cultural influence Homework
Impressionism
Impression: Sunrise 1874, Claude Monet.
About This Module
What to expect in Module 4:
1. You will explore the historical and social contexts that surround Impressionist art. 2. You will look more closely at the ideals and values present during the Impressionist period and how some of these values are still present in contemporary society. This will help you start to think about your initial post for Discussion Board 41.
3. Finally, you will explore Impressionist art.
Take careful notes of all vocabulary terms and key concepts throughout this module. Use the provided review questions, exercises, and games to test your knowledge. Doing so will prepare you for both the Discussion Board this week and the Module Quiz.
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Learning Objectives and Graded Activities
The following activities will be graded:
Discussion Board 41 Module 4 Quiz
These activities support the learning objectives for this module:
Discuss the historical context of a work of art Describe the effects or influence of cultural ideologies on a work of art
Introduction: Understanding Context
Key Concepts: Understanding Context
We need to look at the context of a piece of art as well as its formal qualities to understand it. Context can be historical, cultural, social, and political
Art is not created in a vacuum. Behind every work of art are layers of context. It is important to look not only at the formal qualities of a work of art but also at the time period in which it was created. What events were taking place at this time and in the location where the art was created? What events were happening in the artist's or writer's life (if it is known) at the time the work of art was created? What were the values and ideals from the time period in which the artwork was created?
Context can take many forms: historical, cultural, social, and political. It is important to understand the context in which a work of art was created in order to understand the work of art in its own right and within its own time, but also to understand how the context surrounding the work of art has changed over time. In the process of addressing a work of art's context, you can see how aesthetic values and ideals have also changed, thereby changing a work of art's context over time.
This module provides you with the tools needed to identify and then consider the context behind works of art in general and works of Impressionist art. You will then have the chance to apply what you have learned to analyze a work of art through its different contexts.
Impact of Political, Social, and Cultural Environments on Art
Artists are the product of their world—the historical moment which they inhabit; the cultural heritage they were reared in; the country they call home; the society in which they live and work. It naturally follows that the creative expression of artists would be influenced by their world, such as it is. Art expresses artists' reaction to or interpretation of political, social, and cultural forces that surround them and inevitably shape their creative outlook.
In painting and literature, we can discern the impact on the artist's creative expression of the political, social, and cultural environments in which the artist created the work.
Let's consider several examples of how art was influenced by the particular world (a world described by political events, social forces, and cultural milieu) from which it was forged.
Pablo Picasso's 1937 painting portrayed Nazi Germany's bombing of the Basque town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. The attack killed thousands of civilians, including hundreds of children, and shocked and horrified Picasso, prompting him to create his famous painting. His masterpiece reflected a new facet of modern war, the deliberate targeting of civilians by aerial bombardment and the consequent indiscriminate horror.
Guernica by Pablo Picasso © 2012 Estate of Pablo Picasso / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
George Bernard Shaw's 1912 play (later made into the movie My Fair Lady) is about the transformation of an uncouth flower seller from British society's bottom rung into a genteel young lady who can speak properly and is accepted by high society. Shaw detested the rigid British class system, and he wrote Pygmalion to satirize and mock the snobbery of the British upper class. The play indicts the unyielding class system for perpetuating privilege while denying social mobility to the lower classes. Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw. Image from the 1913 production of Pygmalion (PD).
Frida Kahlo's painting promotes the myth of the nurturing matriarch, one widely held in the Mexico of the 20th century. Her depiction of the Mexican terrain reflects a fierce pride by many Mexican artists of the time in their native landscape. The Love Embrace of the Universe by Frida Kahlo © 2012 Banco de México Diego Rivera Frida Kahlo Museums Trust, Mexico, D.F. / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
Andy Warhol's art both critiqued and reveled in the culture of his era. Warhol's works showed an obsession with celebrity and consumerist, conformist culture. For example, his Marilyn (1967) both glamorized the famous actress and depicted her as a massreproducible commodity. Marilyn Monroe, 1967. One of a portfolio of ten screenprints on white paper, 36" x 36". Inv. 791970 b. Photo: Joerg P. Anders. Marilyn by Andy Warhol © The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts/ARS, NY.
Set in contemporary Afghanistan, Khaled Hosseini's novel tells the story of the complex relationship between two boys, one Sunni Muslim, the other Shiite Muslim, against the background of decadeslong political upheaval and war. The political commentary in the novel reflects Hosseini's deep personal connection with the country and its troubled history over the past four decades. The Kite Runner (2003) by Khaled Hosseini. Image © Riverhead Trade.
This painting by Eugène Delacroix commemorates a bloody threeday revolt (les trois glorieuses) in July 1830 which toppled King Charles X after he sought to undo the achievements of the French Revolution. The painting reflects the revolutionary fervor of the time and the willingness of the people to challenge the traditional order. In Delacroix's painting, a woman personifying Liberty leads the people forward over the bodies of the fallen. She holds the flag of the French Revolution in one hand and brandishes a bayonetted musket with the other. Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix, 1830 (PD).
The Narmer Palette is an engraved stone tablet from 3150 BCE in Egypt. It has the shape of a shield and has decorations on both sides and is thought to commemorate the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under a king named Narmer. The king is shown several times as triumphant over his enemies, as a bull destroying a fortified city and killing kneeling foes. On one side Narmer wears the crown of Upper Egypt, and on the other the crown of Lower Egypt. Some scholars take this as a literal historical recording of actual events, but others see it as more fictional and mythological. The Narmer Palette. Photograph by Wikipedia user Jeff Dahl, 2007 (PD).
Understanding Evolving Aesthetics and Standards of Beauty
Key Concepts: Understanding Evolving Aesthetics and Standards of Beauty
What is judged to be beautiful in creative expression changes as aesthetic standards or sensibilities evolve. Examples of this shift in aesthetic appreciation can be seen in the improved perception of the works of Vincent van Gogh and Claude Monet and in the shift in perception of female beauty (from an 18th century appreciation of fullfigured women to today's focus on fitter bodies).
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. This saying expresses the subjectivity at the root of aesthetic experience. We should add that the beholding eye from one generation to another may perceive beauty differently. That which human cultures judge to be beautiful in creative expression is subject to change as aesthetic standards or sensibilities evolve. In some instances, works of art derided at the time of their creation as lacking beauty or higher artistic value are deemed beautiful by future generations, which in viewing the works through a different aesthetic lens, "rediscover" them.
Society's aesthetics adjust over time; different cultures and periods have differing notions of beauty.
We can see, through the following examples, how and why aesthetic perceptions in the visual arts have changed from one time period (with its cultural context) to another (with its cultural context).
Example of Art Perception
Change in perception or
counter perception
Why?
Paintings of Vincent van Gogh
The art world met van Gogh's paintings with ridicule or indifference when they first appeared.
Today, his works are celebrated for their beauty and creativity, and van Gogh is esteemed as an artistic genius.
The art world in van Gogh's day was unable to recognize the genius at work in his unconventional and singular style. The shift with time in how van Gogh's paintings are valued aesthetically is partly explainable by relativity of aesthetic experience: from one generation or epoch to the next (for example, from the late 19th to the late 20th centuries), perceptions of what constitutes beauty in art can change.
Shift in depictions of the human form from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance
The Church in the Middle Ages discouraged depiction of the human body in the nude. In medieval art, the human form is stylized and lacks dimensionality.
Renaissance artists strove for lifelike, realistic representation of the human body. Renaissance art revived the practice from the classical tradition of depicting the human body in the nude, as, for example, in Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli
Realistic depiction of the human body expressed the Renaissance artist's insistence on freedom of individual expression and renewed interest in the art of the classical world.
Venus and Adonis by Peter Paul Rubens
The portrait of Venus, Roman goddess of love, epitomized feminine beauty in the early 17th century, when Rubens painted it.
Today, the audience would regard the depiction as far from its ideal of female beauty.
Standards of human beauty have shifted through the ages. They also can vary from one culture to the next in the same era. Rubens's curvy female figure depicted in Venus and Adonis was considered beautiful in his time, but modern viewers often have different expectations for feminine beauty.
Water Lilies series by Claude Monet
Today, this series of paintings (some 250 in all) are highly valued for their beauty and hailed as a signature achievement of Impressionism.
The aesthetic of Water Lilies would have eluded a Renaissance sensibility in art. The beauty we perceive and extol in these paintings would not have registered with a Renaissance audience.
Renaissance art celebrated classical forms and was concerned with realistic or lifelike representation. It embodied an ideal of beauty different from that celebrated in Impressionist painting.
