Road Rage Paragraphs.

Reducing Road Rage: The Role of Target

Insight in Advertising for Social Change

JIM CRIMMINS

DDB Chicago

[email protected]

CHRIS CALLAHAN

Demand Consulting

[email protected]

Billions of dollars are spent in advertising for sociai change yet much of it is reported

to be ineffective because of a iack of insight into the target audience. We iiiustrate

the value of target insight in guiding advertising for social change with a focus on road

rage, the aiways rude and often dangerous expression of anger on the highway. We

add to the limited research in the field a new body of data about people who are

prone to road rage. Target insight suggests a strategy for advertising to reduce road

rage including who to talk to, what to say, and where, when, and how to say it.

ADVERTTSTNG TO BRING ABOUT social change is

tough. In addition to all the challenges of conven-

tional advertising, social advertising is beset by its

own unique challenges. Social advertising often

addresses target audiences that have no interest in

the offering, such as 6th graders who are urged to

visit the Library of Congress website. Social ad-

vertising often faces uncooperative intermediar-

ies, such as insurance agents who inhibit attempts

to promote federal flood insurance because they

resist adding flood insurance to their product

offering. In addition, social advertising programs

are often managed by physicians, lawyers, scien-

tists, law enforcement specialists, etc., who may

be familiar with medical, political, scientific, or

law enforcement issues but are unfamiliar with

advertising (Bloom and Novelli, 1981).

Despite the challenges, advertising for social

change is big business. We as a society have

decided that advertising is a tool we will use to

address social ills. In 2002, Congress funded a

multiyear effort by the Center for Disease Control

to promote exercise among 9 to 13 year olds with

$125 million in funding for marketing activities in

the first year. Antidrug advertisements aimed at

kids have been supported by $600 million in tax

dollars in the last few years. In addition to paid

advertising, the National Association of Broadcast-

ers estimates that in 2001, member stations pro-

vided time worth $6.6 billion to public service

a n nouncemen ts.

Atkin and Freimuth (2001) tell us, however, that

"public communication campaigns have achieved

a mixed record of effectiveness in influencing health

and prosocia! behavior" (p. 125). The ineffective-

ness may result, in part, from lack of insight into

the target audience. Atkin and Freimuth feel that

the absence of a research foundation, including

background information on the target audience, is

a common problem in ineffective campaigns. Ac-

cording to Andreasen (1995), understanding the

target's needs and wants is what separates social

marketing programs that really work from those

that should work (p. 48).

To illustrate the use of target insight to guide

ad\ertising strategy for social change, we focus

on reducing road rage. We draw upon existing

research and a new body of data about people

who are prone to road rage. We examine precipi-

tating factors, underlying causes, the needs and

desires of those prone to road rage, and moti\'a-

tions for alternative behavior.

ROAD RAGE

Road rage is an expression of anger at another person in traffic. Our tear and fascination with road rage are demonstrated by dozens of maga- zines articles, newspaper stories, books, and even

DOI: 10.1017/S002184990303040X D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 3 JOUflllflL OF flOUERTISIflB BESEflRCH 3 8 1

ROAD RAGE

Congressional hearings on the subject (e.g.,

Adler, 1997; Bmsstield, 1998; Bryan, 1997;

Ctn'chvhi Plain Dealer, 1997; FerguHOn, 1998;

Larson 1997; Lusctech, 1997; Martinez,

1997; Nicodemus, 1998; Russell, 1997; Spin-

ney, 1997).

Despite our fear and fascination with road

rage, there is a limited amount of research

on the subject. We add to the existing re-

search an examination of those who ex-

hibit a crude and common display of anger

on the road: giving "the finger" while driv-

ing. These data are from the DDB Life St\'le

study, which has been conducted annually

since 1975. Fora thorough discussion of the

strengths and weaknesses of the study and

a stringent comparison of the DDB Life Style

Study with the General Social Survey, sec

Putnam (2000, pp. 420-24).

