Team Creativity

CHAPTER OUTLINE What Is Creativity? Why Study Creativity? Myths about Creativity Barriers to Group and Team Creativity Principles of Group and Team Creativity Techniques for Enhancing Group and Team Creativity OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you will be able to: Define creativity. Identify reasons for studying creativity. List and describe three myths about group and team creativity. Identify barriers to group and team creativity. Identify principles that enhance group and team creativity. Describe and effectively use brainstorming, the nominal-group technique, the Delphi technique, electronic brainstorming, and the affinity technique. Kutol, the company that made the product “Magic Wallpaper Cleaner” since the early 1900s, was in trouble. Because fewer people were heating their homes with coal, there was less of a need for the flour-based paste used to clean wallpaper. Sales were plummeting. By the mid-1950s the company was barely making it. But that’s when Joe McVicker, son of the founder of the company, heard his sister-in-law complain that she couldn’t find modeling clay for her young elementary school students. Joe wondered, “Could our Magic Wallpaper Cleaner be used as modeling clay?” He sent his sister-in-law some of his product and history was made. The dough was perfect for the children to play with. You now know it as Play-Doh. Joe McVicker became a millionaire by the time he was 27.1 Although it sometimes happens by chance, you never know where that great idea for the next creative breakthrough will come from. Groups and teams are tremendous incubators of creative ideas. It’s been said that the best predictor of longevity in individuals or groups is the well-known principle of “survival of the fittest.” However, rather than fitness or brute strength, it may be that the “survival of the most creative” is what predicts long-term success.2 One of the key prescriptive steps in solving problems that we introduced in the last chapter is the ability to generate options and discover new approaches to problem solving. In this chapter, we turn our attention to the principles and practices of enhancing creativity in groups and teams. Specifically, we define creativity and discuss why it’s so important for group and team members. We review commonly held myths about creativity and note barriers that inhibit creativity in groups, as well as identify characteristics that nurture the creative split. In the last part of the chapter, we offer specific methods and prescriptive strategies for structuring creative interaction in groups and teams. What Is Creativity? Many people have defined creativity—one research duo counted over 100 different definitions of creativity. The definition we like best has been distilled from several approaches to creativity. Creativity is the generation, application, combination, and extension of new ideas.3 Essentially, to be creative is to invent something new that wasn’t in existence before you invented it. In the context of groups and teams, we’re not necessarily talking about inventing a tangible object (although a group could very well create something real), but inventing or creating a new idea, strategy, principle, or approach to solving a problem. Some researchers make a distinction between creativity (thinking of new ideas) and innovation—putting new ideas into action. Communication scholar Phil Clampitt describes innovation as including four steps: (1) idea generation, (2) feasibility analysis, (3) reality testing, and (4) implementation.4 Innovation extends the notion of creativity by transforming a creative idea into something that is put into practice.5 Usually group members want not only to develop creative ideas but also to implement them. Another research team found that people who draw upon their intuition to make creative decisions ultimately make better decisions.6 These same researchers suggest that when we use our intuition to make decisions we may not be completely conscious of what we’re doing—intuition is a holistic, sometimes unconscious process of making a judgment. Creativity researcher Jill Nemiro suggests that creativity and innovation are really intertwined. Both involve the generation of something, whether an idea or product, that didn’t exist before.7 So, whether you call that being creative or being innovative, it’s essentially the same process—creating something new that wasn’t there before and then using what you create. Just as problem solving has phases, researchers have identified predictable phases in group creativity. Interestingly, Nemiro found parallel phases in face-to-face and virtual teams that are involved with developing creative ideas.8 1. Idea generation phase: Group members actively identify a range of new ideas, possibilities, and approaches to the issue at hand. 2. Development phase: Ideas are extended and additional information is gathered to support the initial nuggets of ideas. 3. Finalization and closure phase: The group agrees on the best ideas. 4. Evaluation phase: The team assesses the value and worth of the ideas selected. Because this book is about small group communication, we’re more interested in creative messages than in the mental and psychological processes of creativity. Although some books provide detailed commentary about how the brain functions in creative contexts, communication researchers are more interested in such questions as “What should people say or do to enhance creativity?” and “How does a group or team organize the agenda of a meeting to produce a creative solution or outcome?” Of course, the psychological or mental aspects of creativity are clearly linked to how we talk and what we do. But interaction and dialogue are what communication researchers focus on most, and those are our focus in this chapter. Why Study Creativity? Long ago the ancient Romans identified invention as one of the classical canons, or key elements, of the communication process. Invention is the process of developing new ideas as we communicate with others and attempt to persuade them to adopt our ideas and suggestions. Being inventive or creative is just as important today. Especially in groups and teams, it’s vital to be able to generate and articulate ideas and suggestions. Research suggests that in addition to using our logical and analytical powers, our intuition can help us make high-quality decisions.9 But you may be wondering whether systematically studying creativity is useful. Can people be trained to be more creative? The answer to the “Why study creativity?” question is unequivocal: Yes, people who are trained to be more creative are, in fact, more creative.10 As we’ve suggested many times throughout this book, there are no sure-fire techniques that always enhance a person’s skill. But several research studies suggest a clear link between being trained in creative skills and the resulting “creative competence” of the individuals taught. Whether it focuses on elementary school children or adults, research clearly suggests that creativity can be learned.11 Roger Firestien was particularly interested in the effects of creative problem solving training on communication behaviors in small groups.12 Group members in the trained group were taught a six-stage model of creative problem solving: Step 1. Mess finding: Isolating a concern or problem on which to work. Step 2. Data finding: Generating and selecting the most important data regarding the mess. Step 3. Problem finding: Generating and selecting a statement that captures the “essence” of the situation. Step 4. Idea finding: Generating and selecting the best available alternative(s) for solving the problem. Step 5. Solution finding: Using criteria to screen, select, and support ideas selected in idea finding. Step 6. Acceptance finding: Generating ways to implement the solution and developing a plan for action.13 Firestien’s research found clear evidence that trained group members used humor to enhance the creative process and were more supportive and less critical of the ideas suggested by others (a very important element of being creative). Ultimately, groups that received training in creative problem-solving techniques produced many more ideas than did groups that had not. So, why learn about creativity? Because being creative is an essential skill, and there is ample evidence that people who learn creativity do’s and don’ts are more creative. Myths about Creativity Although you may be convinced of the value of learning creativity skills, you may still find the process clouded in mystery. Many people harbor misconceptions about who can be creative and how creativity works. Let’s consider three common misunderstandings or myths about the creative process.14 Discrediting these myths can give you insight into how you can enhance your own creative powers. Creativity Myth 1: Creativity Is a Mysterious Process That Can’t Be Learned Research clearly documents that people can learn to