Classical Greco Roman art
The artistic contributions of classical Greece and Rome were venerated during the 18th century as the standards of beauty in Western culture.
In Western culture today, the art of GrecoRoman antiquity is no longer universally regarded as the exemplification of beauty or aesthetic achievement.
Aesthetic values have evolved since the 18th century. In our times, multiculturalism has led us to look beyond the culture of Western Classicism to other cultural traditions and their aesthetic contributions.
Conflict and Meaning
Key Concepts: Conflict and Meaning
Conflict has been the root of drama and a motivating force behind creative expression. Conflict can be an element (narrative or thematic) interior to works of art. Conflict is the expression by the artist of forces in antagonism to one another. Conflict can also be the clash between artist and audience over the meaning of the work, often manifested in the audience's objection to the work's perceived meaning or message.
Conflict is central to the human condition. It's the root of drama and a motivating force behind creative expression. Some might say conflict is life and vice versa.
Some of the very first literary works represented conflict: Homer's Iliad tells the tale of the Trojan War, during which Greek states attempt to invade Troy. Even today, authors, filmmakers, and other creators of cultural works are inspired by the ordinary and extraordinary struggles of regular people.
Ulysses and Penelope by Francesco Primaticcio
Portrait of the Family of Charles IV by Francisco de Goya
In the humanities, conflict operates in two ways:
It is an element (narrative or thematic) interior to works of art. Conflict is the expression by the artist of antagonistic forces. It is the clash between artist and audience over the meaning of the work. This is usually manifested in the audience's objection to the work's perceived meaning or message. Objection may become condemnation, which can create pressure for censorship or lead to persecution.
Conflict has operated in works of the humanities throughout the ages, as can be seen in the following examples:
The Homeric epics and the Trojan wars
Epic poems: Homer's Iliad and Odyssey
Conflict: The Homeric epics were inspired by the war between Greece and Troy. The ancient Greeks themselves always assumed that the Trojan War was an actual historical event, but there was scant evidence for the conflict until the archaeological discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann in the 19th century, which revealed the historical roots of Homer's epic poems.
Schliemann claimed to have discovered Troy itself. The site in what is now northwest Turkey yielded several layers of history. It appears that there was a major military conflict on that site sometime in the 1200s BCE. Schliemann found the remains of palaces, fortification, and golden treasures.
In the Iliad, it is clear that Homer knows the terrain around Troy and the citadel that sat at the top of the ancient city. The archaeological debate still rages around the ancient site of Troy. Some scholars are firmly convinced that a major war took place on the site, others are not.
Goya's satiric portrait of the Spanish royal family
Painting: Portrait of the Family of Charles IV by Francisco de Goya.
Conflict: The satiric portrait of the royal family expresses Goya's disdain for the privileged Spanish aristocracy and for its arrogance, indolence, and pretentiousness.
The conflict conveyed in the work is the artist's thinly concealed contempt for his subject, which can be seen in his portrayal of the family in less than noble fashion. He made no attempt to flatter the King or Queen in his depiction of their physical appearance. The French Romantic writer Théophile Gautier described the royal figures as looking like "the corner baker and his wife after they won the lottery."
Cover of Ulysses by James Joyce, 1922 (PD).
Cover of the book Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark
Twain, 1884 (PD).
James Joyce's Ulysses and obscenity laws
Novel: Ulysses (1922) by James Joyce
Conflict: The novel, Joyce's modern retelling of Homer's Odyssey, was initially banned in the United States for its sexual explicitness. In 1933 it was the subject of a landmark court case about the conflict between artistic freedom of expression on the one hand, and public morality and standards of decency on the other.
The court had to decide whether the book was so morally offensive that the public should be denied the opportunity to read it. Its verdict overturned the ban. The court ruled that the novel was not pornography, but the product of Joyce's artistically valid effort to represent human nature authentically through an innovative literary technique.
Because of this precedent, literary freedom of expression has since enjoyed increased legal protection.
Optional enrichment: Read Episode 4, "Calypso" of Joyce's Ulysses.
Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and American racial attitudes
Novel: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) by Mark Twain.
Conflict: The novel, set in antebellum America, recounts the adventures of Huck Finn as he journeys down the Mississippi River and develops a remarkable friendship with a runaway slave named Jim.
Twain's book, while widely regarded as a masterpiece of American literature, has always been controversial.
When Huckleberry Finn was first published—only a generation after the Civil War, when America was racially segregated by law and African Americans were victimized by discrimination—it was denounced for its sympathetic depiction of the friendship between the white Huck and black Jim. Twain's rendering of this friendship challenged 19th century readers' expectations and attitudes regarding race.
In our own time, the novel has been deplored for its supposedly demeaning characterization of Jim, for its propagation of negative racial stereotypes, and for its casual use of racial epithets (including, most notably, the "n" word).
The novel's defenders argue that contemporary critics are guilty of presentism—that is, of analyzing the work through the prism of today's standards and values, rather than in the social and political context of the period in which it was produced.
Spiritual singers from North Carolina, National Archives and Records Administration, 1939.
Le Dèjeuner sur l'herbe (Luncheon on the Grass)
by Édouard Manet
Portrait of Richard Wright, author of Native Son, by Carl Van Vechten, 1939 (PD).
African American spiritual music, the blues, and suffering
Music: African American spiritual music and the blues.
Conflict: African American music of the 19th and 20th century reflected the struggles of blacks to shake off the shackles of slavery and to deal with racism. Spirituals fused African tribal music and Christian hymns to both address the pain and dislocation many slaves felt and to hold out the promise of a better life (if not on earth, then in heaven).
Blues music, which developed in southern AfricanAmerican communities at the end of the 19th century, borrowed from work songs, spirituals, and chants and featured a twelvebar blues chord progression. The blues focused on the daily tribulations of life in the American South, and also included laments about universal themes including lost love and the challenges of family life.
Édouard Manet's Luncheon on the Grass and French middle class morality
Painting: Le Dèjeuner sur l'herbe (Luncheon on the Grass) by Édouard Manet
Conflict: Manet's paintings were regularly rejected by the jury which selected the works to be exhibited at the prestigious Salon, which was held annually at the ChampsÉlysées Palace in Paris.
The Salon jury did not accept Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe ("Luncheon on the Grass"), which today is regarded as an early Impressionist masterpiece. The jurors, emblematic of the art world establishment in Manet's day, derided the painting for its dramatic departure from conventional style and traditional subject matter and questioned its juxtaposition of a nude woman and fully clothed men.
Richard Wright's Native Son and his rejection of Hollywood
Novel: Native Son (1940) by Richard Wright
Conflict: Richard Wright's Native Son tells the story of a young black man living in poverty amid a racist white society. Because the book was such a huge success, MGM offered to produce a movie from the novel, but the studio wanted to change the story and substitute white actors (including the lead actor in blackface). Wright said no. Hollywood at the time was not ready for a black person in the lead role of a movie, in spite of the fact that a black actor had successfully played the lead role in a stage adaptation of the book.
Director Orson Welles was disgusted by the cowardice of the studios and attempted to make the film in Mexico, where a mixed black and white cast would be tolerated. But Welles could not find investors for this project and it died. In 1951, a French director made a movie version with Richard Wright himself in the lead role.
Photograph of J. K. Rowling, author of the Harry Potter series. Photograph by Daniel Ogren, 2010 (CC BY 2.0).
J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter series and witchcraft
Novels: Harry Potter (1997–2007) by J.K. Rowling
Conflict: This series of seven fantasy novels chronicles the adventures of the adolescent wizard Harry Potter and his friends from the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The central story arc is Harry's struggle against Lord Voldemort, the evil wizard who killed Harry's parents in Voldemort's quest to conquer the wizarding world.
Notwithstanding its phenomenal worldwide success, Harry Potter has met criticism from some adults troubled by its thematic elements. Some concerned parents have objected to the series on two main grounds: its admiring focus on the wizardry taught at the Hogwarts School, which some religious people abhor as "satanic" and its seeming condoning of disobedience to authority figures by the young protagonists when that defiance is for "good reasons."
Functions of Art in Culture
Art is more than the artist's attempt to represent beauty. Beyond aesthetic expression, art fulfills various different functions in a given culture or society. For example, art may serve any of the following ends:
Audience enjoyment Political or social commentary Commemoration of an event or person Storytelling Religious celebration or veneration
Here are examples of how art operates to fulfill different functions.
