Organizational Framework

authentic_leadership.pdf

Home >Psychology homework help >Organizational Framework

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution

and sharing with colleagues.

Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party

websites are prohibited.

In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information

regarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit:

http://www.elsevier.com/copyright

Author's personal copy

Authentic leadership: A review of the literature and research agenda

William L. Gardner⁎, Claudia C. Cogliser, Kelly M. Davis, Matthew P. Dickens Texas Tech University, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Available online 21 October 2011 The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in scholarly interest in the topic of authentic leadership. We review this literature with the goal of clarifying the state of knowledge in the field. We begin with a historical overview of the construct's definition and evolution. Next, we present the results of a content analysis of 91 publications that focus on authentic leader- ship. Specifically, we examined the publication type (theoretical, empirical, and practitioner), contributors (e.g., discipline, nationality, and institutional affiliation), theoretical foundations, research strategies, sample location/type, data collection methods, analytical procedures, and nomological network of authentic leadership. We conclude by presenting an agenda for future research.

Keywords: Authenticity Authentic leadership Content analysis

1. Introduction

Spurred by deep-rooted concerns about the ethical conduct of today's leaders based on chilling examples of corporate and gov- ernment malfeasance, popular leadership authors such as former Medtronic CEO Bill George (Authentic Leadership, 2003; True North, George & Sims, 2007) and leadership consultant Kevin Cashman (Leadership from the Inside Out, 1998, 2008; Awakening the Leader Within, 2003) called for a new type of genuine and values-based leadership — authentic leadership (AL). Sharing these concerns, Luthans and Avolio (2003, p. 244) expressed “a need for a theory-driven model identifying the specific construct variables and re- lationships that can guide authentic leader development and suggest researchable propositions”; henceforth they introduced an ini- tial model for this purpose. Interdisciplinary summits were hosted in 2004 and 2006 by the Gallup Leadership Institute (GLI) of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln with the goal of generating scholarly and practitioner interest in AL development. A subset of papers presented at the 2004 Gallup Leadership Summit were published in a special issue of The Leadership Quarterly (2005, Volume 16, Issue 3) and an edited book (Gardner, Avolio, & Walumbwa, 2005b), further stimulating interest in the topic.

The simultaneous proliferation of practitioner and scholarly writings has generated several competing conceptions of AL that have created confusion about the construct. Anticipating these problems, Cooper, Scandura, and Schriesheim (2005) articulated some of the areas of conceptual ambiguity (e.g., levels of analysis) and cautioned scholars to avoid the pitfalls encountered in ad- vancing prior leadership theories by carefully defining, measuring, and rigorously investigating the construct. More recently, Yammarino, Dionne, Schriesheim, and Dansereau (2008) examined the literature from a meso, multi-level perspective, noting several shortcomings, such as a primarily leader-centric focus operating at the individual level of analysis; they also provide spe- cific recommendations for advancing AL theory at and across the individual, dyadic, group, and organizational levels of analysis.

Unfortunately, the cautions of these authors have often gone unheeded, as the emergence of multiple practitioner and schol- arly conceptions of AL has created ambiguity about what does and does not constitute AL, as well as the efficacy of strategies for its development. These problems are compounded by a limited amount of empirical research, which makes it difficult to assess the validity of assertions regarding the positive effects of AL that are commonly advanced by its proponents. Nonetheless, the

The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

⁎ Corresponding author at: Institute for Leadership Research, Rawls College of Business, 15th & Flint, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA. Tel.: +1 806 742 1055; fax: +1 806 742 2308.

E-mail address: [email protected] (W.L. Gardner).

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

The Leadership Quarterly

j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r .com/ locate / leaqua

Author's personal copy

scholarly literature has seen a recent upsurge in empirical investigations of AL that show promise for alleviating some of the con- ceptual confusion.

The purpose of this manuscript is to review the scholarly literature on AL with the goal of clarifying the construct and our knowledge about its antecedents and outcomes. More specifically, we: (1) provide a historical overview of the construct of authen- ticity; (2) discuss the underpinnings andmilestones in the emergence and refinement of AL theory; (3) describe the content analysis methodology employed to codify the various theoretical perspectives, research methods, and findings reflected in the literature; (4) present our findings regarding the underlying theoretical foundations for AL; (5) review the available empirical research on AL, focusing attention on the measurement of the construct and mapping out the nomological network; and (6) recommend future directions for the study and practice of AL.

2. Authenticity and AL defined

2.1. Authenticity

Authenticity can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy and is reflected by the Greek aphorism “Know Thyself” which was inscribed in the Temple of Apollo at Delphi (Parke & Wormell, 1956). Indeed, the etymology of the word au- thentic can be traced to the Greek word, authento, “to have full power” (Trilling, 1972), reflecting the notion of authentic functioning whereby an individual is “the master of his or her own domain” (Kernis & Goldman, 2006). An early reference to authentic functioning is Socrates' focus on self-inquiry as he argued that an “unexamined” life is not worth living. Ar- istotle followed with a view of ethics that focused on one's pursuit of the “higher good” achieved through self-realization when the activity of the soul is aligned with virtue to produce a complete life (Hutchinson, 1995). Such self-realization is tied to one's well-being or “eudaimonia,” a form of happiness that, in contrast to hedonism which seeks happiness and pleasure as desired end states, arises from successfully performing activities that reflect one's true calling (Kernis & Goldman, 2006).

Harter (2002) describes authenticity as owning one's personal experiences, including one's thoughts, emotions, needs, desires, or beliefs. Hence, it involves being self-aware and acting in accord with one's true self by expressing what one genuinely thinks and believes (Luthans & Avolio, 2003). While the attainment of complete authenticity is an ideal, Erickson (1995) cautions that authenticity should not be conceived as an either/or condition, since people are never completely authentic or inauthentic. Thus, it is more realistic to describe a person as being more or less authentic.

The modern conception of the construct emerged in the past 85 years (Erickson, 1995). As Kernis and Goldman (2006, p. 284; italics in the original) note, “contemporary psychological views of authenticity owe a great deal of debt to the works of philoso- phy”where “authenticity is loosely set within topics, such asmetaphysics or ontology, firmly entrenched in particular movements, such as existentialism or phenomenology, and localized to specific authors like Sartre or Heidegger.”While a complete exposition of the philosophical basis for modern conceptions of authenticity lies beyond the scope of this review, the interested reader is re- ferred to the work of Erickson (1995), Harter (2002), Kernis and Goldman (2006), and Novicevic, Harvey, Buckley, Brown, and Evans (2006) for historical overviews of this literature.

Based on their review of the historical literature, Kernis and Goldman (2006) conclude that it documents a range of mental and behavioral processes that explain how people discover and construct a core sense of self, and how this core self is maintained across situations and over time. Moreover, they assert that this literature reflects four central themes: “authentic functioning of people's (1) self-understanding, (2) openness to objectively recognizing their ontological realities (e.g., evaluating their desirable and undesirable self-aspects), (3) actions, and (4) orientation towards interpersonal relationships” (p. 284). Moreover, these themes are consistent with their conceptualization of authenticity as encompassing four key components: (1) awareness (i.e., knowledge and trust in one's thoughts, feelings, motives and values); (2) unbiased processing (i.e., objectivity about and accep- tance of one's positive and negative attributes); (3) behavior (i.e., acting based on one's true preferences, values, and needs rather than merely acting to please others, secure rewards, or avoid punishments); and (4) relational orientation (i.e., achieving and val- uing truthfulness and openness in one's close relationships; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006). This multi-component con- ceptualization of authenticity, in turn, has provided the theoretical foundation for several theories of AL (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005; Ilies, Morgeson, & Nahrgang, 2005; Spitzmuller & Ilies, 2010; Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008) as described below.

2.2. Definitions of authentic leaders and AL

A variety of definitions of leader authenticity or AL have been advanced over the years (summarized in Table 1). The earliest philosophical conceptions of authenticity within the leadership literature arose in the 1960s and reflected an assumption that an organization's authenticity is manifest through its leadership (Novicevic et al., 2006). This is illustrated well by Rome and Rome's (1967) description of authenticity in a hierarchical organization presented in Table 1. For Halpin and Croft (1966), organizational authenticity is posited to be a function of the openness of the organizational climate and is manifest by the degree to which mem- bers resist personal change when enacting their leadership and professional roles. Finally, Seeman (1966) proposed that the ex- tent to which leaders are authentic is a function of their ability to reduce ambivalence about their leadership role.

1121W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

Table 1 Definitions of authentic leaders and authentic leadership.

Source Definition

Rome and Rome (1967, p. 185) “A hierarchical organization, in short, like an individual person, is ‘authentic’ to the extent that, throughout its leadership, it accepts finitude, uncertainty, and contingency; realizes its capacity for responsibility and choice; acknowledges guilt and errors; fulfills its creative managerial potential for flexible planning, growth, and charter or policy formation; and responsibly participates in the wider community.”

Henderson and Hoy (1983, pp. 67–68) “Leadership authenticity is therefore defined as the extent to which subordinates perceive their leader to demonstrate the acceptance of organizational and personal responsibility for actions, outcomes, and mistakes; to be non-manipulating of subordinates; and to exhibit salience of self over role. Leadership inauthenticity is defined as the extent to which subordinates perceive their leader to be ‘passing the buck’ and blaming others and circumstances for errors and outcomes; to be manipula- tive of subordinates; and to be demonstrating a salience of role over self.”

Bhindi and Duignan (1997, p. 119) “In this article the authors argue for authentic leadership based on: authenticity, which entails the discovery of the authentic self through meaningful relationships within organizational structures and processes that support core, significant values; intentionality, which implies visionary leadership that takes its energy and direction from the good intentions of current organizational members who put their intellects, hearts and souls into shaping a vision for the future; a renewed commitment to spirituality, which calls for the rediscovery of the spirit within each person and celebration of the shared meaning, with purpose of relationship; a sensibility to the feelings, aspirations and needs of others, with special reference to the multicultural settings in which many leaders operate in the light of the increasing globalizing trends in life and work.”

Begley (2001, p. 353) “Authentic leadership may be thought of as a metaphor for professionally effective, ethically sound, and consciously reflective practices in educational administration. This is leadership that is knowledge based, values informed, and skillfully executed.”

George (2003, p. 12) “Authentic leaders use their natural abilities, but they also recognize their shortcomings, and work hard to overcome them. They lead with purpose, meaning, and values. They build enduring relationships with people. Others follow them because they know where they stand. They are consistent and self-disciplined. When their principles are tested, they refuse to compromise. Au- thentic leaders are dedicated to developing themselves because they know that becoming a leader takes a lifetime of personal growth.”

Luthans and Avolio (2003, p. 243) “[W]e define authentic leadership in organizations as a process that draws from both positive psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development. The authentic leader is confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, transparent, moral/ethical future-oriented, and gives priority to developing associates into leaders themselves. The authentic leader does not try to coerce or even rationally persuade associates, but rather the leader's authentic values, beliefs, and behaviors serve to model the development of associates.”

Avolio, Luthans et al. (2004, p. 4) as cited in Avolio, Gardner et al. (2004, pp. 802, 803)

Authentic leaders are “those individuals who know who they are, what they think and behave and are perceived by others as being aware of their own and others' values/moral perspective, knowledge, and strengths; aware of the context in which they operate; and who are confident, hopeful, resilient, and of high moral character.”

Begley (2004, p. 5) “Authentic leadership is a function of self-knowledge, sensitivity to the orientations of others, and a technical sophistication that leads to a synergy of leadership action.”

Ilies et al. (2005, p. 374) “Authentic leaders are deeply aware of their values and beliefs, they are self-confident, genuine, re- liable and trustworthy, and they focus on building followers' strengths, broadening their thinking and creating a positive and engaging organizational context.”

Shamir and Eilam (2005, p. 399) “[O]ur definition of authentic leaders implies that authentic leaders can be distinguished from less authentic or inauthentic leaders by four self-related characteristics: 1) the degree of person role merger i.e. the salience of the leadership role in their self-concept, 2) the level of self-concept clarity and the extent to which this clarity centers around strongly held values and convictions, 3) the extent to which their goals are self-concordant, and 4) the degree to which their behavior is con- sistent with their self-concept.”

George and Sims (2007, p. xxxi) Authentic leaders are “genuine people who are true to themselves and to what they believe in. They engender trust and develop genuine connections with others. Because people trust them, they are able to motivate others to high levels of performance. Rather than letting the expectations of other people guide them, they are prepared to be their own person and go their own way. As they develop as authentic leaders, they are more concerned about serving others than they are about their own success or recognition.”

Walumbwa et al. (2008, p. 94) “[W]e define authentic leadership as a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development.”

Whitehead (2009, p. 850) “In this article, a definition of an authentic leader is adopted as one who: (1) is self-aware, humble, always seeking improvement, aware of those being led and looks out for the welfare of others; (2) fosters high degrees of trust by building an ethical and moral framework; and (3) is committed to organizational success within the construct of social values.”

1122 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234614075_Adolescent_Leadership_Development_Building_a_Case_for_an_Authenticity_Framework?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223718868_'What's_your_Story'_A_Life-Stories_Approach_to_Authentic_Leadership_Development?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228352991_Authentic_Leadership_Development_and_Validation_of_a_Theory-Based_Measure?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228635276_Authentic_Leadership_and_Eudaemonic_Well-being_Understanding_Leader-Follower_Outcomes?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

Author's personal copy

The first attempt to formally define and operationalize the constructs of leadership authenticity and leadership inauthenticity per sewas made by Henderson and Hoy (1983). As Table 1 indicates, these authors view leadership authenticity as encompassing three components: (1) acceptance of personal and organizational responsibility for actions, outcomes and mistakes; (2) the non- manipulation of subordinates; and (3) the salience of the self over role requirements. Leadership inauthenticity involves low levels of these components, i.e., a lack of accountability, manipulation of subordinates, and salience of role over self. Although the components overlap somewhat with the dimensions of authenticity proposed by Kernis and Goldman (2006), they also ap- pear to be confounded with other constructs such as abusive supervision (Tepper, 2007), organizational politics (Ferris & Kacmar, 1995) and accountability (Hall, Blass, Ferris, & Massengale, 2004). Of the three dimensions proposed, salience of self over role comes closest to the philosophy-based conception of authenticity, as it “refers to the tendency to behave in a genuine manner relatively unconstrained by traditional role requirements. Such a person is viewed as being real and authentic” (Henderson & Hoy, 1983, p. 66).

Fourteen years elapsed before AL reemerged as a focus of interest within the social sciences, again within the field of education (Begley, 2001, 2004, 2006; Bhindi & Duignan, 1997; Duignan & Bhindi, 1997). As Table 1 indicates, Bhindi and Duignan (1997) defined AL as being composed of four components: authenticity, intentionality, spirituality, and sensibility. Begley (2001) intro- duced an alternative perspective that is both broad in scope and narrow in context, as it equates AL with effective and ethical leadership and is confined to the context of education administration (see Table 1). He argued that “[a]uthentic leadership implies a genuine kind of leadership— a hopeful, open-ended, visionary and creative response to circumstances” (p. 354). Hence, Begley's AL view encompasses some components (e.g., hopefulness; Luthans & Avolio, 2003) that are shared by subsequent definitions. Moreover, his later definition (Begley, 2004, p. 5; see Table 1) recognizes the importance of self-knowledge, a quality central to most conceptions of authenticity (Kernis & Goldman, 2006) and AL (e.g., Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; George, 2003; Ilies et al., 2005; Ladkin & Taylor, 2010; Luthans & Avolio, 2003; Shamir & Eilam, 2005; Sparrowe, 2005).

As noted earlier, George's books (George, 2003; George & Sims, 2007) have contributed greatly to the emergence of both prac- titioner and scholarly interest in AL. Given his practitioner background, it is not surprising to see that his definitions of authentic leaders and AL are primarily descriptive (see Table 1). Nevertheless, they do an excellent job of vividly capturing popular concep- tions that reflect many of the central components of scholarly definitions. For George, the five dimensions of AL are: (1) pursuing purpose with passion; (2) practicing solid values; (3) leading with heart; (4) establishing enduring relationships; and (5) dem- onstrating self-discipline. While the language is different, several of these align well with the components of authenticity that were identified by Kernis and Goldman (Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006). For example, establishing enduring relationships is consistent with a relational orientation, and practicing solid values coincides with authentic behavior.

The work that has been most instrumental in reigniting scholarly interest in AL is Luthans and Avolio's (2003) conceptualiza- tion of AL and its development. As these authors explain, the theoretical underpinnings of their AL model include positive orga- nizational behavior (POB) (Luthans, 2002), transformational/full-range leadership (Avolio, 1999), and ethical perspective-taking (Kegan, 1982). Because of this confluence of perspectives, their definition of AL (see Table 1) includes POB states such as confi- dence, hope, optimism, and resilience that later became the basis for Luthans, Avolio, Avey, and Norman's (2007) psychological capital (PsyCap) construct. This is also true of Avolio, Luthans, and Walumbwa's (2004) refined definition [as cited in Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, and May (2004)] (see Table 1). As a consequence, the distinction between AL, psychological cap- ital, and transformational leadership, is not clear from these definitions, raising early concerns about discriminant validity (Cooper et al., 2005). However, these definitions also encompass the core components of self-awareness, positive self- regulation, positive self-development, and/or a positive moral perspective that are often reflected, either explicitly or implicitly, in prior and subsequent conceptions of AL.