Each year respondents in the DDB Life

Style Study are asked "how often during

the past 12 months, have you, yourself,

engaged in . . ." each of about 150 activ-

ities. Survey participants respond with a

7-point scale running from "none in past

year" to "32 or more times." The survey

also includes a wide range of questions

on attitudes, interests, opinions, product

use, and demographics. During the years

1997-2000, one of the activities in the

survey was "Gave 'the finger' to some-

one while driving my car." We ha\'e

pooled respondents under 75 years of

age from the four annual surveys from

1997 to 2000 giving us a total sample of

13,300 respondents.

PRECIPITATING FACTORS

One of the most common explanations

for road rage, and one given by Ricardo

Martinez, M.D., Administrator, National

Highway Traffic Safety Administration, is

traffic congestion (Martinez, 1997). If con-

gestion is a primary cause, people who

live in areas with hea\y traffic should

express road rage more frequently than

those who live in rural areas. However,

the average frequency of giving "the fin-

ger" while driving is about the same in

rural areas, suburbs, small cities, and big

cities (Figure 1). Congestion does not ex-

plain road rage. (To calculate the mean

frequency, each response is assigned the

value of the midpoint of the response

interval. The highest response, "52 or

more," was assigned a value of 52.)

If not congestion, what does cause road

rage? What gets drivers so angry they

will give "the finger" or even inflict vio-

lence on another driver? In 1997, the AAA

reported on what makes people angry on

tlie road. Although 50 percent said traffic

jams make them angry, other reasons were

cited much more frequently. Eighty-two

percent said being cut off makes them

angry, 80 percent said tailgating, 69 per-

cent cited slow drivers while 66 percent

said fast drivers (EPIC-MRA, 1997).

Mizell & Company, in a study spon-

sored by the AAA Foundation for Traffic

Safety, examined over 10,000 police re-

ports and newspaper stories about inci-

dents of road rage that turned violent.

The reasons perpetrators give for violence

on the road re\'eal the usually personal

Non-MSA 50,000-499,999 500,000-1.999,999 2,000,000-f

Population Density

Note: F{3,13213) = 0.51; p = 0.676

Figure 1 Population Density Has Little Effect on Giving "the Finger" While Driving

3 8 2 mmi Qf fiDyefiiisiiiG December 2003

ROAD RAGE

and trivial nature of the precipitating

events. The most common reasons offered

by the violent drivers included: "Nobody

gives me 'fhe finger' "; "The bastard kept

honking and honking his horn. . ."; "It

was an argument over a parking space. . ."

(Mizell, 1997).

If appears that anger on the road is less

a response to traffic congestion and more

a response to the perceived willful actions

of others that endanger or offend us, that

"insult" our safety or self-image. Road

rage is personal.

Insults to our safety and self-image while

driving are common. The Automobile As-

sociation of Great Britain surveyed British

drivers and found that 62 percent experi-

enced aggressive tailgating, 59 percent had

lights flashed at them by other motorists

who were annoyed with them, 48 percent

received aggressive or rude gestures, 21

percent were deliberately obstructed or

prevented from maneuvering their vehi-

cle, and 16 percent received verbal abuse

(joint, 1997).

Despite all the "insults" suffered by

motorists on the road, however, only 28

percent of all adults according to the DDB

Life Style Survey admit to giving some-

one "the finger" while driving in the past

year. Why are some of us more likely to

express our anger with a crude gesture?

The answer lies in those personal charac-

teristics that affect how we respond to

insult.

ROOTS

Gi\'ing someone "the finger" while driv- ing is something most people do rarely if ever and the number of people exhibiting the behavior at higher frequencies de- clines rapidly and smoothly. Given this distribution, which is common in count data, a negative binomial regression was used to examine the relationship of this behavior with demographic variables and other factors. The model used and the

parameter estimates are described in the are more likely to exhibit this behavior

Appendix. than women.

Gender

It is probably no surprise that men re-

spond more aggressively to perceived in-

sult than women. Thirty-five percent of

men have given someone the finger while

driving in the past year while 21 percent

of women have engaged in this behavior.