Art or art form
Function filled Explanation
Blockbuster films Enjoyment The Hollywood blockbuster film is a popular entertainment whose main purpose (beyond enriching the movie studio) is to bring the audience uncomplicated enjoyment.
The blockbuster film fulfills its purpose by:
providing the audience a brief escape from the cares of everyday life treating the audience to a fun experience inviting the moviegoing public to get out socially creating a common point of reference in popular culture
Art or art form
Function filled Explanation
Renaissance visual arts
Expression of aesthetic values
Renaissance visual arts communicated the aesthetics ascendant in European culture after the Middle Ages. The values reflected in Renaissance painting and sculpture included:
idealization of the human figure in the classical style emotional expressiveness of subjects (that is, inviting an emotional response from audience) freedom of individual expression imitating real life as precisely as possible (that is, achieving perfect likeness)
Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes (1991–1992) by Tony Kushner
Political/social commentary
The play, which comprises two parts (Millennium Approaches and Perestroika), dramatizes the AIDS epidemic in America. The work operates as political and social commentary by:
Exploring the politics behind the public health response to AIDS Addressing the homophobia in American society that compels gays to conceal their true sexuality for fear of professional ruin or family ostracism Equating homophobia in the era of AIDS to the anti communist McCarthyism of the 1950s Exploring the struggle of gays to reconcile their sexuality with their religion when it teaches that homosexuality is abnormal, immoral, or sinful
The Calling of St. Matthew by Caravaggio, 1599–1600
The Martyrdom of St. Matthew by Caravaggio, 1599–1600
Religious veneration
Caravaggio was commissioned to paint both works for a Catholic chapel in Rome. The paintings, with their dynamic composition and dramatic lighting, helped confirm the Italian Baroque artist's reputation as a master of devotional images.
These works demonstrate some key purposes, which religious art serves for the faithful:
Inspiring the devoted to prayer or religious meditation Giving visual expression to religious mysteries Providing instruction on religious doctrine Offering exegesis (that is, explanation or critical interpretation) of a religious text
Art or art form
Function filled Explanation
House (1993) by Rachel Whiteread
Political/Social commentary
After the neighboring houses on Grove Street had all been condemned and knocked down, Rachel Whiteread made a concrete cast of the only remaining house to be demolished, 193 Grove Street. The piece of art was met with controversy, evidenced by the fact that, in that year, Whiteread was awarded both the Turner Prize for the best British artist and the K Foundation art award for worst British artwork. This cast of the Victorian rowhouse sparked debate about both London's housing policies and contemporary art.
House demonstrates that art can comment on the political and social environment of the artist:
By promoting the exchange of ideas By providing commentary on current events By pushing the limits of how art is regarded by mainstream society
Jazz: C Jam Blues (1942) by Duke Ellington
Social commentary
AfricanAmerican musicians traveled to New Orleans in the late nineteenth century to study music and invented jazz. Jazz music combines the European rhythms and scales with the formal aspects of the "field hollers" that slaves sang while they worked and the religious songs they sang to worship.
From the call and response style of African songs emerged an improvisational jazz form similar to the theme and variations of classical music. The lyrics of jazz songs often describe the coming together of jazz scene enthusiasts to enjoy a nightly escape of singing and dancing.
Jazz provided an outlet for AfricanAmerican social commentary and contributed to contemporary music in form and content:
By exchanging the European seventone scale for an Africaninspired fivetone scale with two halftones or "blue notes" By reintroducing to music the theme and variation structure, in which a main theme is sung or played and then improvised variations are presented using different singers or instruments
Reflections of Culture
As the enduring artistic and intellectual achievements of a culture or society, the humanities reflect defining aspects of whichever civilization produced them. These aspects include (for example) religion, mythology, history, philosophy, and geography or natural environment.
Reflections of Culture Music, drama, literature, dance, philosophy, and the arts throughout the ages have reflected the culture in which they were created. Carved Totem, Maori culture
Music Richard Wagner's operas reflected 19th century German nationalism. They established German opera on par with Italian opera; and realized the power of the German language in the operatic form. Bust of Richard Wagner, German composer. Photograph by Wikipedia user Schubbay.
Based on stories from Germanic mythology, Wagner's operas introduced the rest of the world to an epic Teutonic mythological heritage. His works departed from the aesthetic of Italian opera by elevating the drama above the music in order to maximize the emotional experience of opera. Ludwig and Malwine Schnorr von Carolsfeld in the title roles of the original production of Richard Wagner's Tristan and Isolde in 1865.
Drama The Theater of Cruelty reflected the sensibility of Western audiences in the late 20th century. It impacted the audience emotionally through scenes contrived to be maximally shocking. Antonin Artaud outlined his idea for the Theater of Cruelty in his 1938 book The Theater and Its Double. Image copyright Calder Publications.
Scholars have argued that for audiences weaned on violence in popular culture and media, the Theater of Cruelty satisfies their conditioned appetite for encountering violence in a fictive setting in which no real danger exists. An Italian production of The Cenci, Antonin Artaud's Theater of Cruelty play.
Philosophy The culture of Roman antiquity reflected the philosophy of stoicism. The classical Roman ideal of human perfection found support in stoicism's emphasis on reason and emotional equilibrium, according to scholars of Classicism. Roman columns
Stoic teachings became the philosophical touchstone for the superbly disciplined Roman imperial military, which projected the might of the expansive Roman Empire. Stoicism provided a philosophical rationale for soldiers enduring the rigorous training and brutal hardships of war, and for developing indifference to their own suffering. An ancient Roman basrelief, Italy
Art Ancient Egyptian art reflects the influence of religion, as the pharaohs as godrulers were depicted in artwork (stone and metal carvings) as idealized versions of human beings Ancient Egyptian stone carving of a priest carrying stalks of wheat. Temple of Horus, Edfu, Egypt
Impressionist painting reflected an interest in scientific progress in 19th century European society, and the focus on light and color reflected the influence of the advancing science of optics. Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise, 1872
Politics and the Humanities
In every culture or society, politics and the humanities converge at some point, to some degree. Politics is about the exercise of power in the public sphere. It is the struggle within a society over the making of public policy—that is, of deciding "who gets what, when, and how." The humanities have always been concerned with politics as a major realm of human affairs. Politics has intruded upon the humanities through, for example, government censorship or suppression of creative expression.
The photographs of Dorothea Lange showed the poverty that migrant workers faced during the Great Depression. The Farm Security Administration commissioned Lange to document social problems, and her photographs made the plight of the migrant worker seem real and personal to common Americans.
The Liberation of Aunt Jemima by Betye Saar, 1972.
Betye Saar (b.1926), The Liberation of Aunt Jemima, 1972, mixed media assemblage, 11 3/4" x 8" x 2 3/4", signed. Collection of University of California, Berkeley Art Museum; purchased with the aid of funds from the National Endowment for the Arts (selected by The Committee for the Acquisition of AfroAmerican Art). Courtesy of Michael Rosenfeld Gallery LLC, New York, NY.
The Fiddler by Marc Chagall, 1912– 1913. The Nazis considered the
work of Chagall, a Jewish artist, to be degenerate
Similarly, Americans who visit Maya Lin's Vietnam Memorial in Washington, D.C., are asked to feel a sense of connection to the 60,000 dead American soldiers whose names appear on the wall. The memorial is constructed of a granite wall that reflects the viewer back to himself or herself and helps him or her identify with the deaths.
Here are some examples, which illustrate the interplay between politics and the humanities.
Nazism and "degenerate art"
How were the visual arts in Germany in the 1930s influenced by the Nazi ideology of Aryan racial purity?
In the 1930s, the Nazi party under Adolf Hitler began to purge the nation of what it labeled "degenerate" art—that is, art that deviated from acceptable forms (as established by the Nazi leadership). This included all abstract art and any art that did not promote the Nazi ideology of Aryan purity and racial supremacy. In particular, the Nazi purge targeted Jewish artists and their works.
The Nazis staged a touring Degenerate Art exhibit that displayed nonGerman, socalled "deviant" paintings collected from museums throughout Germany. These works were publicly derided and their creators were denounced.
The Nazi party replaced the "degenerate" art with "German" art that celebrated the Aryan ideal of beauty and promoted Aryan racial superiority.
Eventually, during World War II, the Nazi regime sold some of the "degenerate" art (including works by Vincent van Gogh and Marc Chagall) at auction in Switzerland to help fund Germany's war effort.
The Liberation of Aunt Jemima
How does The Liberation of Aunt Jemima serve to liberate the image of AfricanAmerican women?