Through their research agenda, GLI associates Bruce Avolio, William Gardner, Fred Luthans, Doug May, Fred Walumbwa, and their colleagues worked on a more refined definition of AL (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner et al., 2005b). This research program yielded a model of AL development (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005) that is grounded in Kernis' (2003) multi-component conception of authenticity. As a testament to the scientific process, Ilies and colleagues (2005) independently developed a model of AL (see Table 1 for their definition) that is likewise based on Kernis' perspective, and thereby reinforced the utility of this framework. The GLI research program culminated with the definition of AL advanced by Walumbwa et al. (2008). As the def- inition presented in Table 1 indicates, this perspective identifies four primary components of AL – self-awareness, balanced pro- cessing, relational transparency, and an internalized moral perspective – that are based on the awareness, unbiased processing, relational orientation, and behavior/action components described by Kernis and Goldman (2006).

Some refinements were made to the four components to reflect both conceptual and empirical insights about their composi- tion. Specifically, the unbiased processing component was renamed balanced processing (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005) out of recognition that all humans are inherently biased and flawed processors of information, particularly regarding self- relevant information (Tice &Wallace, 2003). The behavior/action component was renamed internalized moral perspective to bet- ter reflect the leader's commitment to core ethical values. Additionally, two dimensions of AL – internalized regulation and a pos- itive moral perspective – that had previously been posited to be conceptually distinct (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005), were combined to form the internalized moral perspective component. The rationale for combining these is based on a content analysis of open-ended descriptions by GLI doctoral students of a person they deemed to be an authentic leader. The results revealed that these dimensions could not be reliably distinguished because both involve the display of behavior that is consistent with internal standards and values (Walumbwa et al., 2008, p. 97). The four-component model of AL was subsequently operationalized and validated by Walumbwa and colleagues (Walumbwa et al., 2008) through the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ; to be discussed further below).

1123W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225902319_In_Pursuit_of_Authentic_School_Leadership_Practices?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247519412_BOOK_REVIEW_Leadership_development_in_balance_MADEborn?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227700673_The_Need_for_and_Meaning_of_Positive_Organizational_Behavior?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238343578_The_Evolving_Self_Problem_and_Process_in_Human_Development?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222578792_A_Multicomponent_Conceptualization_of_Authenticity_Theory_and_Research?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228079138_Abusive_Supervision_in_Work_Organizations_Review_Synthesis_and_Research_Agenda?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232596721_Principal_authenticity_school_climate_and_pupil-control_orientation?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249751690_Leadership_for_a_New_CenturyAuthenticity_Intentionality_Spirituality_and_Sensibility?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240181961_Looking_forward_but_learning_from_our_past_Potential_challenges_to_developing_authentic_leadership_theory_and_authentic_leaders?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223852741_'Can_You_See_the_Real_Me'_A_Self-Based_Model_of_Authentic_Leader_and_Follower_Development?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

Author's personal copy

Table 1 includes Shamir and Eilam's (2005) definitions of the terms authentic leader and AL, which reflect an alternative to the perspectives based on Kernis and Goldman's (2006) conceptions of authenticity. Specifically, Shamir and Eilam (2005) propose a life stories approach to the development of authentic leaders. In defining the authentic leader construct, they apply the dictionary description of the word authentic as “original,” “genuine,” and “not fake” to identify a set of four defining characteristics. First, “authentic leaders do not fake their leadership” (p. 396). Instead, they lead as an expression of their “true” and “real” self. Second, they lead from conviction in pursuit of a value-based mission or cause. Third, “[a]uthentic leaders are originals, not copies” (p. 397) who are driven by deeply rooted values that they experience to be true, not values imposed by others. Finally, because they take action based on their values and convictions, there is consistency betweenwhat they say and do. Shamir and Eilam (2005) also note that their conception of authentic leaders says nothing about the content of the leader's values, in contrast to other definitions that include con- siderations of morality.

Shamir and Eilam's (2005, p. 398) definition rests on leaders' self-concepts and the relationships between their self-concepts and behaviors. They describe authentic leaders as those who possess high degrees of person–role merger (i.e., the leadership role is salient in their self-concept), self-concept clarity, self-congruence, and behavioral consistency. They define AL as a process that includes not only the authentic leader, but also encompasses authentic followership, as followers choose to follow the leader for genuine reasons to form an authentic relationship. Finally, in advancing their life stories approach to AL development, they de- scribe how leaders' life stories can produce insight into the meanings they attach to key life events and which, over time, facilitate positive self-development through reflection.

Other notable alternatives to those based in Kernis and Goldman's (2006) conception of authenticity include: Sparrowe's (2005) application of hermeneutic philosophy to describe the narrative process whereby the leader's authentic self develops; Michie and Gooty's (2005) exploration of the role that self-transcendent values and positive other-directed emotions play in the development of AL; Eagly's (2005) application of role incongruity theory to explain why incongruities between gender role and leader role requirements sometimes make it difficult for women to achieve authenticity as leaders; and Ladkin and Taylor's (2010, p. 64) consideration of the “ways in which a somatic sense of self contributes to the felt sense of authenticity, and how through engaging with somatic cues, leadership can be performed in a way which is experienced as authentic, both to the leader and to those he or she seeks to lead.” Finally, Whitehead (2009) recently introduced a definition of AL that includes three com- ponents: (1) self-awareness, other awareness, and a developmental focus; (2) the creation of high levels of trust built on a firm ethical and moral framework; and (3) commitment to organizational success grounded in social values (see Table 1). While the content and labels for these dimensions differ somewhat from earlier definitions, there is also clear overlap. We consider these alternative perspectives in more detail below as part of our content analysis of the AL literature.

3. Content analysis of AL publications

3.1. Sample

To identify publications for inclusion in our review, we searched EBSCO/Host databases using specific keywords linked to AL such as “authentic leadership” and “authenticity” paired with “leader”, “follower”, or “leadership.”We also issued a call for papers through the Academy of Management's LDRNet and used a snowball approach by searching the references of relevant publica- tions to further identify those for inclusion in the review. As with any extensive search, these attempts yielded additional publi- cations, such as those that discuss only authenticity or leadership. Therefore, we established guidelines for relevancy and accuracy purposes. For a publication to be included in this review, it had to discuss authenticity in leaders and/or followers. Articles that did not meet these criteria were eliminated from the dataset. We also made a decision to focus on scholarly publications, with the cut-off date of December 31, 2010. Any conference papers, dissertations, and working papers, as well as most practitioner publi- cations, were removed from the collection. The final sample included 91 AL publications.

Our rationale for limiting our review to publications stemmed from a belief that conference papers, working papers, and dis- sertations have not been subjected to the peer review process and may not be fully developed and/or based on sound theory and empirical methods. Accordingly, including theory or findings generated from these works in our review could potentially under- mine the development of the field. Our rationale for excluding practitioner publications is based on the recognition that they serve a different purpose (sharing leadership insights with practicing managers) from scholarly publications, which seek to ad- vance knowledge in the field. Given our interest in assessing the evolution of the field, we concentrate our attention on scholarly work. However, we did make some exceptions for practitioner publications (e.g., May, Chan, Hodges, & Avolio, 2003) that were repeatedly identified by scholars as having influenced their thinking about AL.

3.2. Coding scheme

To conduct our content analysis, we applied many of the methods described by Gardner, Lowe, Moss, Mahoney, and Cogliser (2010) in their recent content analysis of articles published in The Leadership Quarterly during the journal's second decade. For each article at least three members of the author team recorded: (1) author names, disciplines, institutional affiliation, type of af- filiation (academic, consultant, or practitioner) and country of affiliation at the time of publication; (2) theoretical paradigm (pos- itivist, interpretive, critical); (3) theoretical foundations of AL; (4) foundational citations for AL; (5) the purpose of the article (develop new theory, extend/link current theory, contradict current theory, or summarize/review existing theory); and (6) whether

1124 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222624211_Values_emotions_and_authenticity_Will_the_real_leader_please_stand_up?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

Author's personal copy

or not AL was central to the article. For theoretical articles, we recorded research questions, propositions, and anymodels included in the article.

For empirical qualitative articles, we developed an original classification scheme based on Lee's (1999) descriptions of quali- tative methods to code: (1) the research methodology; (2) if the data were recorded and/or transcribed; (3) interview type (if interview methods were employed); (4) data analysis techniques; and (5) whether or not credibility, transferability, or depend- ability were discussed. For empirical quantitative articles, we again followed Gardner and colleagues' (2010) example and applied a classification scheme developed by Scandura and Williams (2000) to code: (1) study hypotheses; (2) research strategy; (3) sample location and type; (4) data collection methods; (5) operationalization of AL; (6) how AL was modeled (as an independent variable, dependent variable, moderator, or mediator); and (7) the analytic methods employed.

Once the coding was completed, we conducted reliability checks of the recorded data. The initial inter-rater percent agree- ment values for subjectively coded categories were 76% for research strategy, 76% for research tradition, 80% for theoretical pur- pose, 80% for theoretical foundations, and 84% for AL centrality. All authors participated in the reconciliation of coding discrepancies through discussion and consensus, resulting in 100% inter-rater agreement. Finally, the data for each article was summarized by five time periods and aggregated for a summation across time periods. Our findings are presented in the following sections.

3.3. Type of authentic leadership publications over time

We coded the type of publications into three primary types: theoretical, empirical, and practitioner. Although our interest cen- ters on scholarly publications that fall within the first two categories, there are several practitioner-oriented publications by AL scholars (Avolio &Wernsing, 2008; Champy, 2009; Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004; George, Sims, McLean, & Mayer, 2007; Goffee & Jones, 2005; Hannah, 2007; May et al., 2003) that surfaced through our literature search. While we excluded these practitioner works from further content analyses that focused on the development and empirical evaluation of AL theory, we retained them in our data-base because they: 1) serve as a rough (but incomplete, due to the exclusion of practitioner books) benchmark for practitioner interest in AL; 2) were identified through our content analysis of scholarly articles as foundational publications (George et al., 2007; Goffee & Jones, 2005; May et al., 2003); and/or 3) communicate findings from the scholarly literature to prac- titioner audiences (Avolio & Wernsing, 2008; Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004; Hannah, 2007).

A graphical depiction of the number of theoretical, empirical, and practitioner publications focused on AL is presented in Fig. 1. A complementary summary of publication type across time that also distinguishes between journal articles and book chapters is presented in Table 2. The earliest publications on AL by Henderson and Hoy (1983); Hoy and Henderson, 1983) focused on the definition and operationalization of a measure of leader authenticity. Following their work, there was a lull in interest in the topic until Bhindi and Duignan (1997) and Begley (2001) reintroduced AL to the education literature, and Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) made the distinction between authentic and pseudo-transformational leadership which inspired subsequent distinctions between more versus less authentic leadership.

Stimulated by the publication of George's Authentic Leadership and Luthans and Avolio's call for scholarly research in 2003, the ensuing years saw a sharp increase in activity. As Fig. 1 indicates, three additional theoretical articles (Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004; Begley, 2004; Zhu, May, & Avolio, 2004) and one practitioner article (Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004) were published in 2004. Further stimulation was provided by the 2004 Gallup Leadership Summit, which produced a 2005 spike of 24 publications that

Fig. 1. AL publications by year and type.

1125W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235431608_Unleashing_individual_potential_Performance_gains_through_positive_organizational_behavior_and_authentic_leadership?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245558271_Authentic_Leadership_Rediscovering_the_Secrets_to_Creating_Lasting_Value_J-B_Warren_Bennis_Series?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232547195_Leader_authenticity_The_development_and_test_of_an_operational_measure?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235279702_Authenticity_in_leadership_An_emerging_perspective?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222690544_Unlocking_the_Mask_A_Look_at_the_Process_by_Which_Authentic_Leaders_Impact_Follower_Attitudes_and_Behaviors?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

Author's personal copy

focused on theory development, many of which appeared in a special issue of The Leadership Quarterly (Volume 16, Issue 3) and Elsevier'sMonographs in Leadership and Ethics series (Gardner et al., 2005b). This latter outlet accounted for the majority (14 pub- lications) of the refereed book chapters devoted to the construct. The year 2005 is also noteworthy for the appearance of two pub- lications that offer empirical findings (Eigel & Kuhnert, 2005; Pittinsky & Tyson, 2005), which represented the first since Henderson and Hoy's (1983) and Hoy & Henderson (1983) articles. Although 2005 represents the watershed for AL scholarship, the ensuing years have seen a steady stream of theoretical (four to seven per year) and empirical (two to eight per year) publi- cations, with empirical publications (eight) exceeding the number of conceptual publications (four) in 2010 for the first time. Thus, there is evidence that activity in the field may be shifting from a primary emphasis on theory generation to theory testing.

A framework for interpreting the progression of AL research is provided by Reichers and Schneider's (1990) three-stagemodel for the evolution of constructs. We draw upon this framework and the work of Hunt (1999) and other scholars (Cogliser & Brigham, 2004; Gardner et al., 2010) who used it to examine the field of leadership in general and various approaches or domains within the field. The three stages are: (1) concept introduction and elaboration; (2) concept evaluation and augmentation; and (3) concept consolidation and accommodation.

The first stage involves efforts to legitimize the construct and inform others through publications about the newly developed or newly borrowed construct. Preliminary findings are presented as evidence that the construct is genuine. During the second stage critical reviews emerge that identify problems related to the definition and operationalization of the construct. Concerns about the validity of empirical findings are raised, and in response mediators and moderators are introduced to clarify the pro- cesses underlying the phenomenon. In the final stage a few generally accepted definitions emerge, meta-analytic studies are con- ducted, and the construct appears as a moderator and mediator in more general models within the field.

Using this model as a lens for interpreting the data presented in Fig. 1 and Tables 1 and 2, the research on AL appears to fall within the first stage. Although a variety of AL definitions have been introduced, no one generally agreed-upon definition exists. In addition, the majority of the scholarly publications seek to develop or extend theory, rather than to test it through empirical research. The presence of an uptick in empirical research in 2010 and the emergence of a few critical reviews (Cooper et al., 2005; Yammarino et al., 2008) suggest some initial movement toward the second stage. Moreover, the adoption of authentic lead- ership as a foundational theory for a new model of responsible leadership introduced by Higham, Freathy, and Wegerif (2010) further testifies to the maturation of the construct.

3.4. Author attributes

To learn more about the authors who publish on AL, we examined their affiliations and biographical sketches for the publica- tions included in our review to identify the total number of authors credited, their country of affiliation, discipline, and type (ac- ademic, consulting, practitioner). A summary of author attributes by publication period is provided in Table 3.

3.4.1. Number of author credits The number of authors represents the total number of author credits identified, rather than the number of unique authors. Be-

cause many authors published multiple articles/book sections, they were included in the count for each of the publications attrib- uted to them. Table 3 reveals that the number of author credits increased from 12 prior to 2003, to 18 in 2003–2004, and spiked at 73 in 2005–2006, before declining but leveling off at a reduced but comparative high level of activity (49 to 51) in the ensuing time periods. These findings are consistent with the preceding analysis of AL that revealed 2005 as the watershed year for work in the area that stimulated an elevated level of research activity thereafter.

Table 2 Publication type by time period for authentic leadership publications.

Publication type Time period

Pre-2003 2003–2004 2005–2006 2007–2008 2009–2010 Total

Theoretical Journal articles 4 4 14 11 8 41 Book chapters 0 1 13 2 2 18 Total 4 5 27 13 10 59

Empirical Journal articles 3 0 2 5 13 23 Book chapters 0 0 2 0 0 2 Total 3 0 4 5 13 25

Practitioner Journal articles 0 2 1 1 1 5 Book chapters 0 0 0 2 0 2 Total 0 2 1 3 1 7

Grand total 7 7 32 21 24 91

1126 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237254306_Authentic_development_Leadership_development_level_and_executive_effectiveness?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4892769_Leader_Authenticity_Markers_Findings_From_A_Study_of_African-American_Leaders?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-42632ef9-5a43-4ebe-a1aa-76d7d92f6663&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIzNTQzMTU5OTtBUzo5OTQ0MjE1Nzk0ODkzMEAxNDAwNzIwMjY2MDc3

Author's personal copy

3.4.2. Author country, affiliation, and type Table 3 also reveals that most authors have academic affiliations (196; 96.6%), identify with the management (132; 65%), busi-

ness in general (18; 8.9%), or education (17; 8.4%) disciplines, and reside in the United States (152; 74.8%) or Canada (16; 7.9%). The overrepresentation of academic authors is not surprising given our decision to focus on scholarly work in the area. However, the high proportion of North American scholars with management, business, or educational training raises some concerns, par- ticularly given that the construct of authenticity has deep roots in other disciplines (e.g., philosophy, art, psychology, sociology) and European and Asian cultures (Erickson, 1995; Harter, 2002; Novicevic et al., 2006). These findings suggest that work by scholars with more diverse disciplinary and cultural backgrounds might facilitate the application of alternative theoretical per- spectives for understanding how AL is manifest within and across cultures.

Table 4 Publication purpose, authentic leadership centrality, and theoretical foundations by publication period.

Time period

Pre-2003 2003–2004 2005–2006 2007–2008 2009–2010 Total

Publication purpose Develop new theory 4 1 2 1 1 9 Extend/link theory 3 4 27 15 19 68 Contradict/critique theory 0 1 1 0 1 4 Review/summarize 0 1 2 4 3 10

Is AL central? Yes 5 4 24 15 18 66 No 2 3 8 6 6 25

Theoretical foundation Authentic leadership theory 0 4 31 20 23 78 Authenticity/self/identity 4 2 9 7 8 30 Affective processes 0 0 3 1 1 5 Attribution theory/social perception 0 0 3 1 0 4 Ethics/values/ethical leadership 3 5 6 3 1 18 Neo-charismatic leadership 1 2 2 0 3 8 Positive psychology/POB/POSa 0 2 4 2 5 13 Well-being/vital engagement 0 0 3 0 5 8 Other/not applicable 1 0 4 2 2 9

a POB = Positive Organizational Behavior; POS = Positive Organizational Scholarship.

