humanity questions 1135
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non-western_views_on_environmentalism_-_china.docxContrary to the attitudes and ideologies of many, the Western or Judaeo-Christian view is not the only possible one. This lesson will look at several different Chinese views, both traditional and modern, Native American views, both traditional and modern, Indian/Hindu views and a quick look at modern Egypt's Muslim ideas. Let's start with the traditional Chinese, (keeping in mind that these are very brief summaries, as the focus of this class is environmental ethics, and not philosophy or world religions)...
China
Taoism
For all intensive purposes, we can split the Chinese thought into three main ideologies: Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Of these, Taoism is arguably the oldest, so let's start there. It is arguable because no one really knows exactly how old Taoism is. We do know when its first text was written, some where near the 4th century BCE. However, it is generally accepted that Taoism is intimately connected to, and probably grew out of ancient Chinese folk wisdom, which is where all the confusion comes from. Its first, and arguably most important proponent is Lao-tzu, which translates to Old Boy. This is a psuedonym that was used to protect the author, as this book was written during the Warring States Period in China's development. (Some historians think he didn't exist at all, and that his writings are really a compilation from various authors.) His work, theTao To Ching, is the second most influential book in all of Chinese history. Further, it is second only to the Bible in the number of English translations. Taoism's second main proponent is Chuang-tzu, who comes along approximately a hundred years after Lao-tzu. His book is simply known by his name: The Chuang-tzu. Although these two authors have a slightly different approach and focus, their overall philosophy is still the same. Click on the following links to learn more about these ideologies.
· Taoism
· Lao-tzu
Deep ecology has much in common with China's ancient (perhaps prehistoric) religion, Taoism. The "tao" is the "way, path or road" that one should follow to live in harmony with nature and other people. It is also the "stuff" the universe is made of; it is beyond description or categorization. The opening of the scripture Tao Te Ching is, "The Tao that can be talked about is not the real Tao." Because it all arises from the Tao, the world is an interconnected unity; every action has a ripple effect' that can potentially change the whole universe. Problems (whether psychological, social, medical, ecological) happen when we get out of balance or harmony with the Tao, the natural order of things. Acupuncture, for example, is meant to restore the natural flow of energy through the body when it is disrupted by injury or disease.
A key idea in Taoism is wu wei, which literally means "do nothing" - but in practice it means "do nothing that will mess up the natural balance." Of course no one can live if he literally does nothing; but when you must do something, choose the method most in harmony with nature. If you want to build a house, you will probably have to cut down a few trees; it can't be helped; but you can choose whether to do it with an axe or a chain saw. If you have to buy some pickles, you will end up with an empty glass jar; you can throw it away, or you can recycle it. It's very important to note that this balance is not static - it is dynamic, changing all the time, following certain natural cycles or patterns (the purpose of the Taoist book I Ching is to describe the patterns).
The essence of Taoism is to attain harmony. Harmony with your fellow man; harmony with Nature; and ultimately, harmony with the universe. And, although what Sheppard Krech II claims about a lack of evidence for any indication of conservationism or an acknowledgement that resources are limited, (which will be talked about in detail below), the reality is that in Taoist thought everything is essentially connected; we are not seperate from Nature. Further, Taoists believe that they have no control or influence over the creator, what it wants it gets, what it wants to do it does and we, as creations, have no room to complain or question. In fact, the focus of Taoism is to attain harmony with Nature, which indicates both a reverence for Nature and a realization that our survival, growth and health depends on the continued survival, growth and health of Nature.
Confucianism
Founded by Kung Chui of Lu, aka Kung Fu-tzu, (latinized into Confucius); the primary focus of Confucianism is that of the human world. In fact, one could argue that Confucianism has little concern for Divinity, but this would not be entirely true. It is true, however, that Confucianism was much more concerned about the human world and how to improve it. Click on the following link to learn more about Kung Fu-tzu.
Li Tianchen, in his article "Confucian Ethics and the Environment," argues that the distinguishing feature of Confucian ecological ethics is that "it does not give human dominion over nature, nor does it sacrifice human development at the altar of pristine nature." He explains that we should act in accord with preserving and perpetuating nature and to consume resources with a sense of respect and economy.
His thesis is best left in his own words... "Confucianism is distinguished by its concern for the cultivation of human relations towards a harmonious society rather than one's relations with the supernatural or natural. However, it would be a mistake to regard the civilisational legacy of Confucius as purely humanistic. Confucianism is a philosophy which also contains profound environmental ethics through its inclusiveness of Heaven, Earth and the Human order. These form the traditional Chinese trinity which configure the ultimate harmony. Relations between people and the natural world are therefore of intrinsic interest to those who profess Confucian ethics." To be clear here, the ancient Chinese had a much different view of Heaven than most of the Western world. In the ancient Chinese view Heaven wasn't a place that you visited, or would really want to. Rather, it was viewed as the source of order and the home of the Gods. Earth was considered the best place to be because it represented freedom, variety, etc. The trick, for many of the ancient Chinese belief systems was to harmonize Earth and Heaven.