Betye Saar, a collage artist who makes art out of "assemblages" of found objects, attacks cultural, racial, and gender stereotypes in her work. The Liberation of Aunt Jemima uses the image of Aunt Jemima, the namesake of a pancake mix, to make a statement about the portrayal of black womanhood.
The actual image from the pancake mix packaging is used for a background, and the two other women show depictions of black women that at first seem to be smiling and compliant, just like the Aunt Jemima on the pancake mix box. In the past, it was common for black women to be hired at low wage to take care of the household work and childrearing for middleclass white families. All of Saar's versions of "Aunt Jemima" are smiling and, in some way, connected to household work.
Film poster for Yol (The Road of Life) by Yılmaz Güneys, 1982. Image © Donat Keusch.
Cover of the book The Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie, 1988. Image © Random House Trade
Paperbacks.
The background images in the collage represent the cooking that black women did; in the version of Aunt Jemima in front of a fence, she is holding a white child, which implies she is rearing the child of another family. The largest version of Aunt Jemima is holding a broom, but she is also holding a gun, which suggests that she's ready to fight for equality—her liberation.
Yol (The Road of Life)
How was the reaction of Turkish audiences to Yol (The Road of Life) affected by the political anxieties about the Kurdish separatist movement?
In 1982, Turkey's military government banned the screening of Yol (The Road of Life). The film had been made secretly from a script written by a jailed supporter of Kurdish separatism (Yılmaz Güneys) and smuggled out of prison.
The film's main characters were all Kurds who defied military suppression of the separatist movement and the repressive treatment of women in Turkey.
Critic Vincent Canby of The New York Times called Yol "a big, angry epic of contemporary Turkey" and added: "Turkey, Mr. Guney finds, is one large prison, oppressed not only by political tyranny but also by superstition and bigotry."
The ban on Yol (The Road of Life) was lifted in 1996, when a civilian government replaced the military regime in Turkey and permitted it to be shown. The controversial film angered many Turks, who claimed it presented a distorted and unfairly damning view of their nation. They were concerned that the West would judge Turkey poorly because of the film's representation of it.
The Satanic Verses (1988) by Salman Rushdie
What was the effect of the Islamic fundamentalist response to The Satanic Verses on literary and intellectual expression?
The Satanic Verses recasts the life of the Islamic Prophet Mohammed into the main character of this magicalrealist novel. The novel takes liberties with Islamic apocryphal texts, and at one point in Rushdie's story, one of the prophets alleges to have altered passages of the Qur'an.
Islamic fundamentalists accused Rushdie of blaspheming the prophet Mohammed in his controversial novel. Blasphemy can be defined as irreverence or disrespect toward something sacred.
The Indianborn author was forced into years of hiding and traveling incognito after a powerful Iranian Islamic religious leader placed a death sentence (fatwa) upon him in 1989. The fatwa called upon devout Muslims everywhere to kill Rushdie in the name of their faith.
Imposition of the fatwa under Islamic law by Iran's leading cleric served to chill free expression the world over. Artists and intellectuals were loath to express themselves about Islam or Islamic fundamentalism because they feared for their lives.
The fatwa against Rushdie was eventually revoked and the author was able to come out of hiding.
Venus of Urbino by Titian, 1538
Oath of the Horatii by JacquesLouis David, 1784
Social Movements and the Humanities
Key Concepts: Social Movements and the Humanities
The humanities have influenced the course of social movements through power of creative expression and force of ideas. Examples of humanities influencing social movements include a more secular viewpoint in the Renaissance, environmentalism, gender politics, Russian revolutionary politics, the Civil Rights movement, and the antiVietnam War movement.
Throughout the ages, the humanities have influenced the course of social movements through power of creative expression and force of ideas. At different times, in different cultures, the formal arts and philosophy have inspired or galvanized movements of social dissent, change, or reform.
Here are examples from literature, visual arts, and music that illustrate how works of the humanities have influenced particular social movements.
Representing the human body in the Renaissance
Lifelike representation of the human body in Renaissance visual arts reflected the movement away from medieval Christian religiosity, which had emphasized the afterlife as the sole human concern and eschewed worldly concerns.
Realistic depiction of the human form by Renaissance painters and sculptors expressed a characteristic interest in the secular world and in this life rather than the next.
The Oath of the Horatii and French antimonarchism
David's 1784 painting, finished just a few years before the outbreak of the French Revolution, portrays three brothers, the Horatii, who were chosen to defend Rome in its conflict with the town of Alba in the 7th century BCE. The men are swearing an oath to defeat Rome's enemy or die fighting. As they receive their swords from their father, the women of the family grieve at the prospect of the brothers' deaths.
The painting's ennobling message of patriotic selfsacrifice in the service of an honorable cause would likely have inspired an antimonarchist French audience in the immediate prerevolutionary period. David's work might have suggested to prorepublican viewers an opportunity for their own selfsacrifice to the cause of French liberty.
Actress Betty Hennings as Nora Helmer from Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's
House, 1880
Original title page of Walden featuring a picture drawn by Thoreau's sister Sophia, 1854
Film poster for The Battleship Potemkin, 1926
Ibsen's A Doll's House and gender politics
A Doll's House, a play written by Henrik Ibsen, exposes the double standard in Victorian society that asks women to sacrifice without reciprocation from their husbands. In the play, Nora, wife of Torvald, steals money from her father to save her husband's life. Her husband is not aware of her deed, and when she is exposed, he renounces her. After it becomes clear that Torvald will not suffer consequences of Nora's actions, he wants her back. But Nora leaves, pointing out to her husband and the audience that it is unfair to expect women to sacrifice for their husbands when little is expected of men in return.
Thoreau's Walden and environmentalism
Walden (1854) recounted Henry David Thoreau's experience in the mid 1800s of living in isolation for two years in the woods near Walden Pond in Massachusetts. This selfimposed retreat from civilization was Thoreau's selfdescribed "experiment" in living apart from society,
surrounded by nature. It marked his philosophical quest to achieve some deeper understanding of reality through solitary reflection amid an unspoiled natural habitat.
The mainstream contemporary environmental movement honors Thoreau as an environmental pioneer and commemorates Walden as a literary touchstone for its commitment to preserve and protect the environment against pollution, degradation, and overdevelopment.
Walden inspired conservation of undeveloped lands as a public good. Thoreau's work was the impetus for the Walden Woods Project, a nonprofit organization established in 1990 to preserve the woods surrounding Walden Pond from imminent commercial development. The Walden Woods Project raised public awareness of the threat to this historic habitat and its rich ecosystem. It was able to raise the funds needed to buy and preserve the endangered areas.
The Battleship Potemkin and Russian revolutionary politics
Russian filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein's film The Battleship Potemkin served to bolster the communist movement in the Soviet Union after the Bolsheviks' 1917 overthrow of the czar. The film depicted a failed uprising of the people against the czar that occurred in 1905. The film shows soldiers massacring unaware citizens on the streets, and it shocked audiences with its gruesomeness. The massacre depicted in the film may not have happened in the way Eisenstein depicted it, but his use of a new technique, montage (in which short clips are intercut in quick succession) made the massacre seem terrifying and quite real. The result of the film's distribution was the people's greater support of the Bolsheviks and the Communist Party.
At the Newport Folk Festival in 1963, Pete Seeger, the members of Peter, Paul and Mary, Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, and Theodore Bikel joined with civil rights activists to sing "We Shall Overcome."
John Lennon rehearses "Give Peace A Chance." Photograph by Roy Kerwood (CC BY 2.5).
Folk music and civil rights
Folk music, with its tradition of songs protesting political or social oppression, unified supporters of the civil rights movement in the righteousness of their struggle. The song "We Shall Overcome," which became the anthem of the civil rights movement, exemplified folk music's power to create an instant bond or spirit of solidarity among the people committed to the cause of black civil rights.
Bob Dylan and John Lennon and the antiwar movement
American rock musician Bob Dylan's protest songs were embraced by those protesting the Vietnam War in the 1960s. With such songs as "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall," "Blowin' in the Wind," and "Masters of War," Dylan inspired the antiwar movement with his recordings and live appearances at the huge outdoor rallies.
John Lennon, a member of the Beatles, contributed antiwar songs in the late 1960s and early 1970s, including the song "Give Peace a Chance." Televised appearances, such as his "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)," further demonstrated Lennon's commitment to the antiwar movement. Many believe that his antiwar activities caused the U.S. government to try to deport Lennon for his 1968 conviction for marijuana possession.