Table 3 Author country, discipline, and type by publication period.

Time period

Pre-2003 2003–2004 2005–2006 2007–2008 2009–2010 Total

Number of authors 12 18 73 49 51 203 Author countries

Australia 4 0 2 1 2 9 Canada 1 0 1 4 10 16 China 0 0 0 0 1 1 Finland 0 0 0 2 0 2 France 0 0 1 0 0 1 Israel 0 0 2 0 0 2 New Zealand 0 0 0 0 1 1 Pakistan 0 0 0 1 0 1 Singapore 0 0 0 4 2 6 Spain 0 0 0 0 1 1 Switzerland 0 0 0 3 0 3 Trinidad and Tobago 0 0 0 0 1 1 United Kingdom 0 0 1 1 5 7 United States 7 18 66 33 28 152

Author discipline Business 0 0 1 13 4 18 Education 9 1 1 2 4 17 Management 2 16 60 27 27 132 Psychology 0 0 3 2 1 6 Other 1 1 8 5 15 30

Author type Academic 12 18 70 48 48 196 Consulting 0 0 1 0 3 4 Practitioner 0 0 2 1 0 3

1127W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

3.5. Publication purpose and AL centrality

3.5.1. Publication purpose To learn more about the purposes and centrality of AL to the focus of the publications identified, we coded these variables

across time periods (see Table 4). The results revealed that the primary purpose for AL research is to extend and link theory (68; 75.7%), a finding that is consistent with the notion that the field is in the first stage of Reichers and Schneider's (1990) model— concept introduction and elaboration. The small number (nine; 9.8%) of publications that develop new theory is not sur- prising given the difficulty of generating original conceptual frameworks. Sample publications from the “develop new theory” cat- egory for each time period include Henderson and Hoy (1983), Luthans and Avolio (2003), Shamir and Eilam (2005), Hansen, Ropo, and Sauer (2007) and Liu (2010). The first three of these each played important roles in articulating the AL construct, as reflected by the inclusion of their definitions in Table 1. The Hansen and colleagues (2007) article draws from AL theory and ad- dresses issues of leader authenticity, but its primary purpose is to develop a theory of aesthetic leadership. Although it is too early to assess the impact of Liu's (2010) article, her application of discourse analysis to generate a typology of leaders' failures and the framing strategies they employ to construct and negotiate images of leadership style, effectiveness, and authenticity provides an original lens for viewing leader authenticity. Moreover, the emergence of a limited number of critiques (Cooper et al., 2005; Price, 2003; Shaw, 2010; Yammarino et al., 2008), and the increasing number of reviews/summaries (Avolio, 2010; Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009; Avolio & Wernsing, 2008; Champy, 2009; Gardner, Avolio, & Walumbwa, 2005a; Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004; George et al., 2007; Goffee & Jones, 2005; Hannah, 2007; Toor, Ofori, & Arain, 2007) reinforces our conclusion that the field may be taking some initial steps into the second stage of construct development — concept evaluation and argumentation (Reichers & Schneider, 1990).

3.5.2. Centrality of AL A summary of publications that focused on AL as the central construct of interest is also provided in Table 4. Across time pe-

riods, AL has served as the primary focus for approximately three-quarters of the publications. This finding suggests that, befitting its first stage status, AL is not often invoked as a peripheral construct, such as a mediating or moderating variable within the con- text of a broader theory, as would be the case in Reichers and Schneider's (1990) third stage of construct development, concept consolidation and accommodation.

3.6. Theoretical foundations

As part of our content analysis, each coder recorded the primary theoretical foundations they viewed as underlying the discus- sion of AL through an open-ended, qualitative coding process (Lee, 1999). The theories identified were subsequently grouped into nine categories through a data reduction process. These categories are: (1) AL theory; (2) authenticity/self/identity; (3) affective processes; (4) attribution theory/social perception; (5) ethics/values/ethical leadership; (6) neo-charismatic leadership theories; (7) positive psychology/positive organizational behavior (POB)/positive organizational scholarship (POS); (8) well-being/vital engagement, and (9) other/not applicable. Next, these categories were used to code the theoretical foundations underlying each publication. Table 4 includes a summary of the results across time periods and Table 5 presents a summary of the citations

Table 5 Foundational citations.

Citation Number of times identified as foundation

Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al. (2005) 44 Luthans and Avolio (2003) 43 Avolio and Gardner (2005) 33 Avolio, Gardner, et al., 2004 32 Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) 23 George (2003) 19 May et al. (2003) 19 Ilies et al. (2005) 17 Harter (2002) 15 Shamir and Eilam (2005) 13 Kernis (2003) 11 Avolio, Luthans, et al., 2004 10 Burns (1978) 9 Erickson (1995) 9 Luthans (2002a,b) 9 Walumbwa et al. (2008) 9 Avolio and Luthans (2006) 8 Deci and Ryan (1995) 6 Avolio (2005) 5 Bass (1985) 5 Markus and Wurf (1987) 5 87 additional articles b5

1128 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

most frequently identified by one or more coders as a theoretical foundation for the publication reviewed. We provide a more detailed discussion of these below.

3.6.1. AL theory Theories focused on AL and/or AL development per se, as opposed to authenticity in general, or theories that provided the con-

ceptual underpinnings for AL theory, were grouped into this category. These include the perspectives previously examined during our discussion of the AL definitions presented in Table 1. Hence many of the publications that advanced or extended initial models of AL fall within this category (e.g., Avolio, 2005; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Avolio & Luthans, 2006; Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004; Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Bhindi & Duignan, 1997; Duignan & Bhindi, 1997; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; George, 2003; Ilies et al., 2005; Luthans & Avolio, 2003; May et al., 2003; Shamir & Eilam, 2005; Walumbwa et al., 2008); not surprisingly, they are also well represented among foundational citations in Table 5. An examination of Table 4 reveals that while the majority (31) of publications that built upon AL theory appeared during the fertile 2005–2006 time period, work in the area continues to draw upon these theories as the field matures.

3.6.2. Authenticity/self/identity Given that the construct of authenticity lies at the core of AL theory (Luthans & Avolio, 2003), theories of the self, identity, and

authenticity (Leary & Tangney, 2003), have played a key role in the development of the field. As Table 4 indicates, such theories are second only to AL theory (78) with regard to the number of times (30) they were coded as providing foundational support. Indeed, the influence of these perspectives has remained constant across time periods.

Many of the AL publications (Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; Ilies et al., 2005; Luthans & Avolio, 2003; Shamir & Eilam, 2005) identified as foundational in Table 5 advanced models that incorporate self-based constructs (e.g., self-awareness, self-regulation, self-knowledge, self-esteem, self-verification, self-concept clarity, self-certainty, self- determination, self-congruence, self-consistency, self-concordance, self-expression) and identification processes described by so- cial psychologists (Leary & Tangney, 2003). In addition, reflections on authenticity from other disciplines including hermeneutic philosophy (Ricoeur, 1976), aesthetics (Baumgarten, 1750; reprinted in 1936), acting (Stanislavski, 1936), and management his- tory (Barnard, 1938, 1948), respectively, inspired the novel perspectives of AL advanced by Sparrowe (2005), Hansen and asso- ciates (2007), Ladkin and Taylor (2010), and Novicevic, Davis, Dorn, Buckley, and Brown (2005). Given the diverse conceptions of self, identity and authenticity available, we anticipate that theorists will continue to draw from a rich array of disciplines to gen- erate new and intriguing perspectives on AL.

3.6.3. Affective processes Foundational theories subsumed under this category include affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), Ashkanasy's

(2003) multi-level theory of emotions, Oakley's (1993) theory of morality and emotions, theories of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999) and emotional labor (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Grandey, 2000; Hochschild, 1983). To date, AL scholars have applied these affective process theories to clarify how: (1) followers' attributions of AL elicit positive and negative emo- tional reactions (Dasborough & Ashkanasy, 2005); (2) positive other-directed emotions motivate authentic leaders to act on self- transcendent universal andbenevolent values andexhibit self-transcendent behavior (Michie&Gooty, 2005); (3) emotional intelligence fosters self-awareness and thereby contributes to the development of AL (Klenke, 2005); and (4) display rules inherent to the leadership role exert pressures on leaders to engage in emotional labor thatmay compromise their quest for authenticity (Gardner, Fischer, &Hunt, 2009;Hunt, Gardner, & Fischer, 2008). Although three out of five of these publications appeared during the 2005–2006 time period, they have yet to generate subsequent theoretical or empirical work. Nonetheless, given the importance of emotions to the experience, per- ception, and expression of authenticity (Harter, 2002; Hochschild, 1983), we consider further explorations of the affective processes un- derlying authentic leader–follower relationships to be crucial for the advancement of the field.

3.6.4. Attribution theory/social perception Foundational theories grouped into this category include attribution theory (Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1973; Martinko, Harvey, &

Douglas, 2007) and theories of social (e.g., Kenny, 1991) and leader (Lord & Emrich, 2000; Meindl, Ehrlich, & Dukerich, 1985) per- ception. Only four AL publications were identified as building uponmodels of attribution (Avolio &Walumbwa, 2006; Dasborough & Ashkanasy, 2005; Harvey,Martinko, & Gardner, 2006) and social perception (Fields, 2007) (see Table 4). Representative of the former is Harvey and colleagues' (2006) use of attribution theory to explain how an accurate and balanced attribution style can facilitate AL and how organizations can foster its development by heightening awareness of factors which promote inaccurate attributions. Fields (2007) applied Kenny's (1991)Weighted AverageModel of social perception to explain how the attributes and actions of a leader and aspects of the situation impact howmuch followers agree that a leader exhibits authenticity and integrity. Despite themodest use of these theories to date, they possess promise for clarifying the influence of attribution and perceptual processes on the creation of au- thentic leader–follower relationships.

3.6.5. Ethics/values/ethical leadership There has been some disagreement within the AL literature about the inclusion of ethics as a core component. While there is a con-

sensus that staying true to one's values is important, Shamir and Eilam (2005) purposely avoided saying anything about the ethical con- tent of the leader's values. In contrast, Avolio and Gardner (2005) argued that the construct is inherently moral, and Walumbwa and colleagues' (2008) operationalized an internalized moral perspective as a basic component of AL. On balance, it appears that much of

1129W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

“the literature strongly connects authentic leadership with moral leadership” (Ladkin & Taylor, 2010, p. 65). This helps to explain why theories of ethics (e.g., Hutchinson, 1995; Kegan, 1982; Kohlberg, 1984), values (e.g., Oakley, 1993; Schwartz, 1992), ethical leadership (e.g., Brown& Trevino, 2006) and spiritual leadership (e.g., Fry, 2003, 2005) have exerted an important influence on the development of the field. Although Table 4 reveals that a relatively highnumber (18) of publications use ethical or values-based frameworks, the number has declined in recent years. Perhaps this trend is attributable to the explicit inclusion of an ethical component inmost conceptions of AL, which precludes the need to reference themore foundationalwork as AL theory becomes further developed. Nonetheless, given the rich- ness of ethical theory and the insights available from ongoing work on ethical leadership (Brown & Trevino, 2006), spiritual leadership (Fry &Whittington, 2005), andmoral development (Ambrose, Arnaud, & Schminke, 2008), we encourage AL scholars to continue to ex- plore the implications of these perspectives.

3.6.6. Neo-charismatic leadership The term neo-charismatic leadership approaches was coined by House and Aditya (1997) to describe a newly emergent leader-

ship paradigm that encompasses theories of charismatic, transformational, and visionary leadership. As previously noted, Bass and Steidlmeier's (1999) discussion of authentic transformational leadership served as a stimulus for interest in the construct of AL. Sim- ilarly, Luthans and Avolio (2003) readily acknowledged the influence of transformational leadership on their conception of AL. As the field has matured, sharper distinctions between authentic and transformational leadership have been drawn. For example, Avolio and Gardner (2005) describe AL as a root construct that serves as the basis for all forms of positive leadership. They go on to assert that AL “can incorporate transformational, charismatic, servant, spiritual or other forms of leadership. However, in contrast to transformational leadership in particular, authentic leadership may or may not be charismatic” (p. 329). Furthermore,Walumbwa and colleagues (2008) demonstrated that the ALQ accounts for variance beyond measures of transformational (Multifactor Leader- ship Questionnaire, MLQ, Form 5x; Bass & Avolio, 1993) and ethical leadership (Brown, Trevino, & Harrison, 2005), thereby provid- ing evidence for the discriminant validity of the AL construct. As such, perhaps it is not surprising that relatively few (eight) AL publications identify neo-charismatic leadership theories as foundational, despite the early association of the constructs.

An example of a recent article that explicitly specifies transformational leadership as foundational is Spitzmuller and Ilies (2010) empirical examination of the relationship between a leader's relational authenticity and follower assessments of transfor- mational leadership. They posited that a strong relational orientation by an authentic leader would foster open and trusting lead- er–follower relationships, follower identification with the leader, and attributions of leader integrity, yielding elevated perceptions of individualized consideration, idealized influence, and inspirational motivation — three core components of trans- formational leadership. To test their hypotheses, Spitzmuller and Ilies administered Goldman and Kernis's (2001) Authenticity Inventory as a measure of leader authenticity to 91 mid-level managers and the MLQ to 379 of their subordinates (4.17 per man- ager). As predicted, more as opposed to less relationally authentic leaders were rated as more transformational and produced greater convergence in followers' perceptions of transformational behavior. However, other components of leader authenticity, such as behavioral authenticity, were unrelated to transformational leadership.

Overall, these findings indicate that while relational transparency on the part of an authentic leader serves to elicit perceptions of transformational leadership, these constructs are nonetheless conceptually distinct. Moreover, they suggest that additional re- search that clarifies the relationships between transformational leadership, as well as charismatic, visionary and other forms of neo-charismatic leadership, is warranted.

3.6.7. Positive psychology/POB/POS As noted earlier, Luthans and Avolio (2003) were inspired, in part, by the emergence of positive psychology (Harter, 2002;

Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), POB (Luthans, 2002) and POS (Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003). Indeed, they originally in- cluded the POB states of confidence, optimism, hope and resilience identified by Luthans (2002) as qualities of the authentic lead- er. Subsequent conceptions of the construct view these POB states as separate, but related constructs (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner et al., 2005a). The POB states that Luthans and associates (2007) later renamed psychological capital (PsyCap) continue to provide a theoretical foundation for AL research. Table 4 indicates that 13 publications identify POB, POS or PsyCap as founda- tional constructs, with interest in the relationships between these states and AL increasing over time (Avolio, Griffith, Wernsing, & Walumbwa, 2010; Brown & Gardner, 2007; Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, & Avey, 2009; Jensen & Luthans, 2006b; Klenke, 2005; Kolditz & Brazil, 2005; Macik-Frey, Quick, & Cooper, 2009; Shirey, 2009; Wong & Cummings, 2009a; Yammarino et al., 2008; Youssef & Luthans, 2005).

Representative of this work is Clapp-Smith and colleagues' (2009) investigation of the relationships between AL, trust in man- agement, PsyCap, and performance at the group level using a sample of retail clothing stores. The results revealed that trust in management mediated the relationship between PsyCap and performance, and partially mediated the relationship between AL and performance. Promising findings such as these demonstrate the relevance of PsyCap to AL and the utility of exploring the effects of both constructs on trust and performance. We join Avolio and colleagues (Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004; Avolio et al., 2010; Gardner et al., 2005a) in advocating further research into the interactive effects of AL, PsyCap, positive ethical climates, trust, identification processes, and follower work attitudes on the attainment of veritable and sustained follower and organiza- tional performance.

3.6.8. Well-being/vital engagement During the peak of theory generation in 2005, three influential perspectives (see Table 5) were advanced by Gardner, Avolio,

Luthans et al. (2005), Ilies and colleagues (2005), and Shamir and Eilam (2005), each of which identified follower and leader well-

1130 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

being and engagement as outcomes of AL. The reason for this confluence is that these scholars each recognized the documented relationships between authenticity, engagement, and well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006). As Table 4 indicates, five recent publications (Gardner et al., 2009; Giallonardo, Wong, & Iwasiw, 2010; Macik-Frey et al., 2009; Walumbwa, Wang, Wang, Schaubroeck, & Avolio, 2010; Wong & Cummings, 2009a) have built on the work of these and other scholars in exploring the relationships between AL and leader and/or follower engagement, empowerment and well-being.

Representative of this work is Walumbwa and associates' (2010) recent study of the direct and indirect effects of AL on fol- lowers' work engagement and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). Using a sample of managers and their direct reports, they showed that AL elicits elevated levels of follower work engagement and OCB, and that these relationships were mediated by feelings of empowerment and identification with the supervisor, as posited by foundational AL models (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; Ilies et al., 2005; Shamir & Eilam, 2005). Given both the theoretical and practical importance of work engagement and employee well-being, we encourage research on the positive effects of AL on these and related outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and employee and organizational performance).

3.6.9. Other theoretical foundations/not applicable This category encompasses theoretical foundations for AL research that were not subsumed by any of the preceding categories.