be more creative.15 And as for its being a mysterious process—yes, we’re still learning more about how the brain works, both from a biological and from a psychological perspective, but as you will learn in this chapter, there are some well-documented principles and strategies that have been demonstrated to enhance creativity. It’s a mistake to think that you can’t enhance your creative skill. Labeling yourself as “uncreative” can become a self-fulfilling prophecy: If you think you can’t learn to be creative, you won’t. So, don’t buy in to the myth that you can’t improve your creative skills. There is clear evidence that you can. Creativity Myth 2: Only a Few Gifted People Are Creative Most of us have been around someone who has a special creative talent. Maybe someone in your family is gifted in art, music, or drama and you think that only certain people can be creative. While it’s true that some people have special talents in the creative arts, or just seem to have a knack for coming up with new, creative ideas, most people can be taught to enhance their creative skill. And if you’re one of the talented people who have creative ability, there is evidence that you can further enhance your creative skills with both knowledge and practice. The former CEO of Apple, the late Steve Jobs, is credited with being part of an innovative team that created such products as the iPad and the iPhone. Research suggests that creativity is not a mysterious process only a few can master. In fact, most people can learn principles and strategies to enhance their creativity. Creativity Myth 3: Creativity Just Happens Creativity is not a muse that periodically appears and disappears. Creativity can be cultivated and made to blossom. In the next section we’ll identify certain barriers that keep creativity from growing, as well as key attributes that nurture it. Being creative is not a random, happenstance process; it can be nurtured. Barriers to Group and Team Creativity Having had your misconceptions about creativity dispelled, you might expect your own creativity to start flowing unchecked. But research has identified several conditions and behaviors that inhibit creativity.16 We’ll identify them so you can spot them and eliminate them from your group and team collaborations. Premature Evaluation of Ideas Creativity is often inhibited by inappropriate evaluation of ideas as they are shared with the group. If group members feel that their ideas will be negatively evaluated, they will be less likely to share them with the group. Several of the techniques that we discuss later in the chapter specify that ideas not be evaluated in any way when they are first offered to the group. Eventually, ideas and suggestions need to be sorted through, and the best ideas should be chosen from those offered. But when members first offer ideas, avoid pouncing on them—you not only eliminate the idea you criticize but also potentially eliminate other ideas that might have been forthcoming from your group or team members. Poor Physical Surroundings Our creative abilities are affected by our physical space. It’s hard to be creative if your group meets in a dingy, poorly lit, drafty, or too warm location. If too many people are crowded around a cramped table or in a room that wasn’t designed for that size of group, creative juices will be less likely to flow. Distractions such as outside noise can also inhibit creativity. Too Many People In a large group—say, more than 12 to 15 people—it’s difficult to have equal participation when the group shares ideas orally. Research clearly documents that communication apprehension is very real.17 Many people are fearful, not just of giving a speech but also of speaking up in a group. Yet people who are anxious about speaking up may have just the creative idea your group needs. Asking people to be creative in a large group or conference setting may achieve some results, but many people will not generate as many creative ideas as they might in a smaller group. Poor Timing It sometimes takes time for groups to be creative. Not giving group members enough time to let ideas bubble up can reduce the group’s creativity. On the other hand, some groups may be galvanized into action if given a tight deadline.18 One study found that when a group was given a tight deadline it went into high gear and was highly productive—but that productivity wasn’t very creative. Yet later on, when the same group was given another tight deadline, creativity increased.19 They may have learned to deal with tight deadlines and thus improved their creativity. Another study found that when given longer periods in which to do their work, groups were more creative.20 The key to interpreting these studies may lie in looking at what the group does with the time it has. A group is either on task or off task. If a short time period can spur a group to focus on its task, then a short time period may be best. Depending on the nature of the creative task, group members may need more time to accomplish high-quality results. Group leaders and participants should monitor how time affects the level of creativity of the group. Stinking Thinking Zig Ziglar often challenged his audience to get rid of what he called “stinking thinking.” Stinking thinking consists of thoughts that limit the possibilities of an individual, group, or organization. Creativity is reduced when group or team members utter “sound bites” that discourage rather than encourage the group to think of new possibilities. Here are some examples: “We simply can’t do this.” “We’ve never done it this way before.” “We tried that a few years ago and it didn’t work.” “They won’t let us do this.” “You can’t be serious.” You can probably identify other comments that bring creative conversation to an abrupt halt. For example, one study found that when we complain about “red tape” and overly restrictive policies, than we are less creative and often give up trying to find a way through the bureaucracy rather than searching for a creative solution.21 We don’t recommend that you instantly silence the person who offers such a comment. Rather, gently and tactfully invite the group to continue considering possibilities. As we discussed in Chapter 5, use an “I” message (“I think there are options that we have yet to consider”) rather than a “you” message (“You always offer negative comments!”) when attempting to change the tenor of thought in your group. A technique for overcoming negative thinking, pioneered by Prescott Lecky, is called tick-tock. It’s quite simple. You make an effort to flip a negative idea into a positive comment.22 Here’s how to do it. Make two headings on a sheet of paper: one called “tick” and the other called “tock.” Whenever there is a negative thought or idea, write it in the “tick” column. Now think of a substitute positive idea to counter the negative idea: The positive idea goes in the “tock” column. For example, you hear a group member say, “What a stupid idea. Everyone will laugh at us.” That negative idea goes under the “tick” heading. Stop and think of a more positive response, such as “New ideas may not have popular appeal at first. Who cares if people laugh if the idea works?” That positive response goes under the “tock” heading. Here’s another example: “We did a terrible job with that last project”—tick. The “tock” response: “We’ve learned from our mistakes. We can do better now.” You can use this simple “tick-tock” technique to combat stinking thinking, whether it’s just your own overly negative self critique or a collaborative pity party. We’re not suggesting that you or your group avoid honest evaluation of ideas and self-criticism. But we are recommending that if you or your group seems stuck in negative thinking, looking for a positive spin on the critique can be empowering and spur the group to consider more options. Principles of Group and Team Creativity Understanding how creativity works and knowing underlying principles that enhance the creative process can help you and your group and team members become more innovative. Creativity researcher Simon Taggar suggests that groups will be more creative if they are motivated; if they use creativity-fostering processes such as having everyone participate in the discussion; and if they communicate effectively by involving everyone, providing useful feedback, and addressing conflict when it arises.23 Broadly speaking, group creativity research suggests that groups are more likely to be creative if they appropriately analyze and define the problem, intentionally foster a climate of freedom to be creative, listen to minority points of view, encourage members to assume new perspectives or roles, and find ways to structure the process. Research suggests that sometimes an individual may hold the key to coming up with a creative solution. A team that is too conforming or collectivistic may inadvertently put a damper on creativity.24 Groups and teams need to permit individuals