Art and Society
Art and Society Art influences society, and society influences art. This reciprocal relationship reflects the nexus between human creative expression in all its forms and the society from which it arises. The Sistine Chapel, by Michelangelo Buonarotti, completed in 1481
Example: Prehistoric cave paintings fulfilled some key functions for Stone Age communities. Such paintings (like those at Lascaux, France, from the early Stone Age) met the need of humankind's earliest visual artists to replicate the images of the natural world around them. Cave painting of a dun horse (equine) at Lascaux
Scholars have posited that prehistoric cave art reflected the desire of its painters to imitate the threedimensional world on a twodimensional surface. Bhimbetka rock painting
Example: Renaissance art helped to define European culture. By its revival of GrecoRoman classical art forms, and its implicit dismissal of medieval Christian religious concerns in art and sculpture, Renaissance artists helped reshape European culture in more humanistic terms. Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, c. 1503–1506
By emphasizing the individual, Renaissance painting and sculpture's secular nature emphasized life here and now. Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, by Michelangelo Buonarroti
It also reflected artists' understanding of advances in science (for example, discoveries in optics and human anatomy) that helped encourage the development of perspective, three dimensionality, and lifelike representation of the human form. Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man, c. 1490
Example: The Feminist movement of the late 20th century sparked a rethinking of the place of women in history, and this reconsideration surfaced in works of art like Judy Chicago's The Dinner Party (19741979). Chicago's installation artwork, which was created collaboratively, includes place settings for 39 mythical and historical famous women around a triangular table as well as a floor of triangular porcelain tiles with the names of a further 999 notable women. Judy Chicago's The Dinner Party (1979). Image by Angela N. (CC BY 2.0)
Chicago said the project was meant to "end the ongoing cycle of omission in which women were written out of the historical record." The Dinner Party, now installed in the Brooklyn Museum, had received widely differing reviews, with some art critics applauding it as an imaginative feminist statement and others attacking it for being preachy and vulgar. Place setting in The Dinner Party. Image by Angela N. (CC BY 2.0)
Woman With a Hat by Henri Matisse
Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar Beer Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany
by Hannah Hoch, 1919
Art and Modern Society
The modern world—the world born in and bequeathed by the 20th century—is the product of dynamic social, political, cultural, and technological change. Art has both reflected and influenced modern society in its development. It has fulfilled many different roles—from social commentary, cultural dissent, and propaganda to aesthetic experimentation, popular entertainment, and a source of aesthetic pleasure.
The following sections provide examples of different art movements or works and the roles they have served in modern society.
Expressionism
Expressionism: Expressionist art brings into focus the feelings of the artist about the content he or she is representing.
Henri Matisse's brilliant colors, rich decorativeness, and energetic brush strokes boldly display the enthusiasm he felt for the female figures he celebrated in his art. Matisse strove to paint the essential nature of his subjects, and the viewer's eye delights at the aesthetic beauty of his works.
Dadaism
Dadaism: A movement of artistic and social dissent, Dadaism flouted traditional art forms and ridiculed contemporary culture. The Dadaists created unconventional works that were absurd, irrational, or nihilistic. The movement marked a reaction against bourgeois Victorian social and aesthetic values.
Dadaism arose in response to World War I, which had ravaged Europe and hastened the collapse of traditional social mores in European society. The horrific carnage of the Great War shocked and disillusioned the Dadaists, who repudiated the political grounds on which it had been waged and who came to reject the traditional forms and premises of art as profoundly inadequate for expressing the nature of the modern world.
Bauhaus
Bauhaus: The Bauhaus was a highly influential school of art whose then radical aim was to reimagine the material world to express the unity of all the arts. Founded in Germany by architect Walter Gropius in 1919, the Bauhaus outlined a bold vision for a union of art and design.
Its organizing proclamation described the ideal of a craft guild combining architecture, sculpture, and painting into a single creative expression. The Bauhaus craftbased curriculum trained artisans and designers to create useful and beautiful objects consistent with the school's vision of integration of all the arts.
Grrrrrrrrrrr!!, by Roy Lichtenstein, 1965, Oil and Magna on canvas, 68 x 56 1/8, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, Gift of the artist, 1997, 97.4565, © The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York.
Film poster for Triumph of the Will, a Nazi propaganda film
made by Leni Riefenstahl, 1935. Copyright Universum Film AG.
Art in Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany and Art: The Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler exploited art to serve as propaganda for Nazi fascist ideology and aggressive German nationalism. The Nazi Party used art to indoctrinate the German people to its assertion of Aryan supremacy, to promote virulent antiSemitism, and to glorify Nazi militarism.
The flip side of the Nazi propaganda effort was the denunciation of art that deviated from what the Nazi Party defined as acceptable. Art deemed unacceptable was labeled "degenerate" art. It was publicly derided and the artists who created it were denounced. "Degenerate" art included nonGerman art, art by "foreigners" (often meaning Jews), abstract art, and art which did not promote the Aryan ideal of beauty.
Adolf Hitler understood the power of art. In 1934 he asked the filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl to make a film of a Nazi Party Congress and rally in Nuremberg and the resulting movie, Triumph of the Will, became effective propaganda for his regime. As Val Williams of the Independent noted: "With its awesome combination of ritual, piety, hysteria and order, the rally at Nuremberg marked a watershed in German history. Riefenstahl, who had been trained to photograph the great heroic scenes of nature and the struggle of man to conquer the wilderness, was ideally suited to present National Socialism not as cruel Fascism, but as a deep and mysterious magic."1
Pop Art
Pop Art: The basis of Pop Art was the power of popular images drawn from American consumer culture and mass media.
Inspired by commercial art and elements of mass culture (comic strips, movies, T.V., mass media advertising), the movement reflected the pervasiveness of consumerism and mass media in American society in the 1960s.
Pop Art challenged viewers to rethink their aesthetic values by elevating elements of mass culture to the status of art.
Sara Doris, a professor at the University of Memphis, argued in Pop Art and the Contest over American Culture that Pop Art subverted the logic of consumerism: "It repeatedly made visible those obsolescent commodities that the consumer industry hoped to erase from our consciousness. Any culture of innovation is necessarily simultaneously a culture of obsolescence, and it is inevitable that the old and undesirable discards will come to vastly outnumber the new and stillglamorous commodities. By presenting us with the commodity that is no longer desirable— one that has become faintly ridiculous, even—pop art challenges the claims of consumer culture to satisfy our desires through the "newandimproved" version. It does so by deglamorizing the commodity, or commodified celebrity, by cloaking it in a style that is conspicuously dated and thereby rendering its desirability obsolescent."
Film poster for the musical Rent by
Jonathan Larson, 1996.
Doris added: "This deglamorization allows us—no longer dazzled by the appeal of the media image— to see past the glamour and recognize the way in which we are manipulated by these images." (Source: Sara Doris, Pop Art and the Contest over American Culture (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 10.)
Musical Theater
Musical Theater and Social Commentary: Jonathan Larson's musical Rent, based on the 1896 Puccini opera La Bohème, updates an old story line with a new setting, and new music and lyrics. While Puccini's opera portrayed its characters struggling to survive in Paris (with one character dying from tuberculosis), Larson's rock opera portrays young artists and musicians trying to become successful in New York and dealing with poverty and HIV/AIDS.
Critic Ben Brantley of the New York Times wrote of Rent: "The denizens of Mr. Larson's bohemian landscape are directly descended from their Puccini prototypes but given a hip, topical spin." He added: "Puccini's ravishingly melancholy work seemed, like many operas of its time, to romance death; Mr. Larson's spirited score and lyrics defy it."2
Notes
1. Smith, S. (2003, September 10). What they said about Leni Riefenstahl. The Guardian.
2. Brantley, B. (1996, February 14). THEATER REVIEW;Rock Opera A la 'Boheme' And 'Hair'. New York Times.
Timeline of Impressionism
Video: Impressionism
Impressionism
Impressionism was a revolutionary art movement that developed in France during the mid19th century and paved the way for many art movements that followed, including PostImpressionism and Modernism.
Impressionism sought to capture the feelings of everyday life, depicting the visual impression of a moment, rather than a precise illustration of something historical, classical, or biblical, as you can see with this David painting from the 18th century and this Rubens from the 17th century.
This style had been, up until Impressionism's arrival on the scene, had the primary focus of art. To us, Impressionism is seen as one of the most influential and inspiring artistic movements in history. It would be impossible to study or discuss the humanities without mentioning the significance of the Impressionist movement. At the time of its debut, however, Impressionism was firmly rejected and was regarded as radical, incomprehensible, and even chaotic. Many critics valued the way art had always beenprecise, traditional, classic and they viewed Impressionism as an inferior style or approach.