As Table 4 indicates, nine publications identified theoretical foundations that fell into this category, one of which was classified as “not applicable” because it used an inductive, qualitative methodology that was not grounded in established theory (Dillon, 2001). The foundational theories that were grouped into the “other” category, along with the AL publications associated with these theories include: (1) social cognitive theory (Chan, Hannah, & Gardner, 2005); (2) political leadership (Pittinsky & Tyson, 2005); (3) political skill (Douglas, Ferris, & Perrewe, 2005); (4) role incongruity theory (Eagly, 2005); (5) strategy making (Liedtka, 2008); (6) organizational learning (Crossan, Lane, &White, 1999); (7)method acting (Ladkin & Taylor, 2010), and (8) positive health (Macik-Frey et al., 2009). As a group, these publications demonstrate the utility of applying diverse theoretical frameworks to the study of AL to gain novel insights into the process.

3.7. Research methods employed in empirical AL articles

Due to the nascent nature of AL research, only 25 empirical publications were identified through our literature search. To provide an assessment of the types of methods adopted by AL researchers, we distinguished between qualitative and quan- titative studies to identify the research strategies employed across time periods. Table 6 presents a summary of the results. As the table indicates, nine and 16 studies, respectively, employed qualitative methods and quantitative methods. This rep- resents a relatively high percentage (36%) of qualitative studies compared to the low amount (12.2%) identified by Glynn and Raffaelli (2010) in a recent content analysis of leadership publications appearing in three top tier journals (Academy of Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, and Organization Science) and one special journal (The Leadership Quarterly, LQ) over the past 50 years (1957–2007). It also compares favorably with the percentage (24.1%) identified by Gardner and colleagues (2010) in their recent review of articles published in LQ during the journal's second decade. In con- trast, an earlier review of LQ's first decade of research (Lowe & Gardner, 2000) reported a higher amount of qualitative studies (39%). Perhaps the shift in the numbers of qualitative versus quantitative studies published in LQ reflects a maturation of the leadership field, as many researchers favor the use of qualitative methods to generate new theories and quantitative methods to test existing theories (Edmondson & McManus, 2007). This explanation may also account for the relatively high percentage of qualitative studies of AL, given that the construct appears to be in Reichers and Schneider's (1990) first stage of development.

3.7.1. Qualitative research For the qualitative studies, we coded the method of data collection (focus group, case study, interview, narrative, and partic-

ipant observation), country where the research was conducted, data analysis techniques (meaning condensation, meaning cate- gories, and ad hoc methods), and whether issues of credibility, transferability, or dependability were discussed (Lee, 1999). The results, summarized in Table 6, indicate that no particular form of data collection method was favored, as focus groups (Pittinsky & Tyson, 2005), case studies (Bissessar, 2010; Branson, 2007; Dillon, 2001), interviews (Dillon, 2001; Endrissat, Muller, & Kaudela-Baum, 2007; Higham et al., 2010; Shirey, 2009), narrative analysis (Liu, 2010; Roche, 2010), and participant observation (Higham et al., 2010) were all employed. In addition, the research was conducted in a wide range of settings, from Trinidad and Tobago to Australia and New Zealand.

With respect to data analytic techniques (Lee, 1999), some studies focused on abstracting the most important themes from the data through meaning condensation (Dillon, 2001; Endrissat et al., 2007; Higham et al., 2010; Roche, 2010), others used meaning categorization methods to group the data into quantifiable categories (Dillon, 2001; Liu, 2010; Pittinsky & Tyson, 2005; Shirey, 2009), and still others employed ad hoc methods (Bissessar, 2010; Branson, 2007). Only two studies (Dillon, 2001; Endrissat et al., 2007) addressed the issue of data credibility, as recommended by Lee (1999). Thus, while we commend scholars who have applied qualitative methods to explore AL for the breadth of methods adopted, we encourage researchers to devote greater attention to assessing the credibility, transferability, and dependability of their findings.

1131W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

Table 6 Summary of research methods employed in empirical publications by time period.

Time period

Pre-2003 2003–2004 2005–2006 2007–2008 2009–2010 Total

Publication type Qualitative 1 0 1 2 5 9 Quantitative 2 0 3 3 8 16

Qualitative publications Method of data collection Focus group 1 1 Case study 1 1 1 3 Interview 1 2 3 Narrative 2 2 Participant observation 1 1

Country of study Australia 1 1 2 New Zealand 1 1 Switzerland 1 1 Trinidad and Tobago 1 1 United States 1 1 1 3 Not reported 1 1

Data analysis techniques Meaning condensation 1 1 2 4 Meaning categories 1 1 2 4 Ad hoc methods 1 1 2

Credibility/transferability/dependability 1 1 2 Quantitative publications

Research strategy Field study-primary 2 3 3 6 14 Field study-secondary 1 1 Interview 1 1 Survey 2 2 3 8 15 Scale development 1 1 2

Sample type Private/for profit 2 2 4 Public/government 2 1 3 Student 2 2 4 Mixed 1 1 2 Not reported 3 3

Country of study Canada 3 3 China 1 1 2 Singapore 1 1 United States 2 2 1 3 8 Not reported 1 2 3 Mixed (multiple countries) 1 1

Time frame Cross-sectional 2 3 1 6 12 Longitudinal 2 2 4

Reliability estimates provided? 2 3 2 6 13 Construct validity assessment Confirmatory factor analysis 1 2 3 Exploratory factor analysis 1 2 1 4 Discriminant validity 1 1 Interrater reliability 1 1

Level of analysis for dependent variable Individual 1 3 2 7 13 Organization 2 2 4 N/A 1 1

Analyses Analysis of variance 2 2 Linear regression 1 3 4 Content analysis 1 1 Correlation 2 3 2 6 13 Nonparametric techniques 1 1 Factoring 1 2 2 2 7 SEM/path analysis 1 3 4 Multi-level methods (HLM, WABA) 1 1 2 4

1132 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

3.7.2. Quantitative research We coded the quantitative studies with respect to the research strategy, sample type, country where the study was conducted,

time frame (cross-sectional versus longitudinal), provision of reliability estimates, assessment of construct validity, level of anal- ysis for the dependent variable, and method of statistical analysis. To code the research strategy, we adopted a categorization scheme developed by Scandura andWilliams (2000) which includes the following categories: sample survey, lab experiment, ex- perimental simulation, field study-primary, field study-secondary, field experiment, judgment task, computer simulation, and content analysis. Surprisingly, 15 of the 16 studies used a field study methodology, with 14 of these collecting primary data and one collecting secondary data. Another surprise was that 15 of 16 used survey methods and one used interviews. Thus, mir- roring Scandura and Williams (2000) findings, one recommendation for future AL research is to use a wider array of methods.

With respect to sample type, a balanced mixture of private/for profit (e.g., Clapp-Smith et al., 2009), public/government (e.g., Hoy & Henderson, 1983), student (e.g., Tate, 2008) and mixed samples (e.g., Walumbwa et al., 2008) was revealed. In comparison to other social science disciplines that have been criticized for overreliance on student samples (Gordon, Slade, & Schmitt, 1986), the predominance of field samples composed of working adults is a strength of AL research. While most (8) of the quantitative studies were conducted in the United States, three used Canadian samples (e.g., Giallonardo et al., 2010), two used Chinese sam- ples (e.g., Walumbwa et al., 2010), one used a sample from Singapore (Toor & Ofori, 2009), one used multiple country samples (Walumbwa et al., 2008), and three did not report the sample location (Brown & Gardner, 2007; Eigel & Kuhnert, 2005; Tate, 2008).

As is the case for leadership research in general (Gardner et al., 2010), most (12) of the quantitative studies employed cross- sectional designs; only four used longitudinal designs (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Roche, 2010; Tate, 2008;Walumbwa et al., 2008). Accordingly, we echo the calls for more longitudinal designs that are often made by leadership scholars (e.g., Hunt, 2004). More- over, the heavy reliance on cross-sectional designs and survey measures raises concerns about the susceptibility of the available research to commonmethod bias (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003; Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). On a positive note, all 13 of the studies that used surveys reported reliabilities for the instruments administered.

Nine of the 16 quantitative studies reported some form of construct validity assessment, with exploratory factor analysis being used most often (four studies), followed by confirmatory factor analysis (three studies), inter-rater reliability (one study), and discriminant validity (one study) assessments. Given that the field is at an early stage in the operationalization of AL measures, it is disconcerting that greater attention is not devoted to assessing the validity of these measures. One exception is the Walumbwa et al. (2008) study, which used multiple samples obtained from China, Kenya and the United States to perform mul- tiple confirmatory factor analyses to assess the discriminant validity of the ALQ relative to existing measures of transformational (MLQ, Form 5X: Bass & Avolio, 1993) and ethical leadership (ELQ; Brown & Trevino, 2006). Still, further assessment of the ALQ's construct validity is needed, as well as alternative (e.g., experimental, implicit measures) approaches to operationalizing the construct.

Most (13) of the studies were conducted at the individual level of analysis, with four (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Henderson & Hoy, 1983; Hoy & Henderson, 1983; Roche, 2010) focused on the organizational level. The absence of research at the group level is somewhat surprising, given the posited effects of authentic leadership on group processes (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005). This result reinforces an earlier finding of Yammarino et al. (2008) that most AL re- search focuses on the individual level of analysis. Accordingly, we join in their call and that of others (Cooper et al., 2005) for greater conceptualization and empirical attention to the operation of AL at, and across, the group and organizational levels of analysis.

Finally, our coding of the methods of statistical analysis employed revealed that simple correlations were used most often (13 studies), followed by factor analytical techniques (seven studies), multi-level methods (e.g., HLM, WABA; four studies), linear re- gression (four studies), structural equations methods/path analysis (four studies), analysis of variance (two studies), content anal- ysis (one study) and nonparametric techniques (one study). An examination of methods across time periods reveals that more sophisticated tools (e.g., analysis of variance, HLM/WABA, linear regression) have been adopted in recent years. This finding provides additional evidence that the field is maturing, and perhaps taking initial steps toward stage two of Reichers and Schneider's (1990) model, concept evaluation and augmentation.

3.7.3. AL measures As noted in our historical review, the first attempt to operationalize leader authenticity was made by Henderson and Hoy

(1983). Although Seeman (1966), Halpin and Croft (1966), and Brumbaugh (1971) had previously examined the constructs of authenticity and inauthenticity in organizations, including their implications for and manifestation through leadership, Halpin and Croft used subscales of the Organizational Climate Descriptive Questionnaire (OCDQ) to serve as proxymeasures of individual (via the thrust scale) and organizational (via the esprit scale) authenticity, whereas Seeman and Brumbaugh used Seeman's Am- bivalence Toward Leadership Ideology (Inauthenticity) Scale to assess the inauthenticity of leaders.

Henderson and Hoy (1983) developed a 32-item scale, the Leader Authenticity Inventory (LAI), as a tool for measuring each of the three components of leader authenticity they proposed. Using teachers and principals from elementary schools, limited sup- port for the validity of the scale was provided by the positive correlations with the thrust and esprit scales of the OCDQ, as predicted. Nevertheless, an examination of the scale's items (e.g., “The principal is obsessed with rules”; “The principal never talks to teachers about personal concerns”; “The principal usually has teachers do things to make the principal look good”) raises concerns about its construct validity and generalizability. Specifically, the focus on perceived as opposed to felt leader

1133W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

authenticity, follower manipulation, and the context-specific nature of the items may explain why this measure was not used ex- tensively and interest in AL waned after its introduction.

With the reemergence of scholarly interest in AL following Luthans and Avolio's (2003) call for research, investigators have sought to operationalize the construct using alternatives to the LAI. A summary of the construct labels, conceptual definitions, and the operationalized dimensions and measures developed is provided in Table 7. Of the available measures, the ALQ, which is grounded in Avolio, Gardner, Luthans, May, Walumbwa and colleagues (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; Walumbwa et al., 2008) perspective of AL, which is in turn derived from Kernis and Goldman's (2006) multi- component conception of authenticity, is the most frequently used measure of AL (used in four publications and multiple sam- ples). While psychometric support for Kernis and Goldman's (2005, 2006) Authenticity Inventory (AI: 3) is also available, this in- strument is designed to measure individual authenticity, as opposed to AL.

Prior to the availability of the ALQ, researchers were faced with a dilemma when attempting to operationalize AL. Jensen and Luthans (2006a,b) did so by summing scores of selected items from the MLQ (Form 5X; Bass & Avolio, 1993), ENTRESCALE (Entrepreneurial Orientation; Knight, 1997); and Ethical Climate Scale (ECQ; Victor & Cullen, 1988). Wong and Cummings (2009b) used seven items from the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI; Kouzes & Posner, 2003) to operatio- nalize seven posited dimensions of AL, an approach that is troubling due to the limitations of single item scales. More gen- erally, the adoption of items from existing scales as proxies for AL is problematic since these instruments were developed to operationalize constructs that may overlap conceptually with AL, but are nevertheless distinct. Tate (2008) avoided this shortcoming by creating an original measure of AL based on George's (2003) conception of the construct. However, concerns about this measure pertain to its theoretical underpinnings, given George's (2003) practitioner focus, and the lack of valida- tion evidence.

The development of standardized and validated measures of authenticity and AL partially accounts for the upswing in empirical research, as the majority of recent studies have employed either the AI: 3 (Spitzmuller & Ilies, 2010; Toor & Ofori, 2009) or the ALQ (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Giallonardo et al., 2010; Walumbwa et al., 2010; Wong, Spence Laschinger, & Cummings, 2010) to operationalize AL. We anticipate that access to these instruments will further stimulate empirical investigations of AL and its development. Evidence of such stimulation is provided by the submission of nearly 600 inquiries to review the ALQ, which is made available at no cost to researchers at http://www.mindgarden.com/ products/alq.htm. Based on an analysis of the abstracts submitted along with the request to use the ALQ, there are at least several hundred or more ongoing research studies examining AL (B. Avolio, personal communication, January 24, 2011). Still, further psychometric assessments and possible refinements of the AI: 3 and ALQ along the lines demonstrated by Schriesheim and Cogliser (2010) for the LMX-7 Scale (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995), is encouraged. Additionally, alternative oper- ationalizations of the authenticity and AL constructs to facilitate triangulation (Neuman, 2002), is merited. Finally, research that examines the relationships between such measures would provide insight into the interplay between individual authenticity and AL.

3.8. Mapping the nomological net for AL

An essential facet of the process of theory development is the establishment of the construct validity of the focal constructs of interest (Reichers & Schneider, 1990). Cronbach and Meehl (1955) assert that to provide evidence of construct validity, the no- mological network for one's measures must be developed. This network includes the theoretical framework that specifies the focal constructs, the empirical framework that delineates how these constructs are operationalized, and the specification of the linkages between and among these constructs.

To explicate the nomological network for AL, we provide a summary of the constructs that have been posited to be anteced- ents and outcomes of AL in quantitative studies, as well as the degree of support obtained for the hypothesized relationships, in Table 8. At the outset, several limitations of the literature reviewed to establish this nomological network should be noted. First, we excluded studies that employed qualitative methods because such studies typically adopted inductive processes that do not posit a priori hypotheses or assess the strength of the relationships identified. Second, while our review of the theoretical publi- cations revealed that authentic leadership has been conceptualized as an independent (nine times), dependent (five times), me- diating (four times) and moderating (three times) variable, empirical investigations of the construct have predominately viewed it as an independent or a mediating variable. Indeed, none of the quantitative studies posited that AL serves as a moderator, and only one examined AL as the dependent variable. Hence, only constructs that are hypothesized to serve as antecedents and out- comes of AL are presented in Table 8. Third, given the cross-sectional, non-experimental designs that dominant the extant liter- ature, it is impossible to draw causal inferences about the relationships identified. Therefore, our use of the terms independent and dependent variable, as well as antecedents and outcomes, is potentially misleading, since the research designs employed in most cases simply identified variables that are significantly correlated with AL. Nonetheless, we based our conclusions about whether a particular variable served as an antecedent or outcome of AL on the nature of the relationship posited by the authors, even if the research methods adopted preclude causal conclusions. Fourth, given the nascent state of AL research, we summarize the posited relationships advanced in empirical articles and the degree of support obtained, without consistently assessing the quality of the research upon which such conclusions are based. In light of the limitations of the empirical research previously de- scribed in Sections 3.7.2 and 3.7.3, such findings should be considered tentative until they can be replicated using more sophis- ticated and diverse research designs.

1134 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

Ta bl e 7

Su m m ar y of

co nc

ep tu al

de fin

it io ns

an d m ea

su re s of

au th en

ti c le ad

er sh

ip us

ed in

qu an

ti ta ti ve

em pi ri ca la

rt ic le s.