to share their individual ideas rather than just going along with majority opinion. In their book Virtuoso Teams, Andy Boynton and Bill Fischer advocate that teams that enable individuals to assert their creativity can enhance the team’s overall skill in developing quality, creative solutions.25 Appropriately Analyze and Define the Problem It’s difficult to come up with a creative solution to a problem if the problem has not been clearly defined and analyzed. As we pointed out in previous chapters, groups that jump to solutions before thoroughly analyzing what is known and not known are less likely to have high-quality solutions. Before attempting to come up with creative solutions to a problem, make sure the group knows what the problem is and has some information, data, or evidence to serve as a springboard for possible solutions. Arthur VanGundy suggests that the group may need to reframe the problem or reanalyze the issues to come up with a creative slant on what confronts the group.26 For example, a group trying to develop a Web site where it could post answers to frequently asked questions decided that it already had a wealth of information; the group did not need to develop additional answers to questions, but rather to identify and highlight what information already existed. By reframing the problem, the group made a subtle yet useful distinction that saved the group much time and energy. Create a Climate of Freedom For maximum creativity, group members need to have the freedom to express ideas, even partial ideas, without fear of being ridiculed. Research has found that group members who are motivated to be creative are more innovative. So explicitly expressing an interest in creating a creative, free-wheeling climate can enhance creativity.27 Consultants at one firm claim they can unlock creativity by encouraging group members to be playful and even somewhat silly. As part of the creativity training, group members are given toys such as modeling clay, rubber-band powered airplanes, Nerf balls, and wooden blocks and are invited to play. Being playful encourages freedom of expression—a key ingredient of creativity. If, for example, your group is stymied by a problem, take time off to “play”; taking a walk, going for a snack, or doing something else the group members consider fun may be just what the group needs to boost its creativity.28 Another study found that when team members had an attitude of being open to new experiences they were more creative.29 One study found that groups in which members retain their individualism rather than going along with a collectivistic group identity generate more creative ideas. This finding suggests that it’s a good thing that group members bring their individual points of view to a group.30 Just make sure that each group member feels free to share his or her ideas with others. Two researchers suggest that teams can best tap their creative resources if they approach problem solving as a collaborative fusion of ideas.31 Using the metaphor of “fusion cooking,” in which culturally diverse cuisines are melded together to create a new flavor, groups, and teams, especially those that are culturally diverse, can see things differently if team members give up their own cultural approach to defining and analyzing a problem and truly fuse or join their ideas to create something brand new. Clinging to your own cultural comfort zone thinking patterns can decrease creativity.32 Make sure you are not merely approaching problems and solutions the way you’ve always done in the past. Observe and listen for new ways of solving problems by being aware of the diverse cultural perspectives that are in your group or team.33 Having a group composed of a wide variety of ages also seems to enhance creativity, especially when interacting in online, virtual group situations.34 Listen to Minority Points of View Creativity research suggests that groups with a diversity of opinions and ideas are more creative. Specifically, some researchers have concluded that groups that have more ethnic and racial diversity develop more creative solutions to problems.35 Minority points of view challenge traditional thinking and ideas, and, if listened to, they can help group members see things in a new light.36 Groups in which one or two people dominate the discussion, either because of extreme status differences or because of their lack of sensitivity to the need for balanced discussion, are less likely to develop creative ideas. Just as groupthink (the false consensus that occurs when groups quickly agree with an idea so as to minimize conflict) can quash ideas and limit logical decision making, so too can it smother creative minority points of view. Encourage quiet group members to contribute to the group. And when they do, listen thoughtfully to what they have to say. In general, having more information available and listening to that information enhances group creativity.37 However, when group members get too bogged down in details and don’t keep the big picture in mind, creativity suffers.38 Encourage People to See Things and Themselves Differently It’s become a cliché to say, “let’s think outside the box.” Yet often, phrases become clichés because they express ideas succinctly. “Thinking outside the box” expresses the power of seeing facts, issues, and problems from a new vantage point. Instead of analyzing a problem from your own point of view, consider taking on a new role to gain a different point of view. For example, rather than thinking about a problem from the point of view of a student trying to identify solutions to the dramatically rising cost of tuition or attempting to solve the vexing parking problem on your campus, imagine that you’re the president of your university. How would she or he view the problem? Try to consider an alternative entry point into the problem. Another specific way to help group members see familiar problems and issues in a fresh light is to bring new members into the group. Changing the membership in a group can spur group creativity because new people bring in new ideas.39 In addition, having group members in the group who have had direct experience with the problem you are trying to solve also enhances creativity.40 Selectively Increase Group and Team Structure Creative ideas come not only during periods of high stimulation but also during quiet periods, when the ideas silently creep into our consciousness. Invite group and team members to write and think individually before sharing ideas orally. Increasing group structure by alternating periods of personal reflection and writing with oral sharing of ideas may help prime the group’s creative pump. Group and team members sometimes need the necessary space for ideas to emerge—not only physical space (although, as discussed above, groups need a good environment in which to work) but also psychological space, so that ideas can percolate. Research suggests that people who can live with some uncertainty and who don’t need immediate closure are more likely to generate creative ideas than are people who need to find the right answer in a short period of time.41 So, people who are patient and don’t try to force an immediate answer to a question or a speedy solution to a problem are likely to be more creative. Problem-solving procedures such as reflective thinking or techniques such as journalist’s six questions, force-field analysis, and fishbone analysis, discussed in the last chapter, are techniques designed to give the problem-solving process additional structure. Structure helps channel a group’s attention and energies to stay focused on the task at hand.42 Several prescriptive techniques are designed to facilitate the generation of creative ideas. In the next section of this chapter we describe several methods. REVIEW: HOW TO ENHANCE CREATIVITY IN YOUR GROUP What to Do How to Do It Appropriately analyze and define the problem to be solved. Write the specific problem someplace where all can see it. Have each group member write a statement of precisely what the group wants to achieve. Separate the symptoms of the problem from the causes of the problem by using is/is not analysis. Create a climate of individual freedom. Use structured methods of capturing ideas—for example, have group members first write ideas on paper or share ideas via e-mail or a Web site. Encourage other group members by expressing positive reinforcement for ideas shared. Encourage the group to play together; do something fun. Take a break; take a walk; take time away from the problem. Listen to minority points of view. When someone disagrees with a minority position, make sure that the minority position is not quickly dismissed. Encourage quiet members to talk, and reinforce their ideas when they do contribute. Encourage people to see things and themselves differently. Try “rolestorming”: Ask group members to assume a role (e.g., president of the company, a customer) different from their actual