statistics has just reported that “over the last two dec- ades the proportion of people living alone doubled”, a trend now highly pronounced in the 25-44 age group. For the first time in our history a third of the adults in this country live alone, a trend that looks set to continue.

Britain’s disinclination for togetherness is only equalled by her veneration of com- municating through new technologies. The rapid proliferation of electronic media is now making private space available in almost every sphere of the individual’s life. Yet this is now the most significant contributing factor to society’s growing physical estrangement. Whether in or out of the home, more people of all ages in the UK are physically and socially disengaged from the people around them because they are wearing earphones, talking or texting on a mobile telephone, or using a laptop or Blackberry. An increasing number of deaths caused by the wearers of MP3 play- ers inadvertently stepping into oncoming traffic has led to Senatorial proposals for a New York State ‘distracted walking bill’ to outlaw the use of mobile phones, handheld emailing devices such as Black- berries and video games while crossing a road. Senator Carl Kruger described how people walking around ‘tuned in’ were, in the process of being tuned in, being ‘tuned out’ to the world around them. The malady is referred to as “iPod oblivion”.

Eye and ear contact Children now spend more time in the family home alone in front of TV/computer screens than doing anything else (Sigman, 2007). A study by the Children’s Society recently found that television alone is dis- placing the parental role, eclipsing “by a factor of five or ten the time parents spend actively engaging with children”. Another ongoing study reports that 25% of British five-year olds own a computer or laptop of their own. In particular, the study noted an enormous increase in ‘social network- ing’ among younger children which “has overtaken fun (online games) as the main reason to use the Internet”. UK social-net- working usage is now the highest in Eu- rope. The trend is set to increase: the BBC has recently unveiled the social network- ing site MyCBBC directed at children as young as six.

Time that was previously spent inter- acting socially is increasingly been dis- placed by the virtual variety. A recent edi- torial of the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine made the timely point that

social networking “…encourages us to ig- nore the social networks that form in our non-virtual communities. … the time we spend socialising electronically separates us from our physical networks.” But why precisely should physicians be concerned about these changes in people’s actual contact and interaction with one another? Moreover, what does biology have to offer in understanding what appears at first sight to be a demographic phenomenon?

Genetic alterations Social connection, both objective and sub-

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The developing world is fast adapting to electronic communications as well.

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Figure 1. Hours per day of face-to-face social interaction declines as use of electronic media increases. These trends are predicted to increase (data abstracted from a series of time-use and demographic studies).

jective, is increasingly associated with physiological changes known to influence morbidity and mortality. However, the in- tricate mechanisms involved are only now being understood. Recent research at the UCLA School of Medicine on the social regulation of gene expression in leuko-

cytes, the small white blood cells of the human immune system, has reported the first evidence that social isolation is actu- ally linked to global alterations in human gene transcription in leukocytes. Tran- scription involves the transfer of genetic information from the DNA molecule to the messenger RNA.

DNA analysis identified 209 genes that were differentially expressed in circulat- ing leukocytes taken from subjects who re- ported high levels of social isolation versus those reporting low levels. The differences between the groups included the increased expression of genes involved in immune activation, transcription control, and cell proliferation, and the decreased expression of genes supporting the function of the leukocytes (mature B lymphocytes) and Type I interferon response. The research- ers found impaired transcription in genes, which is central to our bodies mounting an anti-inflammatory reaction to illness or stress, referred to as a glucocorticoid response. They also observed increased activity in the gene transcription control pathways that promote inflammation in disease and stress, and they now believe that this is a functional genomic explana- tion for the greater risk of inflammatory disease and adverse health outcomes in individuals who experience high levels of subjective social isolation (Cole et al, 2007).

Immunological changes Cytokines are compounds secreted by im- mune cells that have encountered a path- ogen, thereby activating and recruiting further immune cells to increase the sys- tem’s response to the pathogen. Changes in people’s social contact have now been linked to alterations in tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha); an important cytokine associated with tumour regres- sion and increased survival time for can- cer patients. In studying the relationship between social contact and TNF-alpha in patients with breast cancer, one team of researchers found that patients report- ing increased social activities or satis- faction exhibited stronger stimulated TNF-alpha responses. In ovarian cancer patients, patients’ degree of social support has been related to higher cytotoxicity in the Natural Killer (NK) cells circulating in the mononuclear cells of the patient’s peripheral blood. These peripheral-blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) are a critical component in the immune system, fight- ing infection and adapting to intruders. Higher cytotoxicity in the Natural Killer

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Some parts of the world still do not have access to email and the internet.