St ud

y an

d co

ns tr uc

t la be

l Re

po rt ed

co nc

ep tu al

de fi ni ti on

O pe

ra ti on

al iz ed

di m en

si on

al it y an

d m ea

su re

us ed

H en

de rs on

an d H oy

(1 98

3) Le ad

er A ut he

nt ic it y

“T he

ex te nt

to w hi ch

su bo

rd in at es

pe rc ei ve

th ei r le ad

er to

de m on

st ra te

th e

ac ce pt an

ce of

or ga

ni za ti on

al an

d pe

rs on

al re sp

on si bi lit y fo r ac ti on

s, ou

tc om

es ,

an d m is ta ke

s; to

be no

n- m an

ip ul at in g of

su bo

rd in at es ;a

nd to

ex hi bi t sa lie

nc e of

se lf ov

er ro le .L

ea de

rs hi p in au

th en

ti ci ty

is de

fin ed

as th e ex

te nt

to w hi ch

su bo

r- di na

te s pe

rc ei ve

th ei r le ad

er to

be ‘p as si ng

th e bu

ck ’ an

d bl am

in g ot he

rs an

d ci rc um

st an

ce s fo r er ro rs

an d ou

tc om

es ; to

be m an

ip ul at iv e of

su bo

rd in at es ;

an d to

be de

m on

st ra ti ng

a sa lie

nc e of

ro le

ov er

se lf ” (H

en de

rs on

& H oy

,1 98

3, pp

.6 7–

68 )

Le ad

er A ut he

nt ic it y Sc al e (L A S,

de ve

lo pe

d fo r th is

st ud

y) ; 32

it em

H oy

an d H en

de rs on

(1 98

3) Le ad

er A ut he

nt ic it y

“T he

ex te nt

to w hi ch

su bo

rd in at es

de sc ri be

d th ei r le ad

er as

ac ce pt in g

re sp

on si bi lit y fo r ac ti on

s, as

be in g no

n- m an

ip ul at in g,

an d as

de m on

st ra ti ng

a sa lie

nc e of

se lf ov

er ro le .I n co

nt ra st ,t he

in au

th en

ti c le ad

er w as

vi ew

ed as

on e

w ho

‘p as se s th e bu

ck ,’ bl am

es ot he

rs an

d ci rc um

st an

ce s fo r hi s/ he

r er ro rs ,m

a- ni pu

la te s an

d us

es su

bo rd in at es ,a

nd is

en gu

lfe d in

th e bu

re au

cr at ic

ro le

re -

qu ir em

en ts

of th e po

si ti on

” (p

.1 24

; ad

ap te d fr om

H en

de rs on

& H oy

,1 98

3) .

Le ad

er A ut he

nt ic it y Sc al e (L A S,

H en

de rs on

& H oy

,1 98

3) ; 32

it em

Ei ge

la nd

K uh

ne rt

(2 00

5) Le ad

er sh ip

D ev el op

m en

t Le ve l

A s le ad

er s m ov

e fr om

lo w er

to hi gh

er LD

Ls [L ea

de rs hi p D ev

el op

m en

t Le

ve l] ,

th er e is a tr an

si ti on

in th e kn

ow in g se lf re al m

(i nt ra pe

rs on

al ) fr om

an ex

te rn

al ly

de fin

ed un

de rs ta nd

in g of

se lf to

an in te rn

al ly

de fin

ed un

de rs ta nd

in g of

se lf,

in th e kn

ow in g ot he

rs re al m

(i nt er pe

rs on

al ) fr om

se lf-

fo cu

s to

ot he

r- fo cu

s, an

d in

th e kn

ow in g ou

r w or ld

re al m

(c og

ni ti ve

) fr om

si m pl ic it y to

co m pl ex

it y…

.T he

hi gh

es t LD

Ls ex

hi bi t …

a m or e au

th en

ti c w ay

to le ad

(p .3

61 ).

Le ad

er sh

ip D ev

el op

m en

tL ev

el se m i- st ru ct ur ed

in te rv ie w

(n o ci ta ti on

pr ov

id ed

); in te rv ie w

co de

d in to

20 sc or es

(f iv e di st in ct io ns

fo r ea

ch of

th e fo ur

LD Ls )

Je ns

en an

d Lu

th an

s (2

00 6a

) A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

“A pr oc

es s th at

dr aw

s fr om

bo th

po si ti ve

ps yc

ho lo gi ca lc

ap ac it ie s an

d a hi gh

ly de

ve lo pe

d or ga

ni za ti on

al co

nt ex

t, w hi ch

re su

lt s in

bo th

gr ea

te r se lf-

aw ar en

es s

an d se lf-

re gu

la te d po

si ti ve

be ha

vi or

on th e pa

rt of

le ad

er s an

d em

pl oy

ee s, fo s-

te ri ng

po si ti ve

se lf-

de ve

lo pm

en t. Th

e au

th en

ti c le ad

er is

co nf id en

t, ho

pe fu l, op

- ti m is ti c,

re si lie

nt ,t ra ns

pa re nt ,m

or al /e th ic al ,f ut ur e- or ie nt ed

,a nd

gi ve

s pr io ri ty

to de

ve lo pi ng

em pl oy

ee s to

be le ad

er s”

(p .6

47 ; fr om

Lu th an

s & A vo

lio ,2

00 3,

p. 24

3) .

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh

ip (J en

se n & Lu

th an

s, 20

06 b)

; su

m m ed

sc or es

fr om

th e

fo llo

w in g 3 m ea

su re s:

30 it em

s fr om

th e M ul ti fa ct or

Le ad

er sh

ip Q ue

st io nn

ai re

(M LQ

,F or m

5X ; Ba

ss & A vo

lio ,1

99 3)

; 8 it em

s fr om

th e EN

TR ES

CA LE

(E nt re pr en

eu ri al

O ri en

ta ti on

; K ni gh

t (1

99 7)

; an

d 7 it em

s fr om

th e ca ri ng

an d

re ve

rs e- sc or ed

it em

s of

th e Et hi ca lC

lim at e Q ue

st io nn

ai re

(E CQ

; V ic to r & Cu

lle n,

19 88

)

Je ns

en an

d Lu

th an

s (2

00 6b

) A ut he

nt ic

En tr ep

re ne

ur ia lL

ea de

rs hi p

“A n au

th en

ti c le ad

er is

on e w ho

is no

t on

ly tr ue

to hi m /h er se lf,

bu t be

ha ve

s in

su ch

a w ay

th at

fo llo

w er s ar e al so

ab le

to ga

in se lf-

aw ar en

es s an

d ps

yc ho

lo gi ca l

st re ng

th ” (p

.2 56

; ad

ap te d fr om

Lu th an

s & A vo

lio ,2

00 3)

.“ A n au

th en

ti c le ad

er kn

ow s hi m /h er se lf,

an d ac ts

in ac co

rd an

ce w it h th os e be

lie fs ,c

re at in g a fu tu re -

or ie nt ed

et hi ca l, fo llo

w er -b ui ld in g cl im

at e”

(p .2

63 ; A vo

lio ,G

ar dn

er et

al ., 20

04 ;

A vo

lio ,L

ut ha

ns et

al ., 20

04 ; Lu

th an

s & A vo

lio ,2

00 3)

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh

ip (J en

se n & Lu

th an

s, 20

06 b)

; su

m m ed

sc or es

fr om

th e

fo llo

w in g 3 m ea

su re s:

30 it em

s fr om

th e M ul ti fa ct or

Le ad

er sh

ip Q ue

st io nn

ai re

(M LQ

,F or m

5X ; Ba

ss & A vo

lio ,1

99 3)

; 8 it em

s fr om

th e EN

TR ES

CA LE

(E nt re pr en

eu ri al

O ri en

ta ti on

; K ni gh

t (1

99 7)

; an

d 7 it em

s fr om

th e ca ri ng

an d

re ve

rs e- sc or ed

it em

s of

th e Et hi ca lC

lim at e Q ue

st io nn

ai re

(E CQ

; V ic to r & Cu

lle n,

19 88

) Br ow

n an

d G ar dn

er (2

00 7)

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

“A pr oc

es s th at

dr aw

s fr om

bo th

po si ti ve

ps yc

ho lo gi ca lc

ap ab

ili ti es

an d a hi gh

ly de

ve lo pe

d or ga

ni za ti on

al co

nt ex

t, w hi ch

re su

lt s in

bo th

gr ea

te r se lf-

aw ar en

es s

an d se lf-

re gu

la te d po

si ti ve

be ha

vi or s on

th e pa

rt of

bo th

le ad

er s an

d as so ci at es ,

fo st er in g po

si ti ve

se lf de

ve lo pm

en t”

(p .5

6, fr om

Lu th an

s & A vo

lio ,p

.2 43

Ex am

in ed

th e po

si ti ve

ro le

m od

el in g co

m po

ne nt

of th e au

th en

ti c le ad

er sh

ip pr oc

es s (G

ar dn

er ,A

vo lio

,L ut ha

ns et

al ., 20

05 ) in cl ud

in g le ad

er in te gr it y th ro ug

h st ru ct ur ed

an d op

en -e nd

ed qu

es ti on

Ta te

(2 00

8) A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

“… a fo rm

of le ad

er sh

ip co

nc er ne

d w it h de

ve lo pi ng

po si ti ve

le ad

er – fo llo

w er

re la ti on

sh ip s (M

ay et

al ., 20

03 ), hi gh

m or al

st an

da rd s, an

d in te gr it y (A

vo lio

, G ar dn

er et

al ., 20

04 )”

(p .1

8) .A

ut he

nt ic

le ad

er sh

ip m ea

su re

w as

ba se d on

G eo

rg e' s (2

00 3)

fiv e di m en

si on

s of

au th en

ti c le ad

er sh

ip : de

m on

st ra ti ng

se lf-

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh

ip (d

ev el op

ed fo r th is

st ud

y) .1

7 it em

s ba

se d on

G eo

rg e' s

(2 00

3) co

nc ep

tu al

di m en

si on

s of

au th en

ti c le ad

er sh

ip .T

hr ee

su bs

ca le s:

se lf-

di sc ip lin

e an

d et hi ca ls

ta nd

ar ds

(9 it em

s) ,e

st ab

lis hi ng

po si ti ve

re la ti on

sh ip s (4

it em

s) ,a

nd pa

ss io n fo r pu

rp os e (4

it em

s) .1

7 it em

s su

m m ed

to fo rm

co m po

si te

au th en

ti c le ad

er sh

ip sc or e.

(c on

ti nu

ed on

ne xt

pa ge )

1135W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

Ta bl e 7 (c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y an

d co

ns tr uc

t la be

l Re

po rt ed

co nc

ep tu al

de fi ni ti on

O pe

ra ti on

al iz ed

di m en

si on

al it y an

d m ea

su re

us ed

di sc ip lin

e, le ad

in g w it h he

ar t, es ta bl is hi ng

en du

ri ng

re la ti on

sh ip s, pr ac ti ci ng

so lid

va lu es ,a

nd pa

ss io n fo r pu

rp os e.

W al um

bw a et

al .( 20

08 )

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

“[ A ] pa

tt er n of

le ad

er be

ha vi or

th at

dr aw

s up

on an

d pr om

ot es

bo th

po si ti ve

ps yc

ho lo gi ca lc

ap ac it ie s an

d a po

si ti ve

et hi ca lc

lim at e,

to fo st er

gr ea

te r se lf-

aw ar en

es s, an

in te rn

al iz ed

m or al

pe rs pe

ct iv e,

ba la nc

ed pr oc

es si ng

of in fo rm

a- ti on

,a nd

re la ti on

al tr an

sp ar en

cy on

th e pa

rt of

le ad

er s w or ki ng

w it h fo llo

w er s,

fo st er in g po

si ti ve

se lf-

de ve

lo pm

en t”

(p .9

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh

ip Q ue

st io nn

ai re

(A LQ

; de

ve lo pe

d fo r th is

st ud

y) .1

6 it em

s. 4

su bs

ca le s:

se lf-

aw ar en

es s (4

it em

s) ,r el at io na

lt ra ns

pa re nc

y (5

it em

s) ,i nt er na

l- iz ed

m or al

pe rs pe

ct iv e (4

it em

s) ,a

nd ba

la nc

ed pr oc

es si ng

(3 it em

s) .F

ou r di -

m en

si on

s fo rm

ed a hi gh

er -o rd er

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh

ip fa ct or .

Cl ap

p- Sm

it h et

al .( 20

09 )

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

“A pr oc

es s by

w hi ch

le ad

er s ar e de

ep ly

aw ar e of

ho w

th ey

th in k an

d be

ha ve

,o f

th e co

nt ex

t in

w hi ch

th ey

op er at e,

an d ar e pe

rc ei ve

d by

ot he

rs as

be in g aw

ar e of

th ei r ow

n an

d ot he

rs 'v

al ue

s/ m or al

pe rs pe

ct iv es ,k

no w le dg

e, an

d st re ng

th s”

(p .

22 9;

ad ap

te d fr om

A vo

lio ,G

ar dn

er et

al ., 20

04 ; A vo

lio ,L

ut ha

ns et

al ., 20

04 )

A LQ

(W al um

bw a et

al ., 20

08 ). 16

it em

s. 4 su

bs ca le s:

se lf-

aw ar en

es s (4

it em

s) ,

re la ti on

al tr an

sp ar en

cy (5

it em

s) ,i nt er na

liz ed

m or al

pe rs pe

ct iv e (4

it em

s) ,a

nd ba

la nc

ed pr oc

es si ng

(3 it em

s) .1

6 it em

s su

m m ed

to fo rm

co m po

si te

au th en

ti c

le ad

er sh

ip sc or e.

To or

an d O fo ri (2

00 9)

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

“[ A ] pa

tt er n of

le ad

er be

ha vi or

th at

dr aw

s up

on an

d pr om

ot es

bo th

po si ti ve

ps yc

ho lo gi ca lc

ap ac it ie s an

d a po

si ti ve

et hi ca lc

lim at e,

to fo st er

gr ea

te r se lf-

aw ar en

es s, an

in te rn

al iz ed

m or al

pe rs pe

ct iv e,

ba la nc

ed pr oc

es si ng

of in fo rm

a- ti on

,a nd

re la ti on

al tr an

sp ar en

cy on

th e pa

rt of

le ad

er s w or ki ng

w it h fo llo

w er s,

fo st er in g po

si ti ve

se lf-

de ve

lo pm

en t”

(p .3

01 ,f ro m

W al um

bw a et

al ., 20

08 ,p

.9 4)

Th e 45

-i te m

A ut he

nt ic it y In ve

nt or y or

A I: 3 (K

er ni s & G ol dm

an ,2

00 5,

20 06

) 4

su bs

ca le s:

se lf-

aw ar en

es s (1

2 it em

s) ,u

nb ia se d pr oc

es si ng

(1 0 it em

s) ,b

eh av

io r

(1 1 it em

s) ,a

nd re la ti on

al or ie nt at io n (1

2 it em

s) .S

um m ed

to fo rm

co m po

si te

au th en

ti ci ty

sc or e.

W on

g & Cu

m m in gs

(2 00

9a ,2

00 9b

) A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

A ut he

nt ic

le ad

er sh

ip is

“a pr oc

es s th at

dr aw

s fr om

bo th

po si ti ve

ps yc

ho lo gi ca l

ca pa

ci ti es

an d a hi gh

ly de

ve lo pe

d or ga

ni za ti on

al co

nt ex

t, w hi ch

re su

lt s in

bo th

gr ea

te r se lf-

aw ar en

es s an

d se lf-

re gu

la te d po

si ti ve

be ha

vi or s on

th e pa

rt of

le ad

er s an

d as so ci at es ,f os te ri ng

po si ti ve

se lf-

de ve

lo pm

en t”

(p .7

,f ro m

A vo

lio &

G ar dn

er ,2

00 5,

p. 32

1) .

Si ng

le it em

s re fle

ct in g 7 le ad

er sh

ip be

ha vi or s (s el f- aw

ar en

es s, re la ti on

al tr an

sp ar en

cy ,b

al an

ce d pr oc

es si ng

,e th ic al

be ha

vi or ,t ru st w or th in es s,

su pp

or ti ve

ne ss ,a

nd em

po w er in g)

se le ct ed

fr om

th e Le

ad er sh

ip Pr ac ti ce s

In ve

nt or y (L PI ; K ou

ze s & Po

sn er ,2

00 3)

.I te m s us

ed as

si ng

le in di ca to rs

fo r th e

la te nt

le ad

er sh

ip co

nc ep

ts in

a st ru ct ur al

eq ua

ti on

s m od

el in g (S EM

) an

al ys is .

G ia llo

na rd o et

al .( 20

10 )

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

“A pr oc

es s th at

‘d ra w s fr om

bo th

ps yc

ho lo gi ca lc

ap ac it ie s an

d a hi gh

ly de

ve lo pe

d or ga

ni za ti on

al co

nt ex

t, w hi ch

re su

lt s in

bo th

gr ea

te r se lf-

aw ar en

es s an

d se lf-

re gu

la te d po

si ti ve

be ha

vi ou

rs on

th e pa

rt of

le ad

er s an

d as so ci at es ,f os te ri ng

po si ti ve

se lf-

de ve

lo pm

en t’”

(p .9

93 ,f ro m

Lu th an

s & A vo

lio ,2

00 3,

p. 24

3) .

A LQ

(W al um

bw a et

al ., 20

08 ). 16

it em

s. Su

m m ed

to fo rm

co m po

si te

au th en

ti c

le ad

er sh

ip sc or e.

Sp it zm

ul le r an

d Ili es

(2 01

0) Le ad

er A ut he

nt ic it y

“G ol dm

an an

d K er ni s (2

00 2)

de sc ri be

d re la ti on

al au

th en

ti ci ty

as ‘in

vo lv in g

va lu in g an

d ac hi ev

in g op

en ne

ss an

d tr ut hf ul ne

ss in

on e' s cl os e re la ti on

sh ip s …

an d th e de

ve lo pm

en t of

m ut ua

li nt im

ac y an

d tr us

t’ (p

.1 9)

.B as ed

on th is

de fin

it io n,

Ili es

et al .( 20

05 ) pr op

os ed

th at

le ad

er s w it h a re la ti on

al au

th en

ti ci ty

w ill

st ri ve

fo r op

en an

d tr ut hf ul

re la ti on

sh ip s w it h th ei r fo llo

w er s an

d su

ch or ie nt at io n w ill

ha ve

a nu

m be

r of

po si ti ve

ou tc om

es ” (p

.3 07

Le ad

er A ut he

nt ic it y m ea

su re d w it h 45

it em

s fr om

th e A ut he

nt ic it y In ve

nt or y

(G ol dm

an & K er ni s, 20

01 ). 4 su

bs ca le s:

se lf-

aw ar en

es s (1

2 it em

s) ,u

nb ia se d

pr oc

es si ng

(1 0 it em

s) ,a

ut he

nt ic

be ha

vi or

(1 1 it em

s) ,a

nd au

th en

ti c re la ti on

al or ie nt at io n (1

2 it em

s) .S

um m ed

to fo rm

co m po

si te

au th en

ti ci ty

sc or e.