role. Try reverse brainstorming: Ask the group to generate ideas that would make the problem worse. Then see if any of these ideas can be flipped to help solve the problem or generate fresh insights. Use the tick-tock technique; turn a negative idea into a positive point. Bring new members into the group. Selectively increase group and team structure. Use techniques that help the group dissect the problem, such as force-field analysis (p. 000), the fishbone diagram (p. 000), or analyzing the pros and cons (p. 000). Use the affinity technique (p. 000) to get people moving and on their feet. Techniques for Enhancing Group and Team Creativity Group and team members often want to know “What techniques will enhance our creativity?” Beyond understanding general principles of creativity and promoting conditions to enhance creativity, what are specific methods, approaches, or techniques that can boost creativity? As noted above, sometimes groups and teams need the structure of a technique to have a creative breakthrough. Such techniques include brainstorming, the nominal-group technique, the Delphi technique, electronic brainstorming, and the affinity technique—each a prescriptive technique for structuring the process of generating creative ideas. Research suggests that having standard procedures and some structure can enhance group member creativity.43 We conclude the chapter by suggesting specific tips for incorporating these techniques into your group and team deliberations. Brainstorming Imagine that your employer assigns you to a task force whose goal is to increase the productivity of your small manufacturing company. Phrased as a policy question, the problem is “What can be done to increase efficiency and productivity for our company?” To help solve the problem. Assume that your boss has clearly identified the problem for the group and has provided you with several documents analyzing the problem in some detail. Your group may decide that reflective thinking, which focuses on identifying and analyzing problems, is not the best process to follow. Your group needs innovative ideas and creative, original solutions. Perhaps your group could benefit from brainstorming.44 Brainstorming is a creative technique designed to help a group generate several solutions to a problem. It was first developed by Alex Osborn, an advertising executive who felt the need for a creative technique that did not emphasize evaluating and criticizing ideas but instead would focus on developing imaginative and innovative solutions.45 Brainstorming has been used by businesses, committees, and government agencies to improve the quality of group decision making. Although it can be used in several phases of many group discussions, it may be most useful if a group needs original ideas or has trouble coming up with any ideas at all. Research suggests that a trained facilitator can improve the execution of group brainstorming.46 The general assumption underlying brainstorming is that the more ideas are generated, the more likely it is that a creative solution will be found. In 1888, when a fellow named Henry thought he could make a ton of money by investing in a 600-acre cucumber farm, he found out after his first year that cucumbers were not the road to riches. He went bankrupt. But instead of giving up, he used his failure to spur him on to develop more than one product—he came up with 57 different products. More options resulted in dramatic success. Henry’s last name was Heinz. Today the Heinz company is a multimillion dollar international corporation largely because Henry Heinz developed multiple options. Brainstorming is a classic way of generating multiple options.47 A group may be more creative while brainstorming if they are comfortable and in a relaxed environment. What environmental factors might contribute to a creative brainstorming session for this group? Research largely supports the brainstorming procedure, although some studies suggest that generating a few quality ideas is more useful to groups than merely identifying lots of bad ideas.48 There’s also research that suggests the groups who use brainstorming earlier in their deliberations perceive it to be more valuable in helping them generate quality ideas.49 And brainstorming is helpful when the group must use evidence to help them find a specific, correct solution to a problem. Research also suggests that the most effective brainstorming groups keep at it—the more persistent group members are in generating ideas, even when idea generation slows, the better the result.50 And there is evidence that women are more persistent than men in continuing to generate ideas during brainstorming.51 Another factor that seems to enhance creativity when brainstorm is for group members to value group member diversity. Groups that had a higher appreciation for welcoming and even celebrating diverse approaches to solving problems had more creative approaches to finding a quality solution.52 Traditional brainstorming steps Traditional brainstorming is a process that follows certain specific guidelines. 1. Select a specific problem that needs solving. Be sure that all group members can identify and clearly define the problem. 2. Set a clear time limit. 3. Ask group members to temporarily put aside all judgments and evaluations. The key to brainstorming is ruling out all criticism and evaluation. Osborn makes these suggestions: Acquire a “try anything” attitude. Avoid criticism, which can stifle creativity. Remember that all ideas are thought-starters. Today’s criticism may kill tomorrow’s ideas. 4. Ask group or team members to think of as many possible solutions to the problem as they can and to share the ideas with the group. Consider the following suggestions: The wilder the ideas, the better. It is easier to tame ideas down than to think ideas up. Think out loud and mention unusual ideas. Someone’s wild idea may trigger a good solution from another person in the group. 5. Make sure the group understands that “piggybacking” off someone else’s idea is useful. Combine ideas; add to previous ideas. Adopt the philosophy that once an idea is presented to the group, no one owns it. It belongs to the group, and anyone can modify it. Based upon original suggestions from Alex Osborn, group facilitator Bob Eberle developed a list of ways to build on the ideas of others using the acronym SCAMPER.53 Here are his suggestions: Substitute something. Combine it with something else. Adapt something to it. Modify or magnify it. Put it to some other use. Eliminate something. Reverse or rearrange it. As you hear ideas and suggestions from others, use the SCAMPER list to transform the ideas of others into even more creative options. 6. Have someone record all the ideas mentioned. Ideas could be recorded on a flipchart, chalkboard, whiteboard, or an overhead projector so that each group member can see them. You could also tape-record your discussions. 7. Evaluate ideas when the time allotted for brainstorming has elapsed. Consider these suggestions: Approach each idea positively, and give it a fair trial. Try to make ideas workable. Encourage feedback about the success of a session. If even a few of the ideas generated by a group are useful, the session has been successful. CASE STUDY: CLIPPING NEGATIVE THINKING: Practice in Applying Principles Business was terrible. The Paper Clip Company, the primary supplier of paper clips to big box discount stores, was having a sales slump. Because more people were using e-documents and e-files, fewer people were buying paper clips to fasten paper together. For the past three years sales had dropped by 15 percent each year. The company had already been forced to reduce the size of its manufacturing plant and lay off several employees. The vice president of marketing decided to increase sales by identifying new, creative uses for paper clips other than holding sheets of paper together. She had assembled her brightest, most creative managers to develop possible new ways paper clips could be used. The vice president decided to use the brainstorming method. She announced the rules of brainstorming as described on page 312 and set a 15-minute time frame. She turned on a digital audio recorder to capture the verbal comments and the ideas suggested; her administrative assistant would type the list later and share them with the group. It didn’t go well. Several team members couldn’t resist critiquing the ideas of others. The senior managers did more talking than the junior managers. One of the junior managers tried to share some ideas but received a glowering frown from a senior manager, and all the junior managers realized that they would risk being criticized if they shared their ideas. After about eight minutes of brainstorming, the senior managers had offered a few ideas, the junior managers had not spoken, and the vice president was becoming increasingly frustrated. She finally blurted out, “Oh, this isn’t working!” Questions for Analysis 1. What are the key problems with the brainstorming done by The Paper Clip Company’s managers? Why did those problems occur? What should the vice president have done differently to set up the brainstorming session? What were the managers doing wrong? 