The mean frequency among men is 3.0

times, more than twice as high as women,

whose mean frequency is 1.4. A difference

of this size would occur by chance less

than once in 10,000. This level of signifi-

cance applies to ail the comparisons cited

in this paper. While men are much more

likely to give someone "the finger" at all,

among those who have given someone

"the finger" while driving, the frequency

among women (6.9 times in past year) is

almost as high as the frequency among

men (8.8 times in the past year).

While the "finger" from a driving fe-

male is not uncommon, violence from a

driving female is rare. Of the 10,037 traf-

fic incidents that resulted in violence re-

viewed by Mizell (1997), the gender of

the perpetrator was known in 9,509 of fhe

cases. In 96 percent of these cases, the

perpetrators were male.

Age

The impact of age on propensity to road

rage is even more dramatic than that of

gender. Figure 2 displays for men and

women by age the average frequency of

giving someone "the finger" while driv-

ing. The average frequency is about five

times higher among men 18-24 than

among men 60-64. The a\ erage frequency

among women 18-24 is 10 times higher

than among women 60-64. The frequency

of giving "the finger" while driving de-

clines rapidly in one's 20s and 30s and

more slowly thereafter. At every age, men

Education

Those with a college degree have a lower

propensity toward road rage. Controlling

for other factors, the frequency of giving

someone the finger while driving is 45

percent higher among those without a

college degree. Figure 3 displays the av-

erage frequency by age among men who

have and men who do not have a college

degree.

income

An above-median household income does

not reduce the tendency toward road rage.

Controlling for other factors, the fre-

quency of giving someone the finger while

driving is about the same whether a per-

son's income is above the median or below.

Gender, age, and education have a strong

effect on road rage. Most people, how-

ever, regardless of gender, age, or educa-

tion, do not give someone "the finger"

while dri\'ing. What factors beyond gen-

der, age, and education explain the pro-

pensity toward road rage?

Externai pressures

Those concerned with road rage have sug-

gested that it is a response to feelings of

pressure, powerlessness, and frustration. Dr.

Arnold Nerenberg, Director of Mentai

Health Services Corporation, Whittier, Cal-

ifornia, said " . . . many peoplesay they are

feeling more stress in their daily lives—

there's more divorce, child-care issues in

two-career families, less job security. You've

got someone who may feel powerless and

frustrated in many aspects of their life—

a nd now they're behind the wheel of a 3,000

pound vehicle" (Free, 1997). In Mizell's anal-

ysis of thousands of reports of road rage,

he concludes, "While the event that sparks

the incident may be trivial, in every case

there exists some reservoir of anger, hos-

D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 3 JDyflflHL OF fiDllEflTISIfiG RESEflRCH 3 8 3

ROAD RAGE

tility, or frustration that is released by the

triggering incident" (Mizell, 1997).

The suggestion seems accurate. After

controlling for age, gender, and educa-

tion, the frequency of road rage is indeed

higher for those who feel pent up pres-

sure. We created a simple scale of pent up

pressure tliat was defined as the number

of the following statements agreed to by a

respondent:

"1 feel under a great deal of pressure

most of the time."

"My opinions on things don't count

very much."

Road rage in any form, from rudeness to violence, is a

violation of expected restraint, a breach of proper social

behavior.

"If I had my life to live over, I'd sure

do things differently."

Controlling for age, gender, and educa-

tion, the expected frequency of giving

someone "the finger" while driving is 32

percent higher among people who agree

with any one t>f fhe statements. (See the

7-

6

ng e

Ig

5

o "S 4 o

3

^ o

2

** 2^

—•— Men —•— Women

18-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 Age

F i g u r e 2 A v e r a g e F r e q u e n c y o f G i v i n g t h e F i n g e r

384 JOyROflL OF ROUFHTISIflG RESEflflCH December 2003

Appendix.) Agreement with two or more

statements raises expected frequency still

further.

Our values

However, those concerned with road rage

have missed an important fact. The ten-

dency toward road rage arises not only

from what we endure in life, but also

from what we want out of life, our values.

Road rage in any form, from rudeness

to violence, is a violation of expected re-

straint, a breach of proper social behavior.