Differential Gene Expression in Lonely Individuals

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Figure 2. A total of 209 genes were differently expressed in circulating leukocytes of subjects experiencing high subjective social isolation, including up-regulation of genes involved in immune activation, transcription control, and cell proliferation, and down-regulation of genes supporting mature B lymphocyte function and type 1 interferon response. There was a statisti- cally significant net reduction in the number of expressed genes (131 down-regulated vs. 78 up-regulated, difference p<0.0001 by exact binomial test). (Adapted from Cole et al, 2007.)

(NK) cells was also found in immune cells that infiltrate tumours, referred to as tu- mour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL).

NKT cells are a rare group of lym- phocytes, small white blood cells in the immune system exhibiting anti-tumour activity. Lamkin et al (2008) recently re- ported that greater social support is re- lated to significantly higher levels of three distinct types of NKT cells in the tumours of ovarian cancer patients, and this may control the development of tumours.

Loneliness is being cited as causing low-grade peripheral inflammation which, in turn, is linked to inflammatory diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and autoimmune disorders (e.g. rheuma- toid arthritis, lupus). Attention has re- cently been drawn to the role of the cy- tokines macrophage migratory inhibitory factor (MIF) and the cytokine interleukin- 6 (IL-6) as underlying this process. Inter- estingly, regular religious group participa- tion is a significant predictor of elevated IL-6 levels and lower subsequent 12-year mortality.

Lack of social connection or loneliness is also associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease. The neuropeptide oxytocin is increasingly considered the ‘hormone of affiliation’, released in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid in response to eve- ryday aspects of human interaction such as somatosensory stimulation, hugging, touch, warm temperature – and it is also involved in feelings of trust and generos- ity. Oxytocin has recently been found to prevent detrimental cardiac responses including elevated resting heart rate, re- duced heart rate variability, and reduced parasympathetic regulation of the heart in adult female animals exposed to social isolation. This may be one of the central mechanisms that underlie the relation- ship between social contact, cardiovascu- lar disease or better cardiac function in humans.

In our sleep A study at the University of Chicago, using electrophysiological measures associated with REM and Non-REM sleep, found that loneliness predicts sleep efficiency – lone- ly people sleep less efficiently and spend more time awake. The authors conclude that sleep deprivation has profound au- tonomic, metabolic and hormonal effects and that this may account for differences between socially-isolated and connected individuals in morbidity rates. Poor sleep is now strongly linked to a wide variety of deleterious consequences. For example, a

study at Harvard Medical School conclud- ed that even short-term poor sleep resulted in elevated levels of high-sensitivity CRP [C-Reactive protein] concentrations, a sta- ble marker of inflammation that has been shown to be predictive of cardiovascular morbidity.

Morbidity Several decades of research has found that greater social contact is related to reduced morbidity while fewer contacts lead to in- creased morbidity. This relationship is val- id, independent of the individual’s earlier health status.

Rutledge et al (2008) recently reported that women with fewer social relationships experienced strokes at more than twice the rate of those with more social rela- tionships after adjusting for covariates: “Smaller social networks are a robust pre- dictor of stroke in at-risk women, and the magnitude of the association rivals that of conventional risk factors.” And a study en- titled Social Interaction Improves Experi- mental Stroke Outcome reported that so- cial interaction reduces intraischemic CRP concentration and decreases the tissue damage caused by the obstruction of the inflow of blood during a stroke, in male and female mice. High CRP can predict future strokes in humans.

Loneliness is found to be a unique pre- dictor of age-related differences in systo- lic blood pressure. And blood pressure for married adults – especially those happi- ly married – declines more during sleep than for single people who may therefore be at much greater risk of cardiovascular problems. In one experiment, in which men were challenged in order to increase their blood pressure, it was found that blood pressure returned to baseline levels

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What implications does the present rush for electronic networking have for traditional social relationships and networks?

more quickly in the men with more close friends.