2. Other than oral brainstorming, what are some alternative techniques that could be used to generate ideas? 3. Based on the principles of group and team creativity presented on pages 307–309, what could be done, regardless of the specific technique used, to develop a creative group climate? 4. In a group of five to seven people, select one of the creative idea-generation techniques discussed in this chapter. Take on the roles of managers at The Paper Clip Company, and see how many ideas you can generate. Alternative suggestion: Each group uses a different idea-generation technique (e.g., nominal-group technique, Delphi method, affinity technique); all groups have the same amount of time. At the end of the idea-generation process, see which groups have developed the most ideas. Discuss how the specific idea-generation technique you were required to use influenced your group’s creativity. The Nominal-Group Technique In her book Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking, author Susan Cain suggests that some people just don’t perform well in an environment with lots of talk and interaction—the environment of oral brainstorming.54 If you gain energy by retreating to a quiet place of solitude rather than being around other people, you are likely more introvert than extrovert. An introvert is someone who is not necessarily shy, but simply prefers thinking and listening rather than speaking and interacting with others. The nominal-group technique is a procedure that uses some of the principles and methods of active brainstorming but has members write their ideas while being quiet and thinking before sharing them with the group.55 Introverts will prefer using the nominal-group technique because it gives them time to think and reflect. Specifically, research has found that having group members alternate between individual, silent brainstorming with group conversation can enhance the quality of ideas generated.56 The nominal-group technique gets its name from the principle that the group is nominal (it is a group in name only), in the sense that members work on problems individually rather than during sustained group interaction. This technique uses silent brainstorming to overcome some of the disadvantages researchers have discovered in exclusively oral brainstorming. Why does silent brainstorming often produce better results than oral brainstorming? During traditional brainstorming, group and team members blurt out their ideas. But if someone laughs at an idea or says, “That’s cool” or “That won’t work,” then the idea has been evaluated. The key to making brainstorming work is that the generation of ideas is separated from the evaluation of ideas. In oral brainstorming it’s hard not to evaluate ideas. During traditional brainstorming, despite their best intentions, group members often evaluate ideas as soon as they are verbalized, so group members may be less likely to share ideas. As we discussed earlier in the chapter, criticism and evaluation diminish creativity.57 Even if group members do not verbalize their evaluation, their nonverbal expressions often convey positive or negative evaluation of ideas. Some people are apprehensive or nervous about speaking up in a group, and traditional oral brainstorming makes it less likely that the communication-apprehensive members will participate. Silent brainstorming overcomes that problem by encouraging even apprehensive group and team members to participate by first writing their ideas.58 Once they have a written “script,” they are more comfortable sharing their ideas. Researchers also found that people work more diligently if they have an individual assignment than if they have a group assignment.59 In addition, researchers have found that sometimes with traditional brainstorming, the creative talents of some members seem to be restricted just by the very presence of others.60 Group and team members may generate more ideas if members first work alone and then regroup. After they reconvene, group members can modify, elaborate on, and evaluate ideas. The generation of ideas (writing them down) has been separated from the evaluation of ideas. Silent brainstorming can be done even before a group meets for the first time; you could describe a problem and ask group members to brainstorm individually before assembling. E-mail makes this easier; communication researcher Henri Barki found that electronic brainstorming worked just as well as face-to-face brainstorming.61 In the pages ahead, we talk about electronic brainstorming as a separate technique for developing creative ideas. The nominal-group technique adds structure to the brainstorming process. The following steps summarize how to use the nominal-group technique: 1. All group members should be able to define and analyze the problem under consideration. 2. Working individually, group members write down possible solutions to the problem. 3. Group members report the solutions they have identified to the entire group one at a time. Each idea should be noted on a chart, chalkboard, whiteboard, or overhead projector for all group members to see. 4. Group members discuss the ideas gathered, not to advocate for one idea over another but rather to make sure that all the ideas are clear. 5. After discussing all proposed solutions, each group member ranks the solutions. If the list of solutions is long, the group members can rank the five solutions they like best. The results are tabulated. © Pearls Before Swine by Stephan Pastis, January 22, 2011/Universal Uclick 6. The entire group discusses the results of the rankings. If the first round of ranking is inconclusive or if the group is not comfortable with the results, the options can be ranked again after additional discussion. Research suggests that using this organized method of gathering and evaluating information results in better solutions than if the group attacks a problem in a disorganized fashion.62 One researcher has found that the nominal-group technique works better than other prescriptive approaches such as reflective thinking.63 This individual method of idea generation and evaluation has the advantage of involving all group members in deliberations. It can be useful if some group members are uncomfortable making contributions because of status differences in the group. Also, alternating group discussion with individual deliberation can be useful in groups plagued by conflict and tension. Research has also found that participants using the nominal-group technique also are more likely to remember more of what they discuss, perhaps because they are not only talking about their ideas in the group but also writing their ideas before they share the information with others.64 To achieve the advantages that occur when using the nominal-group technique, consider investing a short period of time making sure each group member understands the technique. Research has found that group and team members who receive training in the nominal-group technique are more effective than those who don’t receive training.65 So groups and teams can improve their skill level if they have an opportunity to learn structured ways of developing and organizing their contributions. COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? Dave has great ideas and likes to take the lead during group discussions. During traditional brainstorming sessions, he often suggests more than anyone else. But he also just can’t seem to avoid evaluating and criticizing other people’s ideas. Dave’s presence in a group sometimes intimidates others, so they don’t contribute. Group members have asked Dave to resist evaluating other people’s suggestions, but he just can’t seem to stop doing it. Should the group ask Dave to leave? He makes a considerable contribution to the group but also limits the contributions of others. Do group members have an ethical responsibility to balance concern for an individual member of the group against the needs of the entire group? What would you do? PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Using Your Whole Mind Daniel Pink, in his book A Whole New Mind: Why Right-Brainers Will Rule the Future, argues that as we become awash in data, numbers, and statistics, it is increasingly important that we use what he calls “The Whole Mind” to make sense out of the bits of information that bombard us.66 Using the whole mind draws upon what has been dubbed both left-brain logical thinking and right-brain creativity. Applying this whole-mind thinking to groups can help groups develop more creative solutions to problems. Pink draws upon contemporary brain research to identify what he calls the “six senses for a conceptual age.” Applying Pink’s six senses