W al um

bw a et

al .( 20

10 )

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

“A ut he

nt ic

le ad

er s di sp

la y fo ur

ty pe

s of

be ha

vi or s. Th

es e in cl ud

e ba

la nc

ed pr oc

es si ng

,i nt er na

liz ed

m or al

pe rs pe

ct iv e,

re la ti on

al tr an

sp ar en

cy ,a

nd se lf

aw ar en

es s”

(p .9

02 ; fr om

G ar dn

er ,A

vo lio

,L ut ha

ns et

al ., 20

05 ; G ar dn

er et

al .,

20 05

a, 20

05 b;

Ili es

et al ., 20

05 ; W

al um

bw a et

al ., 20

08 ).

A LQ

(W al um

bw a et

al ., 20

08 ). 16

it em

s. 4 su

bs ca le s:

se lf-

aw ar en

es s (4

it em

s) ,

re la ti on

al tr an

sp ar en

cy (5

it em

s) ,i nt er na

liz ed

m or al

pe rs pe

ct iv e (4

it em

s) ,a

nd ba

la nc

ed pr oc

es si ng

(3 it em

s) .1

6 it em

s su

m m ed

to fo rm

co m po

si te

au th en

ti c

le ad

er sh

ip sc or e.

W on

g et

al .( 20

10 )

A ut he

nt ic

Le ad

er sh ip

A ut he

nt ic

le ad

er sh

ip “f oc

us es

on th e po

si ti ve

ro le

m od

el in g of

ho ne

st y,

in te gr it y

an d hi gh

et hi ca ls

ta nd

ar ds

in th e de

ve lo pm

en t of

le ad

er – fo llo

w er

re la ti on

sh ip s”

(p .8

90 ).

A LQ

(W al um

bw a et

al ., 20

08 ). 16

it em

s. 4 su

bs ca le s:

se lf-

aw ar en

es s (4

it em

s) ,

re la ti on

al tr an

sp ar en

cy (5

it em

s) ,i nt er na

liz ed

m or al

pe rs pe

ct iv e (4

it em

s) ,a

nd ba

la nc

ed pr oc

es si ng

(3 it em

s) .1

6 it em

s su

m m ed

to fo rm

co m po

si te

au th en

ti c

le ad

er sh

ip sc or e.

1136 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

3.8.1. Antecedents of AL Only two quantitative studies explored the relationships between selected antecedents and AL. In a partial test of Luthans and

Avolio's (2003) model of AL development, Jensen and Luthans (2006b) posited that the POB states of optimism, resiliency and hope, along with an aggregate measure of psychological capital (PsyCap) would be positively related to AL within a sample of

Table 8 Summary of empirical findings: antecedents, outcomes, and mediators of authentic leadership.

Variable Source Posited by vs. derived from AL theory

Predicted direction

Findings

Antecedents Psychological capital (PsyCap) Jensen and Luthans (2006b) Posited + Supported Hope Jensen and Luthans (2006b) Posited + Supported Optimism Jensen and Luthans (2006b) Posited + Supported Resiliency Jensen and Luthans (2006b) Posited + Supported Self-monitoring Tate (2008) Derived − Not supported

Leader outcomes Contingent self-esteem Toor and Ofori (2009) Derived − Supported Ethical leadership Walumbwa et al. (2008) Derived + Supported Perceptions of leadership Initial perceptions Tate (2008) Derived Unclear Not supported Change in perceptions Tate (2008) Derived Unclear Not supported

Positive modeling (i.e., “thrust”) Henderson and Hoy (1983) Posited + Supported Psychological well being Toor and Ofori (2009) Posited + Supported Transformational Leadership Idealized influence Spitzmuller and Ilies (2010)a; Walumbwa et al. (2008) Derived + Supported Individualized consideration Spitzmuller and Ilies (2010)a; Walumbwa et al. (2008) Derived + Supported Inspirational motivation Spitzmuller and Ilies (2010)a; Walumbwa et al. (2008) Derived + Supported

Follower outcomes Burnout Wong and Cummings (2009b) Posited − Supported Empowerment Walumbwa et al. (2010) Derived + Supported Esprit Henderson and Hoy (1983) Derived + Supported Identification Identification with supervisor Walumbwa et al. (2010) Posited + Supported Personal identification Wong et al. (2010) Posited + Supported Social identification Wong et al. (2010) Posited + Not supported

Job performance Walumbwa et al. (2008); Wong and Cummings (2009b)

Posited + Supported

Job satisfaction Giallonardo et al. (2010); Jensen and Luthans (2006a); Walumbwa et al. (2008)

Posited + Supported

Org. citizenship behaviors (OCBs) Walumbwa et al. (2008); Walumbwa et al. (2010)

Derived + Supported

Organizational commitment Jensen and Luthans (2006a); Walumbwa et al. (2008)

Posited + Supported

Satisfaction with supervisor Walumbwa et al. (2008) Derived + Supported Status concern Henderson and Hoy (1983) Derived − Supported Supportive group Wong and Cummings (2009b) Derived + Supported Trust in leadership Clapp-Smith et al. (2009);

Wong and Cummings (2009b); Wong et al. (2010)

Posited + Supported

Work engagement Giallonardo et al. (2010); Walumbwa et al. (2010)

Posited + Supported

Work happiness Jensen and Luthans (2006a) Posited + Supported Organizational outcomes

Firm financial performance Clapp-Smith et al. (2009) Derived + Supported Openness of organizational climate Hoy and Henderson (1983) Derived + Supported Pupil control orientation Hoy and Henderson (1983) Derived − Supported

Mediators AL→Follower empowerment →OCB

Walumbwa et al. (2010) Derived +, + Supported

AL→ Identification with supervisor→Work engagement

Walumbwa et al. (2010) Posited +, + Supported

AL→Personal identification →Trust in manager

Wong et al. (2010) Posited +, + Supported

AL→Social identification →Trust in manager

Wong et al. (2010) Posited +, + Not supported

AL→Trust in leadership →Firm financial performance

Clapp-Smith et al. (2009) Derived +, + Supported

AL→Work engagement → Job satisfaction

Giallonardo et al. (2010) Posited +, + Partially supported

a Hypothesized relationship for the relational orientation dimension of leader authenticity.

1137W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

entrepreneurs. As previously noted, AL was operationalized by summing scores from selected items of the MLQ (Form 5X; Bass & Avolio, 1993), ENTRESCALE (Knight, 1997), and the ECQ (Victor & Cullen, 1988). The POB states were operationalized using exist- ing measures of optimism (Shifren & Hooker, 1995), resiliency (Block & Kreman, 1996; Klohnen, 1996) and hope (Snyder et al., 1996); overall positive psychological capital (PsyCap) was operationalized by combining the standardized scores for the state op- timism, resiliency, and hope measures. As predicted, both the separate POB states of optimism, resiliency, and hope and the over- all measure of PsyCap were positively related to AL, providing support for Luthans and Avolio's (2003) model. Nevertheless, because the measure of AL was created using items that were originally intended to measure other constructs (i.e., transforma- tional leadership, entrepreneurial orientation, and ethical climate), these findings must be considered tentative until they are rep- licated using instruments specifically designed to measure AL, such as the ALQ.

In a longitudinal study of perceptions of leadership within undergraduate student work groups over time, Tate (2008) pre- dicted a negative relationship between self-monitoring and AL. Tate based this prediction on theory and research that suggests both authentic leaders (May et al., 2003) and low self-monitors (Gangestad & Snyder, 2000) behave in accordance with personal beliefs and values. As Table 7 indicates, Tate operationalized AL using an original 17-item self-report measure based on George's (2003) five dimension conception of AL. Although an exploratory factor analysis identified only three subscales (self-discipline and ethical standards, establishing positive relationships, and passion for purpose) of the five dimensions conceptualized by George, a composite AL score was derived by summing the 17 items was used for the analysis. Contrary to expectations, self- monitoring was unrelated to AL.

There are at least two possible explanations for this non-supportive finding. First, given that the AL measure Tate (2008) de- veloped has not demonstrated psychometric adequacy, it is possible that the lack of support is due to limitations of the self-report AL measure employed. Perhaps high self-monitors, who are highly responsive to social expectations (Gangestad & Snyder, 2000; Snyder, 1979), are just as likely to report themselves as authentic leaders as low self-monitors because they are responding to social desirable cues inherent to Tate's measure.

Second, Tate's (2008) rationale for predicting that self-monitoring is negatively related to AL may be overly simplistic. Here, an exchange of theoretical letters between Arthur Bedeian and David Day (2004) titled “Can chameleons lead?” that appeared in The Leadership Quarterly is particularly relevant. Consistent with Tate's reasoning, Bedeian argues that the chameleon-like qualities associated with high self-monitors are unlikely to elicit the feelings of trust among followers that promote effective and ethical leadership. In contrast, Day notes that there is nothing inherent to high self-monitors that ensures they will act unethically or vi- olate followers' trust, nor is there any guarantee that the values that low self-monitors adhere to will be deemed ethical by fol- lowers. To the contrary, because high self-monitors are attuned to situational demands, they are very likely to exhibit high ethical standards, provided the ethical climate of the organization identifies such standards as core values. Moreover, given Snyder's (1979) assertion that the self-concept of high self-monitors is more multi-faceted than that of low self- monitors, there is no inherent inconsistency in the notion that a high self-monitoring leader can present a self-facet that both con- forms to follower expectations and reflects his or her “true self.” Hence, research that adopts a more sophisticated understanding of the self-monitoring construct is needed to fully explore the potentially complex relationship between self-monitoring and AL.

3.8.2. Outcomes posited by extant models of AL In comparison to the antecedents, the outcomes of AL, whether they are conceptualized as mediating or dependent variables,

have received much greater empirical attention. We begin by examining empirical tests of relational outcomes that have been posited by one or more models of AL. In Section 3.8.3, we discuss outcomes that, while derived from the AL literature, were both introduced and tested as AL consequences in the same empirical publication.

Models of AL have identified a variety of outcomes including personal and social/organizational identification (Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004; Hannah, Lester, & Vogelgesang, 2005; Ilies et al., 2005), positive leader modeling (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; Hannah et al., 2005; Ilies et al., 2005), trust in leadership (Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004; Chan et al., 2005; Douglas et al., 2005; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; Gardner et al., 2009; Hannah et al., 2005; Hunt et al., 2008), follower job satisfaction (Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004), organizational commitment by followers (Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004), follower work engagement (Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005), follower job performance (Chan et al., 2005; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; Ilies et al., 2005), leader and follower well-being (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; Gardner et al., 2009; Hunt et al., 2008; Ilies et al., 2005), and follower withdrawal behaviors (Avolio, Gardner et al., 2004), among others. As Table 8 indicates, empirical tests of these posited relationships have generally produced supportive results. Specifically, AL has been shown to be positively related to identification with supervisor (Walumbwa et al., 2010), personal identification (Wong et al., 2010), positive leader modeling (i.e., “thrust” or “the teachers' perceptions of the principal's efforts to motivate through personal example”; Henderson & Hoy, 1983, p. 71), trust in leadership (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Wong & Cummings, 2009b; Wong et al., 2010), follower job satisfaction (Giallonardo et al., 2010; Jensen & Luthans, 2006a; Walumbwa et al., 2008), organizational com- mitment (Jensen & Luthans, 2006a; Walumbwa et al., 2008), follower work engagement (Giallonardo et al., 2010; Walumbwa et al., 2010), follower job performance (Walumbwa et al., 2008; Wong & Cummings, 2009b), and components of well-being, in- cluding leader psychological well being (Toor & Ofori, 2009) and follower work happiness (Jensen & Luthans, 2006a). In addition, Wong and Cummings (2009b) obtained support for a predicted negative relationship between AL and follower burnout, which is a negative indicator of well-being (Kernis, 2003).

Only the positive relationship between AL and social identification proposed by Avolio, Gardner et al. (2004) failed to receive support (Wong et al., 2010). Thus, the prediction that AL would exert a direct effect on followers' identification with their work group and the organization was not supported. However, AL was shown to exert an indirect effect on social identification through

1138 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

personal identification. Wong and colleagues (2010, p. 897) conclude that “[p]ersonal identification with authentic leaders influ- ences followers' workgroup and organizational identification, because the leader represents the interests of the group and works towards achieving goals important to the organization (Ilies et al., 2005).”

Other mediated relationships posited by AL theory that received empirical support include Avolio, Gardner et al.'s (2004) pre- dictions that the relationships between AL and work engagement and trust in leadership, respectively, would be mediated by per- sonal identification with the leader. Consistent with the former prediction, Walumbwa and colleagues (2010) confirmed that identification with supervisor fully mediates the AL→work engagement relationship. In terms of the latter prediction, Wong et al. (2010) demonstrated that personal identification mediates the relationship between AL and trust in leadership. However, contrary to Avolio, Gardner et al. (2004) model, social identification did not mediate the relationship between AL and trust in leader. Instead, personal identification mediated the relationship between AL and social identification, which in turn had a pos- itive relationship with trust in leader. Wong and associates (2010) argue that an authentic leader can enhance follower identifi- cation with the work group only if followers first come to identify with the leader.

3.8.3. Outcomes derived from extant models of AL In addition to direct tests of relationships posited by the extant models of AL, several relationships that are purportedly de-

rived from AL theory have been examined. Outcomes hypothesized as being positively associated with AL through extensions of AL theory include transformational leadership (Spitzmuller & Ilies, 2010; Walumbwa et al., 2008), ethical leadership (Walumbwa et al., 2008), esprit (Henderson & Hoy, 1983), satisfaction with supervisor (Walumbwa et al., 2008), supportive group (Wong & Cummings, 2009b), organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs; Walumbwa et al., 2008; Walumbwa et al., 2010), follower empowerment (Walumbwa et al., 2010), organizational climate (Hoy & Henderson, 1983), and firm financial per- formance (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009). In addition, negative relationships between AL and initial perceptions of leadership (Tate, 2008), change in perceptions of leadership (Tate, 2008), status concern (Henderson & Hoy, 1983), pupil-control orientation of school (Hoy & Henderson, 1983), and contingent self-esteem (Toor & Ofori, 2009) have been proposed. Finally, Giallonardo and colleagues (2010) hypothesized that the positive relationship between AL and job satisfaction would be mediated by work engagement, and Clapp-Smith et al. (2009) posited that the relationship between AL and firm financial performance would be mediated by trust in the manager.

With three exceptions, empirical support for all of these predicted relationships was obtained. Two of the exceptions include Tate's (2008) failure to obtain support for his hypotheses that AL would be negatively related to: (1) initial perceptions of lead- ership and (2) change in perceptions of leadership. The rationale for the former hypothesis is based on the assumption that be- cause more as opposed to less authentic leaders are less likely to engage in self-promotion, they are less likely to create perceptions of leadership early in a group's tenure. The rationale for the latter hypothesis is based on the assumption that the be- havioral integrity authentic leaders exhibit over time will foster perceptions of leadership later in the group's tenure. Confusion regarding the predicted direction of these relationships arises from inconsistencies between Tate's wording of these hypotheses and the directions depicted in his schematic model. Specifically, his hypotheses predict: (1) a negative relationship between AL and initial perceptions of leadership; and (2) an ambiguous relationship between AL and changes in perceptions of leadership (since such perceptions are posited to rise for high AL and fall for low AL). In contrast, his model depicts AL as being positively related to initial perceptions of leadership and negatively related to changes in leadership perceptions, respectively.

Regardless of the direction of these relationships, we question his logic that high as opposed to low AL will produce lower ini- tial perceptions of leadership, since AL theory proposes that the relational transparency of authentic leaders will rapidly engender and solidify followers' trust — a key determinant of perceived leadership. Therefore, it may be that self-promotion on the part of less authentic leaders, and genuine self-presentations by more authentic leaders, produce roughly equivalent initial perceptions of leadership. If perceptions of leadership rise over time for more authentic leaders, and decline over time for less authentic leaders, both may foster changes that are nevertheless operating in opposite directions. Thus, the lack of support for Tate's latter hypothesis may stem from a failure to account for the direction of the change in leadership perceptions.

The final exception pertains to Giallonardo and colleagues' (2010) hypothesis that follower work engagement mediates the positive relationship between AL and follower job satisfaction. Application of Baron and Kenny's (1986) guidelines for assessing mediation revealed that work engagement partially, as opposed to fully, mediated this relationship since AL remained positively and significantly, albeit more weakly, related to job satisfaction even after work engagement was entered into the regression analysis.

Taken as a whole, the available findings from quantitative studies provide support for the predictions advanced by and derived from AL theory. As such, the nomological network of constructs empirically associated with AL is generally consistent with the extended theoretical framework, and thereby provides preliminary evidence for construct validity (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). Nevertheless, it is important to reiterate that, given the limitations of the research designs used to test AL theory, the supportive evidence generated to date must be considered tentative. Further research using more rigorous and diverse methods is needed to strengthen confidence in the nomological validity of AL theory.