In a rather crude way of looking at the benefits of having friends and families, Cohen et al (1997) exposed subjects to two rhinoviruses (RV39 and Hanks) and found that susceptibility to colds decreased in a dose-response manner: people with the most types of social bonds were the least susceptible, while those with one to three types of social relationships were over four times more likely to develop a cold than those people with six or more types. Others have found that loneliness and a small so- cial network are independently associated with poorer antibody response to influenza vaccine. “The mere existence of social ties, independent of loneliness was associated with immune response to influenza vacci- nation,” concluded the study.

Cases of dementia are expected to dou- ble within a generation. A coalition of leading researchers recently warned the Government that new methods of preven- tion and treatment must be found “or the NHS won’t survive the next 20 years”. At the same time, however, research con- ducted by the Harvard School of Public health has examined the influence of so- cial integration, including frequency of social interaction, on changes in memory in 16,638 subjects aged 50 and older. Er-

tel et al (2008) concluded that memory loss among the least integrated declined at twice the rate as among the most inte- grated. Others report that the frequency of social interaction is inversely related to the incidence of dementia and may protect against dementia. Furthermore, the risk of cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s Dis- ease was recently found to be more than double in lonely persons.

A positive relationship between the sheer amount of regular actual social con- tact and cognitive functioning has, how- ever, been found in a variety of age groups including younger adults. Most interest- ing is the intervention study by Ybarra et al (2008) in which participants who inter- acted socially for only 10 minutes showed improved cognitive performance, perform- ance equivalent to that displayed by par- ticipants engaged in so-called intellectual activities. The authors believe that not only do the results show that the effect is causal but that the process is very sensi- tive to only small amounts of social inter- action. They conclude: “Social interaction directly affects memory and mental per- formance in a positive way.”

Mortality The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition recently found that early retirement may be a risk fac- tor for all-cause and cardiovascular mor- tality in apparently healthy persons. Is there something about the lack of regular face-to-face social interaction that may explain this finding? Interestingly, a se- ries of studies have continued to find a sig- nificant reduction in mortality, independ- ent of confounding variables, in people who attend weekly religious services. However, simply showing up at church to ‘warm the pew’ may not be sufficient, as it is increas- ingly suggested that it is the underlying social interaction and connection amongst those who attend that influence mortality. And a 13-year prospective cohort study at the Harvard School of Public Health on the survival in older Americans concluded social activities are as effective as fitness activities in lowering the risk of death.

On the other side of the world, the Komo- Ise prospective cohort study in Japan finds that social networks are an important pre- dictor of mortality risk for middle-aged and elderly Japanese men and women. Lack of social participation for men, and being single and lack of meeting close rel- atives for women, were described as inde- pendent risk factors for mortality. In the United States, a cohort study of women

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Figure 3. Based on quantitative angiogram findings, subjects with smaller social networks had narrower arteries (mean angiogram stenosis value, 40.8 vs 27.2 for small vs. large social networks, respectively; (p<0.001) (adapted from Rutledge et al., 2004).

with suspected coronary artery disease (CAD) found those with larger social net- works had a consistent pattern of reduced CAD risk, including lower blood glucose levels, waist-hip ratios, rates of hyperten- sion and diabetes, and less severe CAD as measured by differences in narrowing of the arteries (angiogram stenosis val- ues 40.8 vs. 27.2 for small vs. larger so- cial networks). Mortality rates showed a dose-response pattern: women with small social networks showing more than twice the death rate (see Figure 3) (Rutledge et al, 2004).

Marriage and cohabitation The Office for National Statistics reports that the long-recognised protective effect of marriage against suicide has persisted over the past 25 years, despite changes in marriage patterns. Between 1983 and 2004, suicide rates for single people were around three times higher than for mar- ried people. For single women, the differ- ential with married women widened from just over two times to three times. Unfor- tunately, our marriage rate is at an all- time low.

Simply being single was associated with a higher risk of mortality, a prospective cohort study of 94,000 Japanese people found, and it concluded that merely being unmarried constitutes a potentially ad- verse health effect. However, according to a study by the Institute of Public Health in Denmark, cohabitation was the main fac- tor in regard to earlier death: individuals living alone experienced a significantly increased mortality compared to indi- viduals living with somebody, married or not. Looking at males, a prospective birth cohort study of all-cause mortality from age 40 to 49 years found a strong protec- tive effect at every age from being married compared with never being married or be- ing divorced/widowed. Moreover, this ef- fect occurred in a dose-dependent manner. By simply adding together the periods of time the man was married, the protective effects conferred by marriage were cumu- lative as were the deleterious effects of years being divorced. Most fascinating is that this cumulative effect is handed down from father to son, continuing to af- fect the rate of early death in subsequent generations and is “…significantly associ- ated with mortality risk in a dose-response pattern….an accumulative effect as each of the three non-married generations added to an increased mortality risk.” (Lund et al, 2006).