to group deliberations can help groups and teams make more creative decisions: Focus on design not just function. Rather than focus on the function of something, focus on its design. To be functional is to describe what something does—to identify its purpose. To focus on design is to understand how something was created. To use the whole mind, group members should be designers, which means they should have the freedom to create new solutions, not just think in old patterns about what something does (function) but how something new can be created—to design something that hasn’t existed yet. Find the big story: Rather than looking only at the logical argument underlying why a process or procedure exists, try to find the story. Stories are narratives that give meaning to the pieces of information that we see. When trying to solve a problem, look for the underlying story by considering these questions: Who are the characters in the story? Are there good characters, bad characters, both good and bad? Are there obstacles that keep the people in the story from achieving what they want? What are the sources of conflict in the story? Seeing the underlying story in a situation can help a team think in new ways. Listen to the entire symphony not just to one note or one instrument: Using an analogy from music, rather than focusing on only one note, passage of music, or instrument, focus on the entire symphony. Daniel Pink thinks that the skill of synthesis—seeing how things work together in harmony, rather than picking out one melody—can help develop new insights. Analysis of individual elements in a problem is useful, but supplement detailed analysis with holistic thinking that looks at how all of the parts of the process fit together. Symphony thinking draws upon systems theory, presented in Chapter 2. Be empathic: Rather than being only rational and logical like Dr. Spock from Star Trek, make sure to empathize with others—feel what others are feeling. Empathy is the ability to connect to the emotions of others, to sense what others are emotionally experiencing. Empathy doesn’t replace logic; it connects to logic so that we can better understand the thoughts of others. When solving problems, consider what others may feel when you are identifying a problem (how they feel about the problem), analyzing the problem (consider emotions of others), or when suggesting a solution to the problem (how others might feel if the solution were implemented). Make time to play. There’s a time to be serious, but there’s also a time to play. As the saying goes, all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy, or Jill a dull girl. Groups and teams should be encouraged to play with ideas, experiment, have fun, and be given permission to creatively explore ideas and options. Children play by pretending to be someone else for a while; they eagerly try new things, or simply enjoy the spontaneity of creating a new game or adventure. Sometimes a fantasy theme, which we discussed in Chapter 2, may be just what the group needs to energize it. Groups need to periodically bring a sense of play to the process of creating new options. Balancing the serious with play and fantasy can help a group get unstuck. Find the meaning. It’s not just about accumulating more “stuff,” says Pink; it’s about finding the meaning in what we already have, or what we think we want that we don’t yet have. Our quest to get more (money, power, fame) than others should be replaced by reflecting on what truly gives us meaning in our life. Simply having more should not be the goal; rather, having a greater sense of individual and collective purpose should underlie our striving. Connecting the dots between what we think we want and how that accumulation brings true satisfaction should be something that groups talk about from time to time. Groups and teams should ask such questions as “How will achieving this goal be meaningful to the group, to other individuals, or to the community?” Design, story, symphony, empathy, play, and meaning are ways of balancing our logical talents with creative skills. These six senses provide an underlying perspective of how groups can be creative, as well as give specific behaviors that can stimulate creativity. Real-Life Applications When you are in a group that is stuck, bogged down, and isn’t making progress, consider asking one or more of the following questions to help the group get unstuck and develop a broader, more creative perspective: How can we redesign the procedure or process we are focusing on? What’s the underlying story we are discussing? How are all of the pieces fitting together to work together as a “symphonic” whole? What would others feel about what we’re recommending? What would be their emotional response? How can we bring a sense of play and experimentation to the discussion? What is the meaning behind what we really want to achieve? Both traditional brainstorming and the nominal-group technique can be used at any phase of the problem-solving process. For example, you could combine the nominal-group technique with force-field analysis by asking group members to silently brainstorm about the forces driving and restraining attainment of a group goal. Or, you could ask members to brainstorm possible causes or symptoms of the problem during problem analysis. Or, you could use brainstorming or the nominal-group technique to generate possible strategies for implementing a solution the group has settled on. The Delphi Technique Whereas the nominal-group technique invites participants to contribute ideas by first writing them down and then sharing them with the group, the Delphi technique takes this idea one step further. This method, named after the ancient oracle at Delphi, has been called “absentee brainstorming” because individuals share ideas in writing or via e-mail, without meeting face-to-face. One person coordinates the information and shares it with the rest of the group. This approach is especially useful when conflict within the group inhibits effective group interaction, or when time and distance constraints make it difficult for group members to meet. Here is a step-by-step description of the Delphi technique.68 VIRTUAL GROUPS Using electronic brainstorming has several advantages. It allows groups to generate ideas quickly and from remote locations. It may also be less expensive to invite team members to turn on their home or office computers to brainstorm ideas than to have all members travel to the same geographic location to hold a meeting. Nonetheless, there are several challenges and barriers to consider when using electronic brainstorming. In their book Virtual Teaming, Deborah York, Lauren Davis, and Susan Wise note some of the following challenges in collaborating virtually:67 Fear of working with technology (technophobia) Lack of needed technical skills Incompatibility of hardware and software Uneven writing skills due to differences in cultural background, language use, and education Technical difficulties (the power goes out, the computers are down) E-mail overload—people have too much e-mail to process To overcome these obstacles, make sure group members understand how to use the hardware and software programs. In case there are technical glitches, have a backup plan—such as a phone number to call or an alternative e-mail address to use. Have someone who is knowledgeable about technology available to help group members or, at the very least, give each group member a number to call or a Web site to use if there are technical problems. 1. The group leader selects a problem, issue, policy, or decision that needs to be reviewed. 2. The leader corresponds with group members in writing, informing them of the task and inviting their suggestions and input. A specific questionnaire may be developed, or the group members may be asked to individually brainstorm suggestions or reactions to the issue confronting the group. 3. The respondents complete the questionnaire or generate a list of their brainstormed responses and send it to the leader. 4. The leader then summarizes all the responses from the group and shares the summary with all group members, asking for additional ideas, suggestions, and reactions. Team members are asked to rate or rank the ideas and return their comments to the leader. 