Like the critics, contemporary audiences were comfortable with the clean lines, muted colors, and historical, classical subject matter that had been the focus of art up until this time, and, as you can see by looking at this painting by French artist Edouard Manet, Impressionist works of art challenged the traditional notions of what art should be.
In this piece, Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe (or Luncheon on the Grass), Manet uses loose brushwork, intense contrast, and bold, contemporary subjects to deconstruct the audience's traditional expectations of art. In many ways, this piece is seen as the catalyst of the Impressionist movement; it demonstrated a fresh, modern perspective and expressed what many young painters at the time hoped to do: capture the mood of a moment, play with color and light, explore new techniques, and experiment with what art could be.
With Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe (or Luncheon on the Grass), Manet explicitly rejects the traditional rules of art set in place by the Académiethe institution responsible for controlling, promoting, and critiquing French art at the time. Manet's bold approach inspired artists to take a new directiona direction that would bring about many of the world's mostloved masterpieces.
Impressionism
Key Concepts: Impressionism
The Impressionist movement began in the late 19th century in Paris. Impressionist artists focused on urban life and the visual experience. Parisian artists at this time were supported by the Académie des BeauxArts, which distributed awards for what was considered "good" art. Impressionist artists broke away from this system at the end of the 19th century and established their own standards. Impressionist artists were considered both renegades and radicals.
La Tour Eiffel and the Exposition Universelle Paris, 1889. Photograph courtesy of the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs Division (PD).
Impressionism was a Parisbased artistic movement during the late 19th century that shared a historical and cultural space with Realist artists but whose style and cultural bearing was distinctly different. Impressionists, like Realists, turned their attention toward urban life, just as they saw it. While Realists rejected traditional art subjects and focused on the objective detail of their surroundings, Impressionists focused on the "immediacy of the visual experience."1
In Paris in the midtolate 19th century, artists were legitimized by an arts collective called the Académie des BeauxArts, which hosted an annual Salon. The Académie both protected and promoted artistic interests. During the annual Salon, the Académie awarded medals to prominent artists, thereby setting the standard for what was considered "good" art at this time. Impressionist artists broke away from the Salon and, in 1874, organized their own exhibition with their own set of artistic standards. There were eight exhibitions hosted by the Impressionist group of artists from 1874 to 1886. Considered both renegades and radicals, Impressionist artists created a style and set of techniques outside the bounds of what was considered acceptable.
During this time, Paris was a melting pot of cultures and a hub of modernity. Emperor Napolean III renovated Paris between 1853 and 1870, where old buildings were torn down to create more space and light within the city. Additionally, following the Siege of Paris during the FrancoPrussian War (1870 1871), parts of the city were reconstructed. After the war ended, Paris saw a population boom. Paris also boasted the World's Fair (Exposition Universelle) in 1889, which introduced Europeans to art from Japan and Africa, amongst many other nonEuropean cultures. The city's renovation and reconstruction, alongside the artistic and cultural impact of the Exposition Universelle, gave the city new life and a fresh perspective that Impressionists sought to capture.
Technology, Science, and Art
Industrial technologies, such as electricity, synthetic paints, and photography, impacted both how the world was (literally) seen but also how it was represented. The development of synthetic paints, for example, allowed artists to expand their palettes with brilliant hues. The invention of portable paint tubes enabled artists to paint en plein air, meaning in "open air." Impressionist artists embraced en plein air painting, as it gave them natural light and a more immediate perspective of the natural and urban world around them.
During the 19th century, Impressionist (and Post Impressionist, which you will learn about in the next module) artists were not only influenced by but also incorporated scientific innovations into their creative process. Michel Eugene Chevreul, Odgen Rood, and Charles Blanc created color theories and systems that directly impacted Impressionist techniques and color palettes. Review the slideshow below to learn more about how the science of topics and color theory affected Impressionist (and Post Impressionist) art.
Notes
1. Fiero, Carla. Landmarks in Humanities, Second Edition. New York: McGrawHill Higher Education. 2009.
Optics, Color Theory, and Impressionism. Boutet's color wheel, 1708.
Michel Eugene Chevreul was a French chemist who, in 1824, discovered the law of simultaneous contrast: Colors, when placed next to one another, imposed a complementary color on the other. When mixed according to complementary colors, paint gave an optical effect that either enhanced or muted the colors' intensities. In order to demonstrate which colors would have which complemetary impact on other colors, Chevreul developed a circular color system that paired complemetary colors and would provide a new way for painters to create color. Michel Eugene Chevreul (PD).
Additionally, Chevreul suggested painting techniques that would make good use of his color system. For example, Impressionist painters began to apply paint using individual brushstrokes, which would require the viewer's eye to combine them optically. Later, Post Impressionist painters would apply tiny dots of color that, when combined optically, created a cohesive image. Chaponval by Camille Pissarro (1880).
Chevreul influenced the French Romantic painter Eugene Delacroix, who, using Chevreul's color system, was able to better represent vibrant, bold colors through pigment experimentation. Impressionist and Post Impressionists would later, in turn, be influenced by Delacroix's innovative use of color. The Death of Sardanapalus by Eugene Delacroix (1827).
Another color theorist whose scientific approach to color would affect Impressionist painters was Ogden Rood. Rood was an American physicist who, in his 1879 book titled Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art and Industry, divided color three ways: purity, luminosity, and hue. Rood, like Chevreul, developed a complementary color wheel that could change the mood and tone of a painting. His work was influential on GeorgePierre Seurat, a Post Impressionist painter, in his use of pointilism. In pointilism, small dots of color are applied to the canvas individually, but when viewed collectively, they come together in a cohesive picture.
A Sunday Afternoon on the Isle de la Grande Jette, (18841886). Photograph courtesy of Wikipedia user Marianika (PD).
Charles Blanc, a French art history professor and the director of the Beaux Arts from 18481852, built upon the color theory groundwork laid by Chevreul and Rood and continued to merge art and science by asserting that mixing colors optically (such as we see in pointilism) created the most pure and intense in colors. He used a color "star" to demonstrate complementary colors. Blanc asserted that white light (created by combining a primary color and its complement) is the combination of all colors and that some color complements destroyed one another, while other achieved their maximum vibrancy. RGB color wheel. Photograph courtesy of Wikimedia user DanPMK (CC BYSA 3.0).
The scientific advances in optics, color chemistry, and color theory opened new doors of possibility for artists to capture light and color. Dance at the Moulin de la Galette by PierreAuguste Renoir, 1876. Photograph courtesy of The Yorck Project (PD).
Impressionist Art
Key Concepts: Impressionist Art
Impressionist art emphasized simplified composition and the effect of light and color to capture a painter's visual impression. Impressionist art is characterized by the interaction between colors and sunlight and the way light and color could be seen by the eye, reflecting the influence of the 19th century science of optics. The innovation of storing paint in tubes allowed Impressionist artists to paint outside the studio, capturing the changes in natural light and its impact on the landscape.
Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise, 1872
Characteristics: Impressionism
Some of the common characteristics of Impressionism include:
an emphasis on capturing immediate sensory perception through color and light a focus on light and its changing qualities subjects depicted included landscapes, informal portraits in domestic settings, the changing city, and still lifes the use of daubs of pure color (unmixed paint), a bright palette, broken brushstrokes, blurry lines, and the impasto technique (applying thick paint) painting outofdoors (en plein air) instead of in a studio open composition with the appearance of movement
Impressionism, which represented a bold and fresh approach to painting, developed in the late 19th century in France. The movement took its name from Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise.
On the nature of this art, Monet said: "Impressionism is only direct sensation. All great painters were more or less Impressionists. It is mainly a question of instinct." He advised painters, "Try to forget what objects you have before you, a tree, a house, a field or whatever. Merely think, here is a little square of blue, here an oblong of pink, here a streak and yellow, and paint it just as it looks to you."1
The fundamental idea behind the movement was as the French artist Camille Pissarro put it: "Paint generously and unhesitatingly, for it is best not to lose the first impression."2
Impressionism was characterized by a break with many artistic traditions of the past. Impressionists tried to capture their initial, fleeting reaction to whatever they observed at a given moment; they painted current subjects and landscapes (instead of historical scenes); they used light and color, often vividly; and they simplified their compositions, leaving out detail.