According to Tianchen, the problem originates from a misunderstanding of the relationship between humanity and nature. Therefore, the solution resides in repairing this misunderstanding: recognizing our place in the natural order and how we should act towards/treat nature. Essentially, Confucians believe that there is a oneness that consists of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity. He offers many quotes from various Confucian texts to support his idea that environemtnal concerns have long been a part of Confucian thought. Let's look at a few...
· "All things exist together, and they do not harm each other; all ways exist together, and they do not come into conflict." - The Doctrine of the Mean
· "In all places by which the sage passes, misguided people are helped to change; in places where the sage stays, a mysterious role is played by him; the sage lives on up with Heaven, down with Earth." - Mencius
· "Tradition has it that Heaven gives birth to the myriad things to be nurtured by Earth and brought to completion by sages." - Lu Jia
· "Heaven is my father and Earth is my mother, and even such a small creature as I finds an intimate place in their midst. Therefore that which extends throughout the universe I regard as my body and that which directs the universe I consider as my nature. All people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions." - Zhang Zai
· "Heaven goes with regularity. It does not exist for Emperor Yao, nor does it die for Emperor Jie...""Respond to it with peace and order, and good fortune will result. Respond to it with disorder, and disaster will follow. If the foundations of Living (i.e., agriculture and sericulture) are strengthened and are econmonically used, then Nature cannot bring impoverishment... But if the foundations of living are neglected and used extravagantly, then Nature cannot make a country rich." - Xunzi
The core value of Confucianism is ren, which means benevolence, (although it has multiple meanings). Hence, if as is suggested above, that the oneness is real, then "love and filiality towards humans should be extended to the protection of, and the respect for, the natural environment." Ultimately, Tianchen is arguing that Confucianism has an environmental ethic, along with a plan/solution. We have to change how we think about and act towards both the environment by itself and towards our relationship with the environment. We have to move towards a more harmonious and unitary relationship. Afterall, if the ecological crisis "stems from a spiritual crisis in human beings, then the solution to the ecological crisis ultimately rests with the spiritual regeneration of human beings."
Buddhism
Buddhism started in India with Sidhartha Guatama. It is a religion based not on a diety, but rather, on the perfection of the individual, especially in a spiritual sense. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is to attain enlightenment and transecend to Nirvana.Two big and overlapping issues with Buddhism are the notions of karma and reincarnation. Karma can be considered the weight of existence with good deeds lightening your soul and bad deeds weighing it down. Reincarnation, then, is based on the weight of one's soul, and it involves the near perpetual returning of the soul to Earth to be born again and again. One can easily see how these issues overlap: one effects the other. Now, for Buddhists, Nirvana is the end goal, but it is not like a Christian heaven. Nirvana is not only an escape from being reborn again, but it is also a state of non-being best described as the dissolution of the personal ego into the cosmic consciousness. Click on the following link to learn more about Sidhartha Guatama.
So, Buddhist environmental ethics... essentially, they fall into the same category as the Taoists; yes, Krech's argument (again, in detail a little lower). However, where the Taoists are able to use harmony as a pary around Krech, to some degree; the Buddhists can go one step further. Not only do Buddhists believe that everything is one, but also that all life is precious. Therefore, harming the environment would go against their core beliefs. So, although they may have no formal, advanced notion of environmental ethic, they most definitely cared about Nature and all things living in it. There is a true story about a Westerner who befriended the Dalai Lama when he was young, and helped the Tibetan people build a movie theatre. In the process, they had to move/save all the worms while digging the foundation for the building.
Contemporary
According to Peter Ho (much of this section is based on his article, Greening Without Conflict), "much like the Enlightenment ideas, Marxist-Leninist ideas are also based on economic growth, technological innovation and rapid industrialization." Ho claims that there are two mains reason for this: 1) "the Soviet state needed an industrial base to support war against potential aggressors," and 2) "industrialization created the power base of the state--the industrial working class." To be fair, there is some argument about what Marxist actually means. So, in this case, let it be clear that we are talking about the bastardization of Marxist ideas and not what Marx himself believed.
In the 1950's we heard claims from the Chinese government about finally subduing nature and about reclaiming grasslands that had alledgedly been desolate for a thousand years and turning them into fertile farmlands. Then, in 1966 we heard chairman Mao decclare that "if people living in nature want to be free, they will have to use natural science to understand nature, to overcome nature and to change nature; only then will they be free from nature." And yes, everyone will have to understand and use natural science for various reasons, but the obvious philosophical questions here are: who wants to be free from nature? and more importantly, why do we have to change it? It is at least possible here, that these sentiments more accurately represent an aversion by Mao and his policy-makers to the old Chinese folk religions and beliefs than it does an actual policy or belief of theirs. However, this is purely speculation.