People who value the absence of restraint

more frequently exhibit road rage.

Those who resist restraint in their pur-

suif of excitement, who say they "would

try anything once," and "like the feeling

of speed," are less restrained in their re-

sponse to insult and more likely to re-

spond with a crude expression of anger.

After controlling for age, gender, and ed-

ucation, the expected frequency of giving

someone "the finger" while driving is 38

percent higher among people who agree

with either of those two statements.

Those who desire freedom from the re-

straint of traditional rules or formal reli-

gion are also less restrained in expressions

of anger while driving. Controlling for

age, gender, and education, the expected

frequency of giving someone "the finger"

while driving is 32 percent higher among

pe()ple who agree with any of the follow-

ing statements:

"People should live together before

marriage."

"I am in favor of the legalization of

abortion."

ROAD RAGE d

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er

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S a v e

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8,00-.

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5.00-

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18-24

—^— Not College Graduates • College Graduates

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25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65 & Over Age

Figure 3 Men: Average Number of Times Gave the Finger, by Age and College Graduation Status

"T am in favor of the legalization of

marijuana."

"I am in favor of the legalization of

doctor assisted suicide."

"Religion is an imptirtant part of my

life." (disagree)

The connection between what one wants

and how one acts is also seen when we

compare how people want to be per-

ceived and the frequency with which they

give others "the finger" while driving.

Men and women who would like to

bc seen by others as aggressive, ad-

venturous, or outspoken respond more

aggressively to insults and more fre-

quently give others "the finger" while

driving. The expected frequency of dis-

playing that crude sign of anger while

driving is 20 percent higher among

people who would like to be seen as

aggressive, adventurous, or outspoken

even after controlling for age, gender, and

education.

Road rage is not just the result of im-

petuous youthfulness, gender, or lack of

education. Road rage is the result of how

we feel about life. Yes, a feeling of pent

up pressure does increase the tendency to

anger on the road as has been hypoth-

esized. But at least as important as pent

up pressure is the value we place on

freedom from restraint and how we want

to be perceived by others. Road rage re-

flects our values,

MOTiVATiNG ALTERNATiVE BEHAViOR

We cannot change people's age or gender.

Giving more people a college education,

helping them feel less powerless, pres-

sured, or frustrated is difficult. Can we

help them feel more comfortable with re-

straint? We can if we make the reward of

restraint more salient or, more accurately,

if we make the penalty for lack of re-

straint more palpable. We may be able to

reduce road rage by changing the out-

come people expect from road rage.

People who express their anger to-

ward another person in traffic with a

vulgar "flip of the bird" expect that noth-

ing negati\'e will happen. And, in one

respect, they are probably right. It is ex-

tremely unlikely that any individual ex-

pression of road rage will lead to

involvement in violence. The target has

already engaged in this behavior repeat-

edly without incident. Furthermore, be-

cause those pnme to road rage pride

themselves on being adventurous, warn-

ings of the danger of violent conse-

quences will have little effecf.

On the other hand, a different negative

outcome, one which is near certain and

still painful, has been given far too little

attention.

The same people who express them-

selves with their middle finger while driv-

ing want to be seen as capable, intelligent,

and fun-loving. In fact, as is clear from

Figure 4, among men prone to road rage.

D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 3 JOUBOfiL OF flOUERTISlOG flESEflflCfl 3 8 5

ROAD RAGE

Capable Intelligent Fun-Loving Adventurous Aggressive Demanding

Figure 4 Men Prone to Road Rage (gave someone "the finger" while driving in the past year, 1998, 1999, and 2000 studies combined; n = 1,445) Want to be Seen as Capable, Intelligent, and Fun-Loving Much More Than They Want to be Seen as Adventurous, Aggressive, and Demanding (Top 2 Box Agreement)

the desire to be seen as capable, intelli- gent, and fun-loving far outweighs their desire to be seen as aggressive, adventur- ous, or outspoken. It is the same for women. Therein lies what may be the cure for road rage. What the target wants out of life can increase road rage, but it may also help control it.