5. The leader continues the process of summarizing the group feedback and asking for more input until general consensus emerges and decisions are made. It may take several rounds of soliciting ideas and evaluating ideas before consensus is achieved. This method often produces many good ideas. All participants are treated equally because no one is aware of who submitted which idea. It is, however, a time-consuming process. And because there is no face-to-face interaction, some ideas that are worthy of elaboration and exploration may get lost in the shuffle. Using the Delphi technique in combination with face-to-face meetings can help eliminate some disadvantages of the procedure. Electronic Brainstorming Electronic brainstorming is a technique that makes it possible for a group to generate solutions or strategies by typing ideas at a computer keyboard and having them displayed to the entire group. This high-tech method resembles the nominal-group technique in that group members write ideas before sharing them with the group. Because they can see ideas in written form, group members can piggyback off the ideas of others. Electronic brainstorming can be performed with all group members in the same room or computer lab or with members at their own home or office computers. Research suggests that groups using electronic brainstorming generate more ideas than traditional face-to-face brainstorming groups.69 One research team found that when some members of a group meet face to face and are supported with ideas from group members not physically present but using electronic means to share information, more ideas are generated and these are of higher quality than if all members meet face to face.70 Some researchers theorize that this happens because the ideas are generated anonymously.71 Members feel less fear or anxiety about being criticized for unconventional ideas because no one knows who suggested them. Thus, when group members move to the phase of evaluating ideas, they are not sure whether they are evaluating an idea coming from a boss or a group leader or a new intern. All ideas are considered on their merit and quality. Another reason more ideas may be generated is because of the “piggyback effect.” Group members may be stimulated to build on the ideas of other group members. One obvious disadvantage of electronic brainstorming is the need to have access to a computer network and appropriate software. But recent evidence strongly supports the value of this variation of the brainstorming method, in which computers add structure to the process. Another disadvantage to anonymous, electronic brainstorming occurs when, because the idea sharing is supposed to be anonymous, it is difficult to publicly recognize outstanding contributions. Research has found that when someone is praised for contributing good ideas, that creativity is enhanced—both for the individual praised and for the entire group. Yet when group members privately and anonymously brainstorm ideas, it might seem like a breach of anonymity to publicly praise a good idea.72 The Affinity Technique Have you ever sat down at a desk cluttered with papers from a variety of projects and realized that you needed to sort the papers into piles to help you organize your desk? The Affinity technique is a method for sorting through and organizing ideas that a group may generate.73 The affinity technique is similar to the nominal-group technique, but instead of listing ideas on paper, group members write ideas on Post-it® notes. Like the other variations of brainstorming that we’ve discussed, the group is assigned an issue or problem about which to generate ideas. The entire group (or a smaller subcommittee) then organizes the ideas that have an “affinity,” or are similar to each other, into categories. The affinity technique is a way to make brainstorming sessions more fun and let people move around during a meeting. You can ask group members to post their notes on a wall or other smooth surface such as a chalkboard or white board and then to move around the room, review the ideas, and group them into categories. If your group sticks the notes on a chalkboard or white board, you could draw a circle around the notes and label the category using a word or terms that capture the theme of the suggestions. This technique will allow your group to quickly identify how many people have generated the same idea. The group will be able to see that one affinity category may have six or seven ideas, whereas another category may have only one or two. After creating the categories, the group may decide to combine them. Someone should be assigned to record the ideas that have been developed. The affinity technique may take a bit longer than the nominal-group technique, but for certain groups it may be the best way to develop a sense of collaboration in generating ideas. REVIEW: COMPARING CREATIVE TECHNIQUES74 Advantages Disadvantages Brainstorming Easy to use High potential for group members to evaluate ideas as they are being generated No special materials needed Takes more time than highly structured methods Group members can piggyback on each other’s ideas Quiet members less likely to participate Nominal-group technique Can build on ideas of others Provides a written record of ideas suggested Requires good leader to organize the process Less time for free flow of ideas Controls more talkative, dominating group members Difficult to implement with a large group Delphi technique Group does not have to meet face to face No synergy created by hearing the ideas of others Provides a written record of ideas suggested Minimizes opportunities for elaborating on ideas Helps group members prepare for upcoming meeting Group members may be suspicious that someone has manipulated the results Electronic brainstorming Very efficient Need special equipment Anonymity increases number of ideas generated Need training in using computer software It takes time to describe procedures of electronic brainstorming Affinity technique Builds acceptance Need Post-it notes Provides for interaction and acceptance of ideas Takes more time than other techniques Preserves a written record of ideas presented A skilled facilitator must orchestrate the technique How to Use Brainstorming in Your Group or Team Although you should now understand how brainstorming, in its various forms, works, you may still have some questions about how you can apply this method of creative problem solving to your group discussions. Consider the following suggestions:75 Set aside a definite amount of time for brainstorming. Decide as a group how much time you want to devote to brainstorming. You may want to set a goal for a certain number of ideas that should be recorded: “We’ll stop brainstorming when we get sixty ideas.” Do not make the time limit for brainstorming too short. Research suggests that groups given only a short time (four minutes) to brainstorm can be very productive, but not as creative as groups that have a longer time.76 If you brainstorm orally, do not worry about a little silence while people think. If you use silent brainstorming (the nominal-group technique), it is okay if people don’t write furiously during the entire brainstorming period. Don’t cut off the brainstorming period early simply because people are silent or not writing. Be certain that each group or team member understands the specific problem to be solved. A problem must be clearly defined and understood and must also be limited in size and scope. A broad, vaguely worded problem must be clarified before a group attempts to identify possible solutions. Make sure that each group member follows the brainstorming rules. Brainstorming will be most effective if group members stop criticizing and evaluating ideas. Don’t forget that group members can criticize nonverbally through tone of voice, facial expression, or posture. Everyone in the group must feel completely free to communicate ideas that may solve the problem. What should you do if a few members just cannot stop evaluating the ideas that are suggested? You may have to remind them courteously to follow the rules, ask them to be quiet, ask them to record the ideas of others, or ask them to leave the group. You may also consider using another technique (the nominal-group or the affinity technique or electronic brainstorming) as an alternative to oral brainstorming. If you serve as the group’s leader, try to draw less-talkative group members into the discussion. Call people by name: “Curt, you look like you’ve got some good ideas. What do you suggest?” You can also compliment the entire group when members do a good job of generating ideas: “Good job, group! We’ve got thirty ideas so far. Let’s see if we can come up with thirty more.” Consider reverse brainstorming.77 With this method, group members brainstorm ideas or solutions that would make the problem worse. After generating such a list, the group can consider the implications of doing the opposite of what was identified. Consider rolestorming.78 Rolestorming is one way of “thinking outside the box.” With this method, group members assume the roles of someone else to help unlock ideas and increase group creativity. If you focus on a problem in your community, ask group members to assume the role of the mayor, the school superintendent, or the city manager. If it is a government problem, have them imagine that they are the governor, a member of the legislature, or even the president of the United States. Tell the group what will happen with the ideas and suggestions generated.79 Do not finish the brainstorming session with a long list of ideas that