Many Impressionist artists focused on the interaction between colors and sunlight and the way light and color could be seen by the eye, reflecting the influence of the 19th century science of optics. The innovation of storing paint in tubes allowed Impressionist artists to paint outside the studio, capturing the changes in natural light and its impact on the landscape.
One technique employed by many Impressionist painters was the use of impasto (thick dabs of paint) and loose, broken brushstrokes rather than relying on traditional transparent glazes and precise strokes.
Impressionism was attacked by the artistic establishment in France as a betrayal of academic art. Some critics objected to the unfinished quality of many Impressionist paintings and to the abandonment of the traditional linear perspective established by Renaissance artists. Others criticized the use of color by the Impressionists, complaining that it had been applied haphazardly.
Some wellknown Impressionist artists included Monet, Édouard Manet, Camille Pissarro, Edgar Degas and PierreAuguste Renoir. Mary Cassatt was one of the leading American Impressionists along with Childe Hassam and John Henry Twachtman.
The Italian author Francesco Salvi has written of the movement: "Impressionism is at the root of all modern art, because it was the first movement that managed to free itself from preconceived ideas, and because it changed not only the way life was depicted but the way life was seen."3
With their rejection of artistic convention and adoption of innovative techniques, the Impressionists prepared the way for Post Impressionism and Modernism. "It is impossible to overestimate the
influence of the Impressionists and their importance for the generation of artists who followed them," Jeremy Wallis has written. The art historian William Rubin has even argued that Abstract Expressionist Jackson Pollock's dripping of paint on his canvases reflected the Impressionist ethos. 4
Notes
1. Kleiner, F.S. (2009). Gardner's art through the ages: Modern Europe & America. N.p.: Wadsworth Publishing.
2. Gunsteren, J. V. (1990) Katherine Mansfield and Literary Impressionism. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
3. Bachus, N. & Glover, D. (2006).The romantic piano: The Influence of Society, Style, and Musical Trends on the Great Piano Composers. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing.
4. Rubin, W. (1967, May 1). Jackson Pollock and the Modern Tradition. Artforum, 9.
Key Impressionist Art
Here are examples of key Impressionist paintings.
Claude Monet's Houses of Parliament (1904) was painted from Monet's hospital room in London. He painted several paintings in this series of the Houses during different weather conditions. In this version, we see a stormy or windy day. He uses an impasto technique to make thick strokes of white paint that form clouds over Parliament and the crests of the waves. Though the building is not green or purple, and the water is not yellow and brown, the weather conditions during that moment cast such a light on the building and water. Monet captured this impression. Houses of Parliament (1904) by Claude Monet. Photograph courtesy of Wikipedia user Rlbberlin (PD).
Édouard Manet's A Bar at the Folies Bergère (1882) shows a bartender or waitress at a popular nightspot in Paris. As in other impressionist portraits, the subject is captured in a moment in which she doesn't appear to be aware of the artist's gaze, which documents a private moment in a very public place. In fact, as we see in the mirror behind her, the room is full of patrons, and a customer is addressing her. In this painting, we see the effect of light inside a busy room. We see lights themselves: the bright circles on columns and the chandeliers. But we also see bright dots throughout the rooms that represent the many faces in this room buzzing with activity. A Bar at the Folies Bergère (1882) by Édouard Manet (PD).
Camille Pissarro's Landscape at Chaponval (1880) is an example of painting en plein air, or outside. The invention of paint sold in smaller tubes allowed impressionist painters to leave the studio and paint what they saw outside in the countryside. In this landscape painting, we see dabs of paint that form rectangular houses, elongated and rounded shapes of trees, and brushed and scraped lines that form the leaves of trees in the foreground. The scraped strokes that form the grass in the foreground suggest that the grass is swaying with the wind. Landscape at Chaponval (1880) by Camille Pissarro (PD).
Impressionists such as Edgar Degas created informal portraits of everyday people. In this painting, The Absinthe Drinker (1876), Degas portrays a woman and a man having a drink at a bar. The drink in front of the woman is absinthe, an alcoholic spirit associated with bohemian culture in Paris and that was much maligned by the more conservative members of society. As a result of the absinthe, the isolated look on the woman's face, and the general dullness of the colors, the painting was met by criticism and allegations that it was disgusting or morally reprehensive for several years before it was accepted as a work worthy of consideration for its ability to capture this impression. The Absinthe Drinker (1876) by Edgar Degas. Photograph courtesy of The Yorck Project (PD).
Dance at the Moulin de la Galette by PierreAuguste Renoir (1876) is famed for the way it captures light and movement. The partygoers are dappled with sun filtering through trees, effected by Renoir by interspersing patches of lighter colors on the subjects. For example, the man in the foreground with his back turned to the viewer is wearing a dark coat, but there are patches of lighter brown on his jacket and head that depict the effects of light. The movement of the dancers can be seen when looking at the women's skirts, which twist in the direction of their turns. Dance at the Moulin de la Galette (1876) by PierreAuguste Renoir. Photograph courtesy of The Yorck Project (PD).
Mary Cassatt was one of the few women who persisted in the art world long enough to see success during the Impressionist era. Though she was from the United States, she lived in Paris on and off and took painting courses at the top art schools of the day. Her paintings, such as The Young Mother (1900) showed the private lives of women, and she often depicted mothers and children. The Young Mother (1900) by Mary Cassatt. Photograph courtesy of Wikipedia user Cobalty (PD).
Her painting The Bath (1893) uses impressionist techniques to portray this moment between mother and child. The skin of the mother and child are painted in a way that draws the eye—the skin almost glows. But the background and the carpet are less blended, remaining less detailed than the rest of the painting; the mother's dress appears as unblended blocks of color. This blocking of color (and the background motif) is reminiscent of the style of the Japanese masters that Cassatt appreciated during their 1891 exhibit in Paris. Many of the impressionists and post impressionist painters adopted Japanese uses of color, shape, motif, and posing techniques. The Bath (1893) by Mary Cassatt. Photograph courtesy of WebMuseum, Paris (PD).
A Closer Look: Claude Monet
Watch the following video to learn more about Claude Monet.
Claude Monet
Paula Carabell
Claude Monet is considered to be the founder of the Impressionist movement, and he's probably the most famous Impressionist painter. And the work that we're looking at right now is called Impression, Sunrise, and it's actually the work that Impressionism gained its name from. Now, it wasn't Monet who gave it this title, but rather it was a critic who saw this painting in a gallery and just commented that really all it was was an impression of a scene. And the scene that we're looking at is the harbor in Le Havre, France. This painting is from 1872. And basically what we can imagine Monet doing is going out at sunrise when the boats are beginning to come out, the fishermen, and recording with these very very fast, kind of squiggly gestures what he's seeing in front of his eyes. He's looking at the reflection of the rising sun on the water, perhaps the smoke and the smog from the city around the sun, and so it's a visual impression of the scene that was before him.
Now, the Impressionists, their main interestand particularly Claude Monet'swas not so much the depiction of a particular scene, but rather the depiction of light and atmosphere. And for that reason, in the 1890s, Monet started to do paintings that were in a series. So he would pick a particular objectin this case, he picks a haystack. So this is our haystack here (funnyshaped French haystacks). And he would paint haystacks at sunrise and sundown and in the rain and in the snow in order to see how an object that was going to remain constantthe haystackwas going to behave under different types of atmospheric conditions, just to get a sense of more of how the notion of atmosphere and light themselves behave.
Probably the most famous series that he did was the paintings that he did of the cathedral in the city of Rouen. And there's something like at least 35 of these paintings and what he did was he actually rented a storefront across the street from these cathedrals, and he set up a number of canvases. So
that canvas, for example, canvas number one would be sunny day from 9 to 10 in the morning, canvas two would be 1011, this would be the rainy canvases over here. And every day he tried to paint the facade under the same types of atmospheric conditions as the day prior that. And, of course, a stone facade a very good kind of object to use for this because it's going to reflect the light, and the light and the shadows are going to play on the different surfaces of the cathedral.
When he got in his old age, Monet had moved to the south of France. He starts to paint one of his other really favorite subject matters, which was scenes from his garden. And he had a Japanese garden, and he was particularly fond of water lilies. And many of his water lily paintings look very similar to this one in that they don't have a horizon line. So if we just think back for a moment to the cathedral, to the haystack, even though you have this very loose painted brushwork, you still do have a distinction between what is background, where the horizon line is. But here, he actually, he just has the water lilies just floating on the surface. And some of these works start to become almost abstract in nature, which of courseabstraction was not a possibility then, abstraction does not actually start till the early 20th century. But by removing the horizon line, he really starts to exploreand this is something that other artists will pick up onthe idea of the flatness of the canvas. Because taking away that horizon line makes the canvas seem flatter than if you were able to see things in the background.