4. An agenda for future AL research

Throughout this review we have identified directions for future research. We will not reiterate those directions here. Instead, we wish to offer more general observations and additional recommendations for enhancing AL theory and research. We outline a five-pronged agenda for future AL research below.

1139W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

4.1. Stronger theory building

As Table 2 indicates, the majority (59 out of 91) of AL publications to date have been conceptual. Of these, 55 were identified as reflecting a positivist, as opposed to an interpretive (four publications) or critical (no publications), social science tradition (Neuman, 2002). Of these 55 publications, only 30 presented conceptual models, and only 15 offered propositions — components of theory building that positivists consider to be desirable for making a theoretical contribution (Bacharach, 1989). Given these shortcomings, it is perhaps not surprising that none of the theoretical AL publications have appeared in journals that would be considered top tier outlets for management research (Gardner et al., 2010; Glynn & Raffaelli, 2010), although many have appeared in The Leadership Quarterly, which is widely recognized as the top specialty journal in the field (Gardner et al., 2010; Glynn & Raffaelli, 2010; Lowe & Gardner, 2000).

Perhaps the mixed level of rigor reflected in extant AL theoretical publications should be expected, given the nascent state of the field, and the strong influence of practitioner-oriented writings (Cashman, 1998, 2003, 2008; George, 2003; George & Sims, 2007; George et al., 2007; Goffee & Jones, 2005). Indeed, the practitioner roots of the theory may serve to undermine the legiti- macy of the construct with scholarly reviewers. Moving forward, however, we are encouraged by Corley and Gioia's (2011) find- ing that Academy of Management Review articles that propose theories with greater “scope” in terms of scientific and practical utility are particularly influential (based on citation counts). One implication of this finding is that the practitioner origins and focus of AL theory may serve to enrich its potential theoretical contribution. On the other hand, to realize this potential, greater attention to the basic components of theory, including the boundary conditions reflected by underlying assumptions about values, time, and space (Bacharach, 1989), is required.

4.2. Expansion of the nomological network for AL

As the logical extension and a complement to theory building, theory testing is of crucial importance to moving a field of study forward (Colquitt & Zapata-Phelan, 2007). Our content analysis revealed a recent rise in empirical AL publications following efforts to develop and validate operational measures of authenticity (Kernis & Goldman, 2005, 2006) and AL (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Nevertheless, our assessment of AL's nomological network revealed gaps between the theoretical and the empirical frame- work (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). For example, although AL antecedents were proposed by both Luthans and Avolio (2003; e.g., trigger events, positive psychological capacities, positive organizational context) and Gardner et al. (2005a; e.g., personal histo- ries, trigger events, organizational climate), only Jensen and Luthans (2006b) explicitly investigated a predicted antecedent of AL, PsyCap. Moreover, we were unable to locate any published studies that tested the interactive effects of the organization's eth- ical climate and AL that these models propose.

An example of specific contextual and individual difference factors to be considered in extending the nomological network for AL is provided by a recent model of leader emotional labor and authenticity advanced by Gardner and colleagues (2009). These authors apply Johns' (2006) contextual model of organizational behavior to make a distinction between the omnibus (e.g., national and orga- nizational culture; industry and occupation; organizational structure; time) and discrete (the particular situational variables that shape behavior and attitudes) contexts that influence perceived and felt leader authenticity. In addition, they posit that the level of positivity/ negativity, intensity, and display rules associatedwith affective events serve as stimuli for three forms of leader emotional displays that reflect progressively higher degrees of authenticity: surface acting, deep acting, and genuine emotion (Grandey, 2000). They also pro- pose that the individual difference variables of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995;Mayer et al., 1999), self-monitoring (Gangestad & Snyder, 2000; Snyder, 1979), and political skill (Douglas et al., 2005; Ferris & Kacmar, 1995) serve tomoderate these relationships by making it less likely that the leader's emotional displayswill be genuine. Hunt and colleagues (2008) subsequently extended thismodel by considered the implications of close versus distant leadership (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Shamir, 1995) for leader emotional labor and authenticity. We encourage research that considers the extent to which these and other contextual and individual difference vari- ables serve as antecedents and moderators of the level of authenticity achieved in leader–follower relationships.

More empirical research is also needed to explore the relationships of specific components of AL and various antecedents and outcomes. While most conceptions and measures of authenticity (e.g., Kernis & Goldman, 2005, 2006) and AL (e.g., Walumbwa et al., 2008), posit that these are multi-component constructs, research that examines the separate relationships of these compo- nents with focal variables is rare (Spitzmuller & Ilies, 2010), and sometimes suspect (e.g., Wong & Cummings, 2009b, due to the use of single items to operationalize AL components). Research that examines what components are most important in particular situations and relationships and the dynamic interplay between the components is needed to develop a deeper understanding of the authentic leader–follower relationships. In addition, attention to the processes whereby specific components can be enhanced would have important implications for leader and follower development (Avolio, 2010).

4.3. More rigorous and diverse methods

Our content analysis revealed an overreliance on survey measures, cross-sectional designs, and single source data among the quantitative empirical studies. The susceptibility of such designs to bias arising from common method variance (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986; Podsakoff et al., 2003) may explain why only one empirical publication to date (Walumbwa et al., 2008) has appeared in an outlet that is widely recognized as a top tier journal, the Journal of Management. By reporting findings from mul- tiple studies that used geographically and occupationally diverse samples, multiple sources, and a mixture of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, this study serves as a model for future quantitative studies of AL. As was the case for many of the theoretical

1140 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

publications, greater rigor is required of empirical AL studies to establish the nomological validity and legitimize the construct in the eyes of reviewers.

We also encourage researchers to explore the utility of a wider range of methods, including implicit measures, experimental de- signs, and qualitative methods. Survey measures of authenticity and AL are problematic because self-report measures may be suscep- tible to social desirability bias (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986; Podsakoff et al., 2003), and other report measures tap only perceived, as opposed to felt, authenticity (Fields, 2007). In contrast, implicit measures of social cognition (Garwronski & Payne, 2010) may provide a useful alternative, and when used in conjunction with survey or other measures, may serve to triangulate the findings (Neuman, 2002). For instance, given Kernis's (2003) assertion that authentic individuals possess optimal (secure and high as opposed to low to moderate and/or fragile) self-esteem, measures of implicit self-esteem such as signature size (Stapel & Blanton, 2004) and the rel- ative attractiveness of one's initials (Dijksterhuis, 2004) may serve as effective proxies for authenticity.

Experimental designs represent particularly promising approaches for teasing out the effects of situational influences on per- ceived and felt leader authenticity due to the high level of control and internal validity they provide (Neuman, 2002). Indeed, ex- perimental manipulations of the discrete context (Johns, 2006), including affective display rules, ethical and cultural norms, or peer pressure, may serve to clarify the interactive effects of situational variables and individual differences on experienced and perceived leader authenticity. Therefore, we echo the calls of other scholars (Brown & Lord, 1999; Gardner et al., 2010; Hunt, 1999; Hunt, Boal, & Dodge, 1999; Lowe & Gardner, 2000; Wofford, 1999) who recommend greater usage of experimental designs to not only facilitate strong inferences about the causal relationships among leadership constructs, but identify potentially posi- tive effects of AL that could accrue for individuals, groups, and organizations under the right circumstances (Mook, 1983).

Our content analysis also revealed that studies of AL employed a higher proportion of qualitative designs thanhas historically been the case within the field of leadership (Gardner et al., 2010; Glynn & Raffaelli, 2010). Extensive evidence for the broad array of topics, themes, leadership roles and challenges to AL on which qualitative methods can shed light is provided by the qualitative studies ex- amined in our review. These include: (1) Dillon's (2001) case study of the leadership style, practices, relationships, and manifest au- thenticity of occupational therapy educator Sr. Genevieve Cummings of the College of St. Catherine; (2) Catherine Bissessar's (2010) application of narrative analysis of speeches, e-mails, Facebook pages, and a party manifesto to examine the authentic leadership of Kamla Persad Bissessar, the PrimeMinister of Trinidad and Tobago; (3) Endrissat and colleagues' (2007) narrative analysis of the chal- lenges of authentic leadership (e.g., understanding one's own position; binding commitment to self and others, i.e., “walking the talk”; relationship to one's business; social proximity to members of one's team and community; and authenticity, “to be oneself”) per- ceived by Swiss business leaders; (4) Liu's (2010) application of discourse analysis ofmedia texts to construct a framework for under- standing the ways by which leaders facing failure actively construct and negotiate images of authenticity, style, and effectiveness; (5) Pittinsky and Tyson's (2005, p. 260) use of focus groups with a “gender-balanced, socially and geographically diverse cohort of African Americans from the Hip-Hop generation” to identify “authenticity markers” for African American political leaders; and (6) Shirey's (2009) use of interviews and narrative analysis to explore the relationships between authentic leadership, positive and negative organizational cultures, and healthy work environments. Clearly, such studies provide deep insights into the nature and manifestations of authentic leadership across diverse contexts that are not readily amenable to discovery through quantitative methods alone. Hence, we join Bryman (1995) and Conger (1998) in calling for more extensive use of qualitative methods to provide thick narrative descriptions of leadership processes and contexts, including the dynamic interplay between authentic leadership, authentic followership, and positive ethical climates.

4.4. Attention to authentic followership

From the outset, practitioner and scholarly authors have emphasized the importance of authentic followership (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans et al., 2005; George, 2003; Shamir & Eilam, 2005) as a central component of the AL process. For example, Gardner and associates posited that a positive ethical climate would facilitate the development of authentic leaders and followers in a complementary fashion, and thereby foster authentic relationships. We suspect that the authenticity of followers may be as im- portant to the development of authentic leadership as the authenticity of the leader. Nevertheless, none of the empirical studies reviewed focused explicitly on authentic followership. Hence, as Avolio and Reichard (2008) emphasize, empirical investigations of the role that followers play in the formation of authentic relationships is critical.

4.5. Focus on AL development

Right from the start, Luthans and Avolio (2003) made authentic leadership development the cornerstone of their AL frame- work, as the subtitle of their chapter, “A Positive Developmental Approach,” makes clear. Because Avolio (2010) provides an ex- tensive summary of the progress he and his colleagues have made in pursuing this research agenda, we chose not to make AL development a focal point for our review. Nevertheless, we echo his call for greater attention to the design and implementation of intervention strategies intended to foster the development of authentic leaders and their followers. We also second his plea for more systematic evaluations of the host of commercial and educational programs currently offered that promise to enhance the development of leaders, including their authenticity, integrity, and effectiveness. Without such evaluations, we run the risk of underutilizing the considerable promise of the AL construct, and the leverage it provides for producing veritable and sustained improvements in individual, group, and organizational performance.

1141W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

5. Conclusion

“Musicians must make music, artists must paint, poets must write if they are to ultimately be at peace with themselves. What humans can be, they must be. They must be true to their own nature” (Maslow, 1970, p. 22, original emphasis). This quotation from Maslow reflects a central premise of the authentic leadership literature that truly authentic leaders must lead, but they must do so in a way that honors their core values, beliefs, strengths — and weaknesses. This assumption of authentic leadership theory that people in organizations can effectively lead, and follow, in a way that enables them to express their own unique iden- tity and style, has created a sense of excitement among leadership scholars and practitioners. We hope that this review will pro- vide a road map for further advancing authentic leadership theory, research, and practice, and thereby enable organizations to more fully realize the elevated levels of sustained and veritable performance that a leadership process grounded in authenticity has the potential to provide.

References

Ambrose, M. L., Arnaud, A., & Schminke, M. (2008). Individual moral development and ethical climate: The influence of person–organization fit on job attitudes. Journal of Business Ethics, 77, 323–333.

Antonakis, J., & Atwater, L. (2002). Leader distance: A review and a proposed theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 13, 673–704. Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of identity. Academy of Management Review, 18, 88–115. Ashkanasy, N. M. (2003). Emotions in organizations: A multi-level perspective. In F. Dansereau, & F. J. Yammarino (Eds.), Research in multi-level issues, Vol. 2.

(pp. 9–54)Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full leadership development: Building the vital forces in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Avolio, B. J. (2005). Leadership development in balance: Made/born. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. Avolio, B. J. (2010). Pursuing authentic leadership development. In N. Nohria, & R. Khurana (Eds.), The handbook of leadership theory and practice: A Harvard Busi-

ness School centennial colloquium on advancing leadership (pp. 739–768). Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 315–338. Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004a). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact fol-

lower attitudes and behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 801–823. Avolio, B. J., Griffith, J., Wernsing, T. S., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2010). What is authentic leadership development? In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.),

Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 39–52). New York: Oxford University Press. Avolio, B. J., & Luthans, F. (2006). The high impact leader. New York: McGraw-Hill. Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2004b). Authentic leadership: Theory-building for veritable sustained performance. Working paper. Gallup Leadership

Institute, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Avolio, B. J., & Reichard, R. J. (2008). The rise of authentic followership. In R. E. Riggio, I. Chaleff, & J. Lipman-Blumen (Eds.), The art of followership: How great fol-

lowers create great leaders and organizations (pp. 325–337). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Avolio, B. J., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2006). Authentic leadership: Moving HR leaders to a higher level. In J. Martocchio, H. Liao, & A. Joshi (Eds.), Research in personnel

and human resources management (Vol. 25, pp. 273–304). Oxford: Elsevier. Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Weber, T. J. (2009). Leadership: Current theories, research, and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 421–449. Avolio, B. J., & Wernsing, T. S. (2008). Practicing authentic leadership. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Positive psychology: Exploring the best in people, (Vol. 4, pp. 147–165).Westport:

CT Greenwood Publishing Group. Bacharach, S. B. (1989). Organizational theories: Some criteria for evaluation. Academy of Management Review, 14, 496–515. Barnard, C. I. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Barnard, C. I. (1948). Organization and management: Selected papers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical consid-

erations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press. Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1993). Manual: The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Bass, B. M., & Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 10, 181–217. Baumgarten, A. G. (1750; reprinted in 1936). Aesthetica. Laterza: Bari. Bedeian, A. G., & Day, D. V. (2004). Can chameleons lead? The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 687–718. Begley, P. T. (2001). In pursuit of authentic school leadership practices. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 4, 353–365. Begley, P. T. (2004). Understanding valuation processes: Exploring the linkage between motivation and action. International Studies in Educational Administration,

32(2), 4–17. Begley, P. T. (2006). Self-knowledge, capacity, and sensitivity: Prerequisites to authentic leadership by school principals. Journal of Educational Administration, 44, 570–589. Bhindi, N., & Duignan, P. (1997). Leadership for a new century: Authenticity, intentionality, spirituality, and sensibility. Educational Management and Administra-

tion, 25(2), 117–132. Bissessar, C. (2010). Authentic leadership: As exemplified by Kamla Persad Bissessar— Implications for current and potential leaders. AdvancingWomen in Leadership

Journal, 30(23), 1–9. Block, J., & Kreman, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 349–361. Branson, C. (2007). Effects of structured self-reflection on the development of authentic leadership practices among Queensland primary school principals.

Educational Management Administration and Leadership, 35, 225–246. Brown, J. A., & Gardner, W. L. (2007). Effective modeling of authentic leadership. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 11(2), 56–60. Brown, D. J., & Lord, R. G. (1999). The utility of experimental research in the study of transformational/charismatic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 10, 531–539. Brown, M. E., & Trevino, L. K. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 595–616. Brown, M. E., Trevino, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational

Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97, 117–134. Brumbaugh, R. B. (1971). Authenticity and theories of administrative behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 108–112. Bryman, A. (1995). Qualitative methods in leadership research: Introduction. The Leadership Quarterly, 6, 491–493. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row. Cameron, K. S., Dutton, J. E., & Quinn, R. E. (2003). Positive organizational scholarship. San Francisco: Barrett-Koelher. Cashman, K. (1998). Leadership from the inside out: Seven pathways to mastery. Provo, UT: Executive Excellence Publishing. Cashman, K. (2003). Awakening the leader within: A story of transformation. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Cashman, K. (2008). Leadership from the inside out: Becoming a leader for life (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Champy, J. (2009). Authentic leadership. Leader to Leader, 54, 39–44. Chan, A., Hannah, S. T., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Veritable authentic leadership: Emergence, functioning, and impacts. In W. L. Gardner, B. J. Avolio, & F. O.

Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 3–41). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.

1142 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Avey, J. B. (2009). Authentic leadership and positive psychological capital: The mediating role of trust at the group level of analysis. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 15, 227–240.