When people online were asked to give one word to describe drivers wlio give

the finger while driving, negative descrip- tions outnumbered positive descriptions 217 to 7. The most common descriptions were "foolish" and "pathetic."

It seems that the most likely outcome of raising your middle finger to another driver is that you lower yourself in the estimation of all observers. In others words, giving someone "the finger" while driv- ing labels you a loser.

REDUCING ROAD RAGE

Conventional wisdom suggests we reduce

road rage by reducing traffic congestion or

that we accept road rage as inevitable be-

cause it is a natural result of a society that

makes individuals feel pressured or pow-

erless. The first suggestion will not work

because congestion has little to do with road

rage. The second suggestion is the counsel

of despair. Understanding the behaviors,

needs, and wants of those prone to road

rage offers a communication solution that

is more within our reach.

Who to target

We need to target young people, urban

or rural, especially young men because

they are most prone to road rage and

their expressions of anger on the high-

way are more likely to lead to violence.

They respond aggressively to perceived

insult. They likely feel pressured and a

bit frustrated with their lives but they

want to feel unrestrained and assertive.

They place a great deal of importance on

how they appear to others, and they want

to be seen as fun-loving and intelligent

even more than they want to be seen as

assertive.

What to say

Rather than describing proper driving be-

havior or attempting to frighten drivers

with the unlikely, physical dangers of road

rage, we need to raise the salience of the

embarrassment that will almost surely fol-

low. These young men want very much

to be seen as capable, intelligent, and fun-

loving but their failure to contain their

rage on the road will make them appear

foolish and pathetic. The most powerful

deterrent to road rage will be the damage

it might do to one's image.

If people who are prone to road rage

are to maintain their cool, it will be be-

cause, by doing so, they can avoid social

disapproval. Advertisers have a long and

3 8 6 December 2 0 0 3

ROAD RAGE

Advertisers have a long and successful history of using

the fear of social disapproval to change behavior.

successful history of using the fear of

sociai disapproval to change behavior.

Whole categories of products have come

about to help us avoid embarrassment—

room deodorizers, personal deodorant, de-

odorant soap, dandruff shampoo, and

breath-fresbening mouthwash, toothpaste,

gum, mints, aerosols, and strips.

The danger of embarrassment from

home odor, body odor, dandruff, or bad

breath is real. Advertising made that dan-

ger much more salient and changed soci-

ety's behavior as a result. Similarly, the

danger of embarrassment from expres-

sions of anger on the road is real, and

advertising can make that danger much

more salient and change the behavior.

When and where to say it

Road rage is impulsive, not considered.

The most effective reminder will be clos-

est to the point of impulse. That is why

grocers put candy bars and gum at the

check-out counter. Radio and outdoor ad-

vertising offer a natural opportunity to

reach elusive, mobile young people at tbe

time when they are behind the wheel and

susceptible to the road rage impulse.

How to say it

The expression of anger on the highway is a spontaneous reflex. Logical arguments are not likely to influence such spontane- ous behavior. Reducing road rage requires interrupting that reflex by building an in- stantaneous, preconscious connection be- tween road rage and embarrassment. The fear of embarrassment can cause a hesita- tion in the road rage impulse, but, to do so, tbe fear of embarrassment has to be just as spontaneous. Building an instantaneous.

preconscious connection between road rage

and embarrassment requires messages pair-

ing the two that are provocative and fre-

quent. The less frequent tbe messages, the

more provocative the messages need to be.

Billions are spent in advertising for so-

cial change. We can spend those dollars

most effectively if, in deciding who we

talk to, what we say and when, where

and how we say it, we are guided by

insigbt into the behavior, needs, and wants

of our potential audiences,

JIM CHIMMINS IS chief strategic officer of DDB Chicago

and a Worldwide Planning Director for DDB. He has a

doctorate in sociology and a masters in statistics

from the University of Chicago and has 25 years of

experience in the use of communications for behav-

ioral change.

CHRIS CALLAHAN IS the director of the Analyticai Re-

sources Group, Demand Consulting. She has a doctor

ate in industrial/organizational psychology from the

University of Iliinois at Chicago and has 13 years of

experience in marketing strategy.