Although China did demonstrate an "embryonic awareness of environmental problems as early as the 1950's." it would be wrong to assume that there was a "socialist environmental policy." In fact, according to Blaike and Brookfield, 'there will be a great variety of policies and outcomes of land-use management in socialist countries...and inall societies there will be problem-solving attempts to cope with the opportunities and constraints which natural conditions place on those who manage land." In other words, different areas and different industries, combined with different ideologies and different needs and wants will produce a variety of problems and solutions. (duh, right.) The trick is to try to make sure that these problems are not only minimized and dealt with immediately, but also, that they are done so with the utmost concern for individuals and the environment.
Ho then goes on to explain that the Chinese government is likely to, and adept at silencing dissention, however, they should not be considered authoritarian because "such a label would overlook the many strategies that citizens can employ to escape from the government's control, and would fail to uncover the complex patterns of interaction between state and society that shape environmental movements." (do you by that explanation?) Further, that massive, nation-wide protests are unheard of in China because "there is no green movement capable of organizing national demonstrations; rather, environmentalism is fragmented and highly localized." Since Mao, environmentalism in China has been predominatly regional. It is local issues and concerns that have driven various communities to social resistance and civil disobendience. One of the responses has been to start creating social organizations known as Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO's).
For instance, in the 1980's there were some local protests about water polution caused by a factory's waste discharge into the local river. More importantly, in the Fangshan Prefecture in the suburbs outside of Beijing, there was some steady, regualr and increasingly more violent interactions between locals and the coal-processing plant. A study that was conducted by the Centre for Legal Assistance of Pollution Victims (CLAPV), revealed that 70% of the local population "suffer from eye and respiratory diseases as a direct result of coal-processing." According to Ho, the NGO's grew due to a "common sense of civic responsibility towards the environment and an urge to act in areas where the government was falling short." Eventually, we begin see a shift of priority from economic development to sustainable development.
However, not before the state attempts to maintain control and influence. Essentialy, the Chinese government wanted to appear open to these NGO's while at the same time limiting both their numbers and their scope. What they did was set up four rather strict regulations that had to be met for a group to become a legal NGO.
1. Prior to registering, the group needed to get a local sponsor from local business.
2. They were limited to a maximum membership of 50 people.
3. The group must have a fixed address with specialized staff corresponding to its scope of activities. And, they must have legal financial resources.
4. There can be no other social organization applying in the same administrative area...
Further, there is no way to appeal a decision if an application gets rejected. Although some of these make sense, some of them are clearly aimed at control. Eventually, the government began to set up there own NGO's, refered to as GONGO's or Government Organized Non-governmental Organizations? This, of course, rose some serious concern and debate among both scholars and policy-makers. Let's now discuss some of the organiations.
This brings us to Wang Canfa who founded CLAPV. One of the first cases that he took on was that of Zhang Jinhu, a duck farmer who discovered one morning that hundreds of his ducks had died over night due to water pollution from a pig farm's waste polluting the water upstream. Wang, realizing that the government was typically hesitant to punish business due to taxes, high employment etc, decided to go against the grain of typical Chinese action and attempted to sue the pig farm for damages on behalf of Zhang. This was the first such case in Chinese history. Click on the following links to learn more.
· CLAPV
The Global Village, founded by Liao Xiaoyi, stresses the relationship between women and the environment while promoting environmentalism through several media, but primarily through their weekly TV show: Environmental Protection Hour. Two years after they started promoting a policy toward garbage sorting and a green lifestyle the district they hail from started the countries first sorted-garbage and recycling system. Click on the following links to learn more.
Another new development that we are witnessing in China is the hybridization of NGO's and GONGO's. Basically, what we have is that some of the people involved in GONGO's are using their political and financial influence to help organize and help get various NGO's conference rooms etc. Jiang Xiaoke, one of the aforementioned, has also proposed tradeable waste permits, pollution taxes, and other economic incentives.
So what then are the real goals and policies for China when it comes to environmentalism. "On the one hand, the central government is under increasing pressure to devolve certain state functions back to society. More importantly, awareness of its own limitations has also led the central state to tolerate and even cautiously encourage citizens' voluntary actions. In this sense, environmentalism is linked to broader issues of political reform, civil society and human rights. On the other hand, the state fears the loss of control over society and is seking ways to allow the growth of a sector deemed legitimate, but without the prospect of one day having to face another nation-wide social movement such as the Falun Gong. The Chinese state is itself unclear about the exact path of development for the environmentalist sector. The autonomy of green social organizations is a space of continuous negotiation and wavering between official control and informal toleration."
The green activists in China tend towards a "female mildness." That is, they attmept to accomplish their goals with as little conflict as possible: "a greening without conflit." They believe in guiding instead of blaming and helping instead of complaining. And this is a powerful image for the green movement.