Cogliser, C. C., & Brigham, K. H. (2004). The intersection of leadership and entrepreneurship: Mutual lessons to be learned. The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 771–799. Colquitt, J. A., & Zapata-Phelan, C. P. (2007). Trends in theory building and testing: A five-decade study of the Academy of Management Journal. Academy of

Management Journal, 50, 1281–1303. Conger, J. A. (1998). Qualitative research as the cornerstone methodology for understanding leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 9, 107–121. Cooper, C. D., Scandura, T. A., & Schriesheim, C. A. (2005). Looking forward but learning from our past: Potential challenges to developing authentic leadership

theory and authentic leaders. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 475–493. Corley, K. G., & Gioia, D. A. (2011). Building theory about theory building: What constitutes a theoretical contribution? Academy of Management Review, 36, 12–32. Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281–302. Crossan, M., Lane, H., & White, R. (1999). An organizational learning framework: From intuition to institution. Academy of Management Review, 24, 522–537. Dasborough, M. T., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2005). Follower emotional reactions to authentic and inauthentic leadership influence. In W. L. Gardner, B. J. Avolio, &

F. O. Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 281–300). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31–49). New York:

Plenum Press. Dijksterhuis, A. (2004). I like myself but I don't know why: Enhancing implicit self-esteem by subliminal evaluative conditioning. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 86, 345–355. Dillon, T. H. (2001). Authenticity in occupational therapy leadership: A case study of a servant leader. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55, 441–448. Douglas, C., Ferris, G., & Perrewe, P. (2005). Leader political skill and authentic leadership. InW. L. Gardner, B. J. Avolio, & F. O.Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership

theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 139–154). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Duignan, P., & Bhindi, N. (1997). Authenticity in leadership: An emerging perspective. Journal of Educational Administration, 35, 195–209. Eagly, A. H. (2005). Achieving relational authenticity in leadership: Does gender matter? The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 459–474. Edmondson, A. C., & McManus, S. E. (2007). Methodological fit in management field research. Academy of Management Review, 32, 1155–1179. Eigel, K. M., & Kuhnert, K. W. (2005). Authentic development: Leadership development level and executive effectiveness. In W. L. Gardner, B. J. Avolio, & F. O.

Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 357–386). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Endrissat, N., Muller, W. R., & Kaudela-Baum, S. (2007). En route to an empirically-based understanding of authentic leadership. European Management Journal,

25, 207–220. Erickson, R. J. (1995). The importance of authenticity for self and society. Symbolic Interaction, 18, 121–144. Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1995). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93–116. Fields, D. L. (2007). Determinants of follower perceptons of a leader's authenticity and integrity. European Management Journal, 25, 195–206. Fry, L. W. (2003). Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 693–727. Fry, L. W. (2005). Introduction to The Leadership Quarterly special issue: Toward a paradigm of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 619–622. Fry, L. W., & Whittington, J. L. (2005). In search of authenticity: Spiritual leadership. In W. L. Gardner, B. J. Avolio, & F. O. Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership

theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 183–200). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Gangestad, S. W., & Snyder, M. (2000). Self-monitoring: Appraisal and reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 530–555. Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2005). “Can you see the real me?” A self-based model of authentic leader and follower

development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 343–372. Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2005a). Authentic leadership development: Emergent trends and future directions. In W. L. Gardner, B. J. Avolio,

& F. O. Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 387–406). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2005b). Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects, and development. Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Gardner, W. L., Fischer, D., & Hunt, J. G. (2009). Emotional labor and leadership: A threat to authenticity? The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 466–482. Gardner,W. L., Lowe, K. B., Moss, T. W., Mahoney, K. T., & Cogliser, C. C. (2010). Scholarly leadership of the study of leadership: A review of The Leadership Quarterly's

second decade, 2000–2009. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 922–958. Gardner, W. L., & Schermerhorn, J. R., Jr. (2004). Unleashing individual potential: Performance gains through positive organizational behavior and authentic lead-

ership. Organizational Dynamics, 33, 270–281. Garwronski, B., & Payne, B. K. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications. New York: The Guilford Press. George, W. (2003). Authentic leadership: Rediscovering the secrets to creating lasting value. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. George, W., & Sims, P. (2007). True north: Discover your authentic leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. George, W., Sims, P., McLean, A. N., & Mayer, D. (2007). Discovering your authentic leadership. Harvard Business Review, 85(2), 129–138. Giallonardo, L. M., Wong, C. A., & Iwasiw, C. L. (2010). Authentic leadership of preceptors: Predictor of new graduate nurses' work engagement and job satis-

faction. Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 993–1003. Glynn, M. A., & Raffaelli, R. (2010). Uncovering mechanisms of theory development in an academic field: Lessons from leadership research. The Academy of Man-

agement Annals, 4, 359–401. Goffee, R., & Jones, G. (2005). Managing authenticity: The paradox of great leadership. Harvard Business Review, 83(12), 86–94. Goldman, B. M., & Kernis, M. H. (2001). Development of the Authenticity Inventory. Athens, GA: University of Georgia. Goldman, B. M., & Kernis, M. H. (2002). The role of authenticity in healthy functioning and subjective well-being. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Associ-

ation, 5(6), 18–20. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam. Gordon, M. E., Slade, L. A., & Schmitt, N. (1986). The “science of the sophomore” revisited: From conjecture to empiricism. Academy of Management Review, 11,

191–207. Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader–member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25

years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219–247. Grandey, A. A. (2000). Emotion regulation in the workplace: A newway to conceptualize emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 95–110. Hall, A. T., Blass, F. R., Ferris, G. R., & Massengale, R. (2004). Leader reputation and accountability in organizations: Implications for dysfunctional leader behavior.

The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 515–536. Halpin, A. W., & Croft, D. B. (1966). The organizational climate of schools. In A. W. Halpin (Ed.), Theory and research in administration (pp. 131–249). New York:

Macmillan. Hannah, S. T. (2007). Authentic leadership: The heart of high-impact leadership. In D. Crandall (Ed.), Leadership lessons fromWest Point (pp. 96–113). San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass. Hannah, S. T., Lester, P. B., & Vogelgesang, G. R. (2005). Moral leadership: Explicating the moral component of authentic eadership. InW. L. Gardner, B. J. Avolio, &

F. O. Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 43–81). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Hansen, H., Ropo, A., & Sauer, E. (2007). Aesthetic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 18, 544–560. Harter, S. (2002). Authenticity. In C. S. Snyder, & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 382–394). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harvey, P., Martinko, M. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2006). Promoting authentic behavior in organizations: An attributional perspective. Journal of Leadership and Or-

ganizational Studies, 12(3), 1–11. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley. Henderson, J. E., & Hoy, W. K. (1983). Leader authenticity: The development and test of an operational measure. Educational and Psychological Research, 3(2), 63–75. Higham, R., Freathy, R., & Wegerif, R. (2010). Developing responsible leadership through a ‘pedagogy of challenge’: An investigation into the impact of leader-

ship education on teenagers. School Leadership and Management, 30, 419–434. Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

1143W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

House, R. J., & Aditya, R. N. (1997). The social scientific study of leadership: Quo vadis? Journal of Management, 23, 409–473. Hoy, W. K., & Henderson, J. E. (1983). Principal authenticity, school climate, and pupil-control orientation. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 29, 123–130. Hunt, J. G. (1999). Transformational/charismatic leadership's transformation of the field: An historical essay. The Leadership Quarterly, 10, 129–144. Hunt, J. G. (2004). What is leadership? In J. Antonakis, A. T. Cianciolo, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The nature of leadership (pp. 19–47). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hunt, J. G., Boal, K. B., & Dodge, G. E. (1999). The effects of visionary and crisis-responsive charisma on followers: An experimental examination of two kinds of

charismatic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 10, 423–448. Hunt, J. G., Gardner, W. L., & Fischer, D. (2008). Leader emotional displays from near and far: The implications of close versus distant leadership for leader emotional

labor and authenticity. In R. H. Humphrey (Ed.), Affect and emotion: New directions in management theory and research (pp. 41–63). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Hutchinson, D. S. (1995). Ethics. In J. Barnes (Ed.), The Cambridge companion to Aristotle (pp. 195–232). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Ilies, R., Morgeson, F. P., & Nahrgang, J. D. (2005). Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being: Understanding leader–follower outcomes. The Leadership

Quarterly, 16, 373–394. Jensen, S. M., & Luthans, F. (2006a). Entrepreneurs as authentic leaders: Impact on employees' attitudes. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 27,

646–666. Jensen, S. M., & Luthans, F. (2006b). Relationship between entrepreneurs' psychological capital and their authentic leadership. Journal of Managerial Issues, 18,

254–273. Johns, G. (2006). The essential impact of context on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 31, 386–408. Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kelley, H. H. (1973). The process of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28, 107–128. Kenny, D. A. (1991). A general model of consensus and accuracy in interpersonal perception. Psychological Review, 98, 155–163. Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 1–26. Kernis,M.H., & Goldman, B.M. (2005). From thought and experience to behavior and interpersonal relationships: Amulticomponent conceptualization of authenticity. In A.

Tesser, J. V. Wood, & D. A. Stapel (Eds.), On building, defending, and regulating the self: A psychological perspective (pp. 31–52). New York: Psychology Press. Kernis, M. H., & Goldman, B. M. (2006). A multicomponent conceptualization of authenticity: Theory and research. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental

social psychology, (Vol. 38, pp. 283–357). San Diego: Academic Press. Klenke, K. (2005). The internal theatre of the authentic leader. In W. L. Gardner, B. J. Avolio, & F. O. Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership theory and practice:

Origins, effects and development (pp. 155–182). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Klohnen, E. C. (1996). Conceptual analysis and measurement of the construct of ego-resiliency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1067–1079. Knight, G. A. (1997). Cross-cultural reliability and validity of a scale to measure firm entrepreneurial orientation. Journal of Business Venturing, 12, 213–225. Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of moral stages. San Francisco: Harper and Row. Kolditz, T. A., & Brazil, D. M. (2005). Authentic leadership in in extremis settings: A concept for extraordinary leaders in exceptional situations. In W. L. Gardner,

B. J. Avolio, & F. O. Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 345–356). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2003). Leadership practices inventory: Self & observer. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ladkin, D., & Taylor, S. S. (2010). Enacting the ‘true self’: Towards a theory of embodied authentic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 64–74. Leary, M. R., & Tangney, J. P. (2003). Handbook of self and identity. New York: The Guilford Press. Lee, T. (1999). Using qualitative methods in organizational research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Liedtka, J. (2008). Strategy making and the search for authenticity. Journal of Business Ethics, 80, 237–248. Liu, H. (2010). When leaders fail: A typology of failures and framing strategies. Management Communication Quarterly, 24, 232–259. Lord, R. G., & Emrich, C. G. (2000). Thinking outside the box by looking inside the box: Extending the cognitive revolution in leadership research. The Leadership

Quarterly, 11, 551–579. Lowe, K. B., & Gardner, W. L. (2000). Ten years of The Leadership Quarterly: Contributions and challenges for the future. The Leadership Quarterly, 11, 459–514. Luthans, F. (2002). The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 695–706. Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Authentic leadership development. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship:

Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 241–261). San Francisco: Barrett-Koehler. Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction.

Personnel Psychology, 60, 541–572. Macik-Frey, M., Quick, J. C., & Cooper, C. L. (2009). Authentic leadership as a pathway to positive health. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 453–458. Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 299–337. Martinko, M. J., Harvey, P., & Douglas, S. C. (2007). The role, function, and contribution of attribution theory to leadership: A review. The Leadership Quarterly, 18,

561–585. Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row. May, D. R., Chan, A. Y. L., Hodges, T. D., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Developing the moral component of authentic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 32, 247–260. Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267–298. Meindl, J. R., Ehrlich, s. G., & Dukerich, J. M. (1985). The romance of leadership. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30, 78–102. Michie, S., & Gooty, J. (2005). Values, emotions, and authenticity: Will the real leader please stand up? The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 441–457. Mook, D. G. (1983). In defense of external invalidity. American Psychologist, 38, 379–387. Neuman, W. L. (2002). Social science research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Novicevic, M. M., Davis, W., Dorn, F., Buckley, M. R., & Brown, J. A. (2005). Barnard on conflicts of responsibility: Implications for today's perspectives on trans-

formational and authentic leadership. Management Decision, 43, 1396–1409. Novicevic, M. M., Harvey,M. G., Buckley,M. R., Brown, J. A., & Evans, R. (2006). Authentic leadership: A historical perspective. Journal of Leadership and Organizational

Studies, 13, 64–76. Oakley, J. (1993). Morality and the emotions. London: Routledge. Parke, H., & Wormell, D. (1956). The Delphic Oracle. Oxford: Blackwell. Pittinsky, T., & Tyson, C. J. (2005). Leader authenticity markers: Findings from a study of perceptions of African American political leaders. In W. L. Gardner, B. J.

Avolio, & F. O. Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 253–280). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. -Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and

recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903. Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531–544. Price, T. L. (2003). The ethics of authentic transformational leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 67–81. Reichers, A. E., & Schneider, B. (1990). Climate and culture: An evolution of constructs? In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational climate and culture (pp. 5–39).

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ricoeur, P. (1976). Interpretation theory: Discourse and the surplus of meaning. Fort Worth, TX: Texas Christian University. Roche, M. (2010). Learning authentic leadership in New Zealand: A learner-centeredmethodology and evaluation. American Journal of Business Education, 3(3), 71–79. Rome, B. K., & Rome, S. C. (1967). Humanistic research on large social organizations. In J. F. T. Bugental (Ed.), Challenges of humanistic psychology (pp. 181–193).

New York: McGraw-Hill. Scandura, T. A., & Williams, E. A. (2000). Research methodology in management: Current practices, trends, and implications for future research. Academy of

Management Journal, 43, 1248–1264. Schriesheim, C. A., & Cogliser, C. C. (2010). Construct validation in leadership research: Explication and illustration. The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 725–736. Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances

in experimental social psychology, (Vol. 25, pp. 1–65). San Diego: Academic Press.

1144 W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145

Author's personal copy

Seeman, M. (1966). Status and identity: The problem of inauthenticity. The Pacific Sociological Review, 9(2), 67–73. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14. Shamir, B. (1995). Social distance and charisma: Theoretical notes and an exploratory study. The Leadership Quarterly, 6, 19–47. Shamir, B., & Eilam, G. (2005). “What's your story?”: A life-stories approach to authentic leadership development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 395–417. Shaw, J. (2010). Papering the cracks with discourse: The narrative identity of the authentic leader. Leadership, 6(1), 89–108. Shifren, K., & Hooker, K. (1995). Stability and change in optimism: A study among spouse caregivers. Experimental Aging Research, 21, 59–76. Shirey, M. R. (2009). Authentic leadership, organizational culture, and healthy work environments. Critical Care Nursing Quarterly, 32, 189–198. Snyder, M. (1979). Self-monitoring processes. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, (Vol. 12, pp. 85–128). New York: Academic Press. Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., Borders, T. F., Babyak, M. A., & Higgins, R. I. (1996). Development and validation of the state hope scale. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 321–335. Sparrowe, R. T. (2005). Authentic leadership and the narrative self. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 419–439. Spitzmuller, M., & Ilies, R. (2010). Do they [all] see my true self? Leader's relational authenticity and followers' assessments of transformational leadership. Eu-

ropean Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 19, 304–332. Stanislavski, C. (1936). An actor prepares (E. R. Hapgood, Trans.). New York: Routledge. Stapel, D. A., & Blanton, H. (2004). From seeing to being: Subliminal social comparisons affect implicit and explicit self-evaluatons. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 87, 468–481. Tate, B. (2008). A longitudinal study of the relationships among self-monitoring, authentic leadership, and perceptions of leadership. Journal of Leadership and

Organizational Studies, 15, 16–29. Tepper, B. J. (2007). Abusive supervision in work organizations: Review, synthesis, and research agenda. Journal of Management, 33, 261–289. Tice, D. M., & Wallace, H. M. (2003). The reflected self: Creating yourself as (you think) others see you. In M. R. Leary, & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and

identity (pp. 91–105). New York: The Guilford Press. Toor, S., & Ofori, G. (2009). Authenticity and its influence on psychological well-being and contingent self-esteem of leaders in Singapore construction sector.

Construction Management and Economics, 27, 299–313. Toor, S., Ofori, G., & Arain, F. M. (2007). Authentic leadership style and its implications in project management. Business Review, 2(1), 31–55. Trilling, L. (1972). Sincerity and authenticity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Victor, B., & Cullen, J. B. (1988). The organizational bases of ethical work climates. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33, 101–125. Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S., & Peterson, S. J. (2008). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based

measure. Journal of Management, 34, 89–126. Walumbwa, F. O., Wang, P., Wang, H., Schaubroeck, J., & Avolio, B. J. (2010). Psychological processes linking authentic leadership to follower behaviors. The Leadership

Quarterly, 21, 901–914. Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work, Vol.

18. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Whitehead, G. (2009). Adolescent leadership development: Building a case for an authenticity framework. Educational Management Administration and Leader-

ship, 37, 847–872. Wofford, J. C. (1999). Laboratory research on charismatic leadership: Fruitful or futile? The Leadership Quarterly, 10, 523–529. Wong, C., & Cummings, G. (2009a). Authentic leadership: A new theory for nursing or back to basics? Journal of Health Organization and Management, 23, 522–538. Wong, C. A., & Cummings, G. G. (2009b). The influence of authentic leadership behaviors on trust andwork outcomes of health care staff. Journal of Leadership Studies,

3(2), 6–23. Wong, C. A., Spence Laschinger, H. K., & Cummings, G. G. (2010). Authentic leadership and nurses' voice behaviour and perceptions of care quality. Journal of

Nursing Management, 18, 889–900. Yammarino, F. J., Dionne, S. D., Schriesheim, C. A., & Dansereau, F. (2008). Authentic leadership and positive organizational behavior: A meso, multi-level per-

spective. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 693–707. Youssef, C. M., & Luthans, F. (2005). Resiliency development of organizations, leaders and employees: Multi-level theory building for sustained performance. In

W. L. Gardner, B. J. Avolio, & F. O. Walumbwa (Eds.), Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (pp. 303–343). Oxford, UK: Else- vier Science.

Zhu, W., May, D. R., & Avolio, B. J. (2004). The impact of ethical leadership behavior on employee outcomes: The roles of psychological empowerment and au- thenticity. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 11, 16–26.

1145W.L. Gardner et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1120–1145