Remaining single has however been

found to offer one particular health benefit to women. American criminologists report the decline in marriage is responsible for a decline in the murder rate, as husbands now have fewer opportunities to kill wives. Conclusion While the precise mechanisms underlying the association between social connection, morbidity and mortality continue to be in- vestigated, it is clear that this is a growing public health issue for all industrialised countries. A decade ago, a detailed classic study of 73 families who used the internet for communication, The Internet Paradox, concluded that greater use of the internet was associated with declines in commu- nication between family members in the house, declines in the size of their social circle, and increases in their levels of de- pression and loneliness. They went on to report “both social disengagement and worsening of mood...and limited face-to- face social interaction … poor quality of life and diminished physical and psychologi- cal health” (Kraut et al, 1998).

Children are now experiencing less social interaction and have fewer social connections during key stages of their physiological, emotional and social devel- opment. An increasing proportion of men and women are living alone during their ‘mating years’ having far fewer social con- tacts. And as the greying of the population continues, the incidence and effects of so- cial isolation are pronounced.

While physicians and their professional bodies regularly advise and admonish pa- tients and the public on intimate matters including the number of sexual partners the individual has, encouraging people to ‘interact more’ or to pair-up for the sake of their health seems intrusive. Indeed en- quiring about a woman’s relationship status and pointing to the health risks of remain-

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Studies in Japan indicate that social networks are an important predictor of mortality risk.

ing single, living alone would be considered impertinent – and politically inadvisable.

This however is precisely where biolo- gists can play a pivotal role. By making the abstract concept of social connection and its effects more concrete and meas- urable, biology may finally provide the key to public awareness. Presiding over a growing body of evidence, we should now explain the true meaning of the term ‘so- cial networking’. At a time of economic re- cession our social capital may ultimately prove to be our most valuable asset.

References Cohen S et al (1997) Social ties and susceptibility to

the common cold. Journal of the American Medical Association. 277:1940-1944.

Cole S W et al (2007) Social regulation of gene ex- pression in human leukocytes. Genome Biology. 8: R189

Ertel K A, Glymour M and Berkman L F (2008) Ef- fects of Social Integration on Preserving Mem- ory Function in a Nationally Representative US Elderly Population. American Journal of Public Health. 98(7): 1215-1220

Kraut R et al (1998) Internet Paradox: A Social Tech- nology That Reduces Social Involvement and Psy- chological Well-Being? American Psychologist. 53, 9, 1017-1031

Lamkin D M (2008) Positive psychosocial factors and NKT cells in ovarian cancer patients. Brain Be- havior and Immunity. 22(1):65-73.

Lund R, Christensen U, Holstein B E, Due P and Osler M J (2006) Influence of marital history

over two and three generations on early death. A longitudinal study of Danish men born in 1953. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 60(6):496-50

McPherson M, Smith-Lovin L and Brashears M E (2006) Discussion networks over two decades. American Sociological Review. 71: 353-375.

Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2003) Volun- teers, Helpers and Socialisers: social capital and time use.

Rutledge T et al (2004) Social networks are associat- ed with lower mortality rates among women with suspected coronary disease: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-Sponsored Women’s Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation study. Psychoso- matic Medicine. 66(6):882-8.

Rutledge T et al (2008). Social networks and incident stroke among women with suspected myocardial ischemia. Psychosomatic Medicine. 70(3):282-7

Sigman A (2007) Visual Voodoo: The Biological Im- pact of Watching Television. Biologist. 54(1) 14-19

Ybarra O et al (2008) Mental exercising through simple socializing: Social interaction promotes general cognitive functioning. Personality Social Psychology Bulletin. 34:248-259.

Aric Sigman is a Member of the IOB, Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society. He has travelled to various cultures, including North Korea, Bhutan, Tonga, Myanmar, Iran, Korea, Vietnam, Mali, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Sumatra, Cambodia and Eastern Siberia to observe the influence of electronic media. Email: [email protected]

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Note: A full list of papers for further reading about this topic is available from the editor: [email protected]

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