So Impressionism basically is a kind of combination of the artist's own view of the scene, his actual visual view, coupled with this kind of quick notational brushwork to try to capture a scene as the artist is actually looking at it.
Dr. Paula Carabell is an Assistant Professor of Art History at FAU in Boca Raton and has published widely in the fields of Contemporary and Renaissance Art. She holds a Ph.D. in Art History from Columbia University, where she completed her dissertation on the late works of Michelangelo and Titian.
A Closer Look: Japanese Woodblock Printing
Beginning in the late 1600's, Japan saw the emergence of woodblock painting and began perfecting the craft. During Paris' World's Fair (Exposition Universelle) in 1889, as noted on the previous page, Europeans were introduced to art from Japan and Africa. Exposure to art techniques like Japanese woodblock prints influenced both Impressionist and Post Impressionist artists, such as Van Gogh, Lautrec, and Mucha. The slideshow below discusses Japanese woodblock art and its influences on these artists.
How Woodblock Printing Works. Woodblock printing became popular with Japanese artists during the late 1600s and early 1700s, driven by the use of woodblock printing in bookmaking. When making a print, artists would first draw an image and accompanying text on a piece of paper, then glue the paper to a piece of wood. Next, the wood would be carved away around the original outlines of the drawing. After this, a small wooden object called a baren would be used to press ink into the carved block. The inked block would then be stamped or pressed onto a piece of paper. After the ink dried, artists would add color and other details to the prints. This image is an example of what a carved woodblock looks like before it is used to create a print.
Early Woodblock Printing in Japan. As with many other forms of Japanese art, printmaking organized itself into stylistic movements or schools. The first two of these schools were the Torii school and the Kaigetsudō school, both active starting around 1700. Both of these schools focused on portraiture, depicting kabuki actors, geisha, and courtesans— part of what was called the ukiyo, the "floating world" of entertainment, nature, and beauty separate from mundane everyday life (ukiyoe, or "pictures of the floating world," is the Japanese name for the artistic genre of woodblock prints). This print—showing a courtesan decorating a screen while the reclining man watches and another woman mixes paints—was made by Torii Kiyonobu of the Torii school. Torii Kiyonobu, Courtesan Painting a Screen (c. 1711)
Hokusai and the Katsukawa School. The Katsukawa school came into being around 1740 and remained prominent in the printmaking genre until the Utagawa school's rise during the 1840s. A number of prints and artists from this school have become well known, and its artist Suzuki Harunobu is credited with the innovation of the first full color printmaking technique. Perhaps the most famous Japanese woodblock print is Hokusai's The Great Wave off Kanagawa, shown here—part of the artist's ThirtySix Views of Mount Fuji series. Hokusai's creative influence was felt throughout the world, impacting the Art Nouveau style and Impressionist works of his European contemporaries and followers. Hokusai, The Great Wave off Kanagawa (c. 1833)
The Utagawa School. Following the gradual disintegration of the Katsukawa school, the Utagawa school came to prominence in the mid19th century; its widespread success led it to produce well over half of all surviving ukiyoe prints. A number of renowned artists were members of this school, including Hiroshige and Kunisada. Hiroshige was said to have been inspired by the works of Hokusai; the two artists' vivid landscapes were in competition with one another until Hokusai's death in 1849. This print, an illustration of the Wada Bridge above the Yoda River, is a part of Hiroshige's larger series Sixtynine Stations of the Kisokaido. Hiroshige, Man on Horseback Crossing a Bridge (from Sixty nine Stations of the Kisokaido, 18341842)
During his own time, Kunisada was by far and away the most popular and financially successful of the Utagawa ukiyoe artists. His work spanned a variety of subjects, and he continually worked at developing his style, ignoring contemporary trends. Though much of Kunisada's output was portraiture, he also dabbled in landscapes and nature illustrations, such as with the seascape seen here. Kunisada, Dawn at Futamigaura (c. 1830)
Influence on European Artists. The Katsukawa and Utagawa schools directly influenced a number of European painters as well, inspiring elements of the Art Nouveau and Impressionist styles. The term "Japonism" was coined in the late 19th century to describe the influence of Japanese art on those of European or Western descent. A long list of artists embraced Japonism, including Vincent van Gogh, Gustav Klimt, Mary Cassatt, Edgar Degas, Renoir, and Monet, just to name a few—they were drawn to the fantastic colors, natural scenery, and simplicity of ukiyoe prints. Here, we see van Gogh's reinterpretation of the ukiyoe artist Keisai Eisen's works in this portrait of a courtesan. Vincent van Gogh, The Courtesan, La Courtisane, or Oiran (after Eisen, 1887)
Art Nouveau's Incorporation of the Japanese Woodblock Aesthetic. Mucha's poster for Gismonda is a perfect example of how Art Nouveau artists incorporated elements of the Japanese woodblock design aesthetic into their work. The poster hearkens back to the most traditional subject matter of ukiyoe—theater billings and portraits of actors. Its use of a range of softer colors paired with the thick lines of black ink calls to mind the style created by woodblock printing as well. Alfons Mucha, Poster for Victorien Sardou's Gismonda starring Sarah Bernhardt at the Théâtre de la Renaissance in Paris (1894)
TouloseLautrec's Incorporation of the Japanese Woodblock Aesthetic. ToulouseLautrec's posters were largely indebted to the style of Japanese woodblock artists. In The German Babylon, he uses lithographic (carved stone) printing to create an image with the characteristic thick black lines and strategicallyplaced color of the ukiyoe style. The textural, kinetic drawing technique used in this print both reflect the work created by the Katsukawa and Utagawa schools of woodblock printing. Henri de ToulouseLautrec, The German Babylon (1894)
Modern Printmaking Schools: Sōsaku Hanga & Shin Hanga. Since the beginning of the 20th century, two new schools of printmaking have flourished in Japan. The sōsaku hanga, or "creative prints," movement was a shift away from traditional collaborative printmaking while the shin hanga, or "new prints" movement refocused on it. Unlike shin hanga, in sōsaku hanga, the artist works alone through every step of the printmaking process—from carving to printing and publishing. Kōshirō Onchi, thought to be the father of the soōsaku hanga movement, was fascinated with the representation of abstract, subjective emotion. His work is thoughtful and concerned with the tenor of certain moods, such as in this portrait print. Kōshirō Onchi, Portrait of Hagiwara Sakutarō (1943)
Vocabulary
context Context is made up of events and issues that writers are responding to, and context includes any ongoing conversation about those events.
aesthetic experience
An experience of beauty that inspires a feeling of pleasure which is its own justification.
aesthetics A conception of what is artistically valid or beautiful in art, culture, or nature.
epic A long poem recounting in elevated style the deeds of a legendary hero; any narrative work (novel, drama, film) dealing with epic themes.
antebellum Existing before a war, especially the American Civil War.
presentism The interpretation of past events or works of art in terms of modern standards and values.
spirituals Religious songs originating among AfricanAmerican slaves in the American South that fused aspects of African music and religion with Christian hymns.
blues music Music developed in southern AfricanAmerican communities at the end of the 19th century that fused work songs, spirituals, and chants and featured a twelvebar blues chord progression.
jazz music Musical style developed by AfricanAmericans at the beginning of the 20th century that is an amalgamation of African and European music, featuring improvisation, syncopation, polyrhythms (the simultaneous sounding of two or more independent rhythms) and the use of "swing time" (unequal notes).
blasphemy Irreverent behavior toward a deity, sacred things, or religion.
secular Not connected or concerned with religion or religious matters.
montage An extended sequence comprised of many different shots or images, cut together to condense the narrative, or to create a specific impression.
Dadaism An antiestablishment artistic movement that emerged in Europe in reaction to the horrors of World War I and emphasized the absurd.
Pop Art Art movement of mid20th century which emphasized existing popular images and cultural artifacts, often mimicking massproduced consumer products.
Expressionism Art movement of early 20th century that emphasized subjective feelings above objective observations and focused on conveying emotions.
Bauhaus German art and architectural style of early 20th century known for its simplicity, functionalism, and craftsmanship.
Impressionism Art movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries that emphasized simplified composition and the effect of light and color to capture a painter's visual impression.
impasto Painting technique in which paint is applied very thickly to the canvas, typically with a palette knife.