may be shelved. Perhaps a subcommittee can be formed to combine ideas and eliminate obvious overlapping suggestions. The subgroup might also be asked to evaluate the ideas or determine which ideas need further exploration or more information. Try the random-word technique. One strategy to enhance the power of brainstorming that seems to work for some groups is the random-word technique. As described by Edward de Bono, while a group is brainstorming or pondering a problem, one person is assigned the task of saying a random word so others can hear it. The word is selected from a list of random words.80 The spoken word is supposed to act as a trigger for new or creative ideas. This technique is another way to stimulate “thinking outside the box.” Establish a brainstorming bulletin board. Write the specific problem to be solved on a bulletin board or white board. Encourage group members to brainstorm ideas by periodically writing creative solutions that could solve the problem. Consider posting the problem and inviting creative responses for a week or more, and encourage people to build on the ideas of others.81 Try brainsketching. This is a technique that asks people to come up with creative ideas by drawing something rather than using words to describe a proposal. Some ideas may flow better if people are encouraged to use images rather than text to develop creative ideas.82 REVIEW: AN OVERVIEW OF PROBLEM-SOLVING STEPS AND TECHNIQUES Steps Techniques Identify and define the problem Is/is not analysis Journalist’s six questions Gather data Pareto charts SWOT Analyze the problem Is/is not analysis Cause-and-effect (fishbone) diagram Journalist’s six questions Force-field analysis Develop criteria Identify history, causes, effects, symptoms, goals, obstacles PROMOD Technique Generate solutions Brainstorm Rolestorm Reverse brainstorm Nominal-group technique Delphi technique Affinity technique Electronic brainstorming Evaluate solutions and select the best solution or combination of solutions Compare pros and cons Apply solutions to criteria Appoint a subgroup Combine alternatives Average rankings and ratings Test and implement the solution Identify implementation steps Develop a group action plan Develop a flowchart Develop a prototype STUDY GUIDE: REVIEW, APPLY, AND ASSESS GROUP COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES WHAT IS CREATIVITY? Objective 1 Define creativity. Group Communication Principles Creativity is the generation, application, combination, and extension of new ideas. Key Terms Creativity 302 Innovation 303 Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Creativity Exercise Solving this problem requires creativity. The class should divide into groups of three. Each group’s assignment is to connect all nine dots with only four straight and connected lines without lifting your pen or pencil from the page. When you have finished the activity, discuss how the experience illustrates the definition of creativity. WHY STUDY CREATIVITY? Objective 2 Identify reasons for studying creativity. Group Communication Principles Creative groups are more effective groups. Creativity is a skill that can be taught. A six-stage model of creative problem solving includes the following steps: mess finding, data finding, problem finding, idea finding, solution finding, and acceptance finding. Key Term Invention 303 Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Imagine that your city council is concerned that sales taxes in your community have had a sudden decline. Apply the six-stage model of creative problem solving on page 304 to identify solutions and ways the solution could be accepted by your community. The president of your university has appointed you to a task force to identify strategies to keep your campus community safe. Apply the six-stage model of problem solving on page 304 to identify solutions and ways the solution could be accepted by faculty, students, and members of the community. MYTHS ABOUT CREATIVITY Objective 3 List and describe three mythos about group and team creativity. Group Communication Principles Creativity is a mysterious process that can’t be learned. Only a few gifted people are creative. Creativity just happens. Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Which of the three myths about creativity are you most likely to believe? Review the description of myths about creativity on pages 304–305. Using a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 10 (strongly agree), rate your own belief as to your range of disagreement or agreement with each myth. If you tend to agree with one or more of the myths, what additional evidence would you need to more completely disagree with the myth? BARRIERS TO GROUP AND TEAM CREATIVITY Objective 4 Identify barriers to group and team creativity. Group Communication Principles Don’t seek creative solutions to problems prematurely; wait until the problems have been clearly defined and analyzed. Find a suitable place to meet and work; groups and teams are more creative in a comfortable physical space. Make sure the group is not too large; creative thinking is less likely in groups much larger than 12 or 15 people. Give groups enough time to be creative. Be positive; don’t cut off creative efforts with negative and discouraging comments. Key Term Stinking thinking 306 Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Review the description of the five barriers to group and team creativity on pages 305–307. Provide an example from your own group and team experience when you have witnessed one or more of the barriers inhibit group creativity. PRINCIPLES OF GROUP AND TEAM CREATIVITY Objective 5 Identify principles that enhance group and team creativity. Group Communication Principles Appropriately analyze and define the problem. Create a climate of freedom. Listen to minority points of view. Encourage people to see things and themselves differently. Selectively increase group and team structure. Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Reflect on a group or team experience in which your group was having difficulty identifying creative approaches to making a decision, solving a problem, or identifying possible action to take. Rank order the five group creativity principles from 5 (most used) to 1 (least used). Based on your analysis and reflection, what specific action could your group have taken to enhance its creativity? Or, if your group was highly creative, which creative principles did your group apply? TECHNIQUES FOR ENHANCING GROUP AND TEAM CREATIVITY Objective 6 Describe and effectively use brainstorming, the nominal-group technique the Delphi technique, electronic brainstorming, and the affinity technique. Group Communication Principles Follow the rules of brainstorming and encourage others to follow the rules, especially the rule about not evaluating ideas until the proper time. Consider using a silent or more structured brainstorming technique, such as the nominal-group technique, the Delphi technique, or the affinity technique, to encourage all group and team members to contribute. Use electronic brainstorming to eliminate status differences and to permit anonymous contributions by group members who may otherwise feel too inhibited to contribute creative ideas. Try to draw less-talkative group members into the discussion; compliment members when they come up with good ideas during the period of evaluating ideas. Key Terms Brainstorming 311 Nominal-group technique 313 Silent brainstorming 314 Delphi technique 317 Electronic brainstorming 318 Affinity technique 319 Random-word technique 321 Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Assessing Group Brainstorming Skills Group brainstorming is a tried and trusted method of generating creative options if (and it’s a big if) group members appropriately use the principles and practices of effective brainstorming. Use the following assessment form to evaluate your group’s application of brainstorming principles. 1 = Yes 2 = Sometimes Yes 3 = Uncertain 4 = Sometimes No 5 = No 1. The group reviews the rules of effective brainstorming. 1 2 3 4 5 2. Group members understand the specific problem they are trying to solve. 1 2 3 4 5 3. The group sets aside a specific time for brainstorming with a time limit made known to all group members. 1 2 3 4 5 4. Group members explicitly agree to not evaluate (verbally or nonverbally) suggestions offered to the group. 1 2 3 4 5 5. Group members who start to evaluate the ideas of others are politely reminded not to. 1 2 3 4 5 6. Group members are told to think of as many ideas as they can to solve a specific problem. 1 2 3 4 5 7. Group members are encouraged to develop wild and off-beat ideas. 1 2 3 4 5 8. Group members piggyback on the ideas of others; they use the ideas mentioned to stimulate new ideas. 1 2 3 4 5 9. All ideas shared by group members are recorded. 1 2 3 4 5 10. Ideas are evaluated after group members have had a time to share them. 1 2 3 4 5