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ADLER, JKRRY. "Road Rage: We're Driven to

Destruction." NcTr'^iivek Mn^az'iuc, June 2, 1997.

ANDREASEN, ALAN R. Mnrkfting Social Cliiiii>ic.

San Francisco: (ossey-Bass Publishers, 1995.

ATKIN, CMARLKS K,, and VICKI S. ['RE:IMLITII.

"Formative Evaluation Research in Campaign

Design." In Pubiic Coinniiiiiication Campaigns,

3rd edition, Ronald E. Rice and Charles K.

Atkin, eds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sa^e Publica-

tions, Inc., 200t.

BLOOM, PAUL N . , and WILLIAM D . NOVELLI.

"Problems and Challenges in Social Market-

ing." lourual of Marketing 45, 2 (1981): 79-88.

SSE-IHLD, MiKt. "Bicyclist Shoots Driver Three

Times." SI. Petersburg Times, December tO, 199S.

BRYAN, BILL. "Angry Driver Ran Over Pedes-

trian, Police Say." St. Louis Post Dispntch, Sep-

tember 26, 1997.

CLEVELAND I\A]N DEALER. "Witness Says An-

gry Driver Killed Bicyclist." April 29, 1997.

EPIC-MRA. Michigan Research Associates Poll

#52, Juiv 1997.

FI':RGUSON, ANDREW. "Rond Rage," Time, janu-

arv 12, 1998.

FRKF, CATMV. "Interview with Arnold Neren-

berg." People Magazine, September !, 1997.

JOINT, MATTHEW. "Road Rage," Aggressive Driv-

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LARSON, |OEIN A. Steeriiig Clear ofHighwiiy Mad-

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1997.

LusETECii, ROBERT. "Driven to Insanity," World

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MAKTFNFZ, RICARDO, Testimony before the Si,ib-

committee on Surface Transportation of the

Committee on Transportation and Infrastruc-

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ROAD RAGE

lure, U.S. House of Keprt'sentatives, July 19,

1997.

MlZELU, LOUIS R., JR. "Aggressive Driving."

Aggressive Driving: Three Studies. Washington,

DC: AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, March

1997.

NicoDEMLS, CiiARLts. "Cops Target Road

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1997.

SPINNEY, LAURA. "Dri\'en Crazy." The Guardian,

August 25, 1997.

APPENDIX Model

Frequency of

giving "the finger"

while driving

F

=

=

Constant

QBO

X Impact of

being male X

Impact of

age

gB^Age-i

X

Impact of

no college

degree

X

Impact of

income below

the median

ea.

Negative Binomial Regression Results

Variable

Constant

Male

Age

No college degree

Below median income

Parameter Estimate

.6667 (Bo)

.7023 {Bl}

68.2418(82)

.3745 (63)

-.0454 (B4)

Standard Error

.1314

.0540

3.6686

.0598

.0561

Probability of

Occurring by Chance

<.OOO1

<.OOO1

<.OOO1

<.OOO1

. 4 1 7 9

Impact of Demographics

Being male rather than female

Being 25 rather than 50

Having no college degree

+102%

+292%

+45%

3 8 8 Of fIDUERTISIIlG RESEflfiCfl D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 3

ROAD RAGE

Negative Binomial Regression Results with Perceptual Factors

Probability of

Variable Parameter Estimate Standard Error Occurring by Chance

Constant -2.4746 .1309 '^•99.9}:

Male vs. female .7519 .0599

Age .5J',4824

No college degree -2690 P.̂ ^ 99}.

Pent up pressure .2739 .0313 1::99.9^.

Pursuit of stimulation .3206 .0415 ^:9.99}-_

Freedom from traditional restraint ,2788 .0197 ^:999.'h

Desire for an assertive image .1828 .0302

Impact of Perceptual Factors

Pent up pressure +32%

Pursuit of stimulation +38%

Freedom from traditional restraint +32%

Assertive image +20%

December 2003 LQF 3 8 9