Information Literacy and Lifelong Learning

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking requires the use of a specific set of skills to determine the value of an ­information source: inference, analysis, evaluation, interpretation, explanation, and self-­regulation. Individuals who are information literate use critical thinking skills when taking in information by evaluating a source for accuracy and fairness. With the amount of information we are exposed to on a daily basis, we need strong reasoning skills to determine fact from fiction. This is where critical thinking comes in. Critical thinkers are skeptical and do not simply accept all the arguments and conclusions they encounter. Instead, they question these arguments and conclusions, wanting to see the evidence involved. Critical thinkers think actively and strategically about the information they encounter by using a set of skills. Let’s take a closer look at each of these skills and see how Sherry, a marketing department employee, uses them during a project at work (Facione, 2011).

Inference

Inference is the process of using facts to determine an accurate conclusion or hypothesis from the information available. Given what we know so far, what conclusions can we draw? What can be ruled out? What additional information do we need to resolve this question?

Sherry’s boss has asked her to look up demographic information so that the company can target a possible new group of customers to market its existing products. Sales of company products are holding steady in their current markets, but Sherry’s boss would like to find a way to boost sales by selling to a new audience. Sherry begins by considering estimates and projections for those in her new target group. She then gathers data on their product and spending behaviors. She continues researching and collecting factual data on the target group. Once the necessary data is gathered, Sherry uses her inference skills to draw conclusions and infer if more testing of this demographic is needed. This approach helps Sherry recognize if any potential new customer opportunities exist for her company. Based on the data she collected, Sherry concludes that this new demographic has potential, but further testing is needed.

Analysis

Analysis is the process of examining pieces of information in parts and as a whole to determine the intended meaning of the information and what it represents. What are the arguments for and against? Why do you think that? What assumptions must we make to accept that conclusion?

Sherry’s boss is happy with her recommendation for a new demographic and asks that she begin organizing a focus group to continue with the testing. Two of Sherry’s coworkers present different plans for targeting this demographic through a focus group. Sherry and her boss will be making the final decision of which plan to implement. After the presentations, Sherry and her boss analyze the similarities and differences between the two focus group plans to determine which one will be most successful. They want to ensure they select the plan that will result in the most valid feedback for the company.

Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of assessing the credibility of a person’s experience, point of view, or opinion to determine the legitimacy of the information being presented. Why do we think we can trust this person’s claims? How strong are those arguments? How confident can we be in our conclusion given what we know now?

As Sherry leads the focus group with the targeted demographic, she discovers quite a few negative attitudes about similar products sold by her competitors. Many of the focus group participants had strong negative feelings about those products that Sherry fears may have influenced others in the group. After the group concludes, Sherry evaluates the effectiveness of the focus group and the responses she received from participants. She must judge if the opinions she collected are valid, meaning whether they have been affected by previous experiences, and whether their complaints need to be investigated further.

Interpretation

Interpretation is the process of understanding the information and then articulating the meaning of that information to others. What does this mean? How should we understand that? In this context, what was intended by saying that?

Looking closely at the information Sherry has gathered, she develops a set of options for addressing the negative responses received from the focus group attendees. She meets with her boss to debrief her and share her findings. Sherry recommends the company conduct more research before moving forward on marketing to the new targeted demographic. Among other things, she suggests they collect data from social media sites and also conduct one-on-one interviews with some of the focus group attendees.

Explanation

Explanation is the process of restating and clarifying information so it can be understood by anyone you are sharing it with. What were the specific findings of the investigation? How did you come to that interpretation? How did you conduct that analysis? Why do you think this was the right answer?

With the second phase of testing complete and all data compiled, Sherry’s boss has asked her to make two presentations on the results: one to the CEO of the company and the other to lower-level staff. She is aware that both groups are interested in hearing the results of her research but knows she will need to explain the results in two very different ways. Sherry expects the CEO may want to hear only high-level information, whereas the staff will need more specific details, as they will be responsible for moving the project forward. Sherry’s ability to clearly explain her ideas while keeping her audience in mind is critical for making sure the information she presents is understood and well received.

Self-Regulation

Self-regulation is the process of being aware of your own thinking skills and the process you are using to find information. How good was your methodology and evidence? Is there a way to reconcile conflicting conclusions? What are you missing?

After Sherry’s presentation, she checks in briefly with her boss. During this meeting, Sherry gives her overall impressions of how the target demographic project went. After some self-reflection, Sherry believes the focus group plan they selected was the best choice. However, Sherry confesses to making a few errors during its implementation that resulted in some of the negative responses from participants. She admits to taking some of the responses personally and feels she should have been more diligent in the screening of participants. In spite of this, Sherry was able to reconcile her mistakes and make a solid recommendation on the viability of this new demographic.

Creative Thinking

Creative thinking is a way of engaging with information imaginatively and coming up with ideas. It requires that you keep an open mind as you explore a wider range of possibilities. Creative thinkers “think outside the box,” meaning that they are not limited by barriers or restrictions; they may even break established rules and procedures. For example, they may approach a problem in one area—such as healthcare—by drawing on information from another area—such as ethics. Although they employ evaluation, analysis, and other critical thinking skills, this openness to imaginative exploration tends to make creative thinkers innovators.

The following feature shows the differences between critical and creative thinking. When employing your information literacy skills, you will most likely move back and forth between thinking critically and creatively. Neither type of thinking occurs in isolation. Instead, these skills support each other.

Critical versus creative thinking

Critical

Creative

Analyzes ideas

Generates ideas

Tests a hypothesis

Forms a hypothesis

Thinks in terms of what’s probable

Thinks in terms of what’s possible

Tends to think verbally, in terms of words

Tends to think visually, in terms of images

Thinks linearly, as in an outline

Makes associations, as in a concept map

Relies on logic

Relies on intuition

Identifies

Imagines

Describes

Speculates

Categorizes and classifies

Tolerates ambiguity

Makes judgments

Suspends judgment

Thinks in terms of the objective

Thinks in terms of the subjective

Considers the right answer

Considers many possible answers

Embraces standardized methods

Rejects standardized methods

Consider this example of creative thinking. An organization realized it needed to improve communication between its employees to stimulate creativity and innovation. After some creative brainstorming and planning, the organization decided to redesign the interior space of its office. The goal was to break down communication barriers and to encourage a feeling of trust and community among its employees. To make this happen, the new design resembled a tiny, peaceful village. It had its own village square and café, where employees were encouraged to gather and hold meetings. Although this workplace renovation went against some of the established norms of workplace design, it resulted in the organization consistently launching successful new products. This success is attributed to the increased collaboration and communication between employees at all levels.

You may find that creative thinking does not always come easily and you may need some stimulation to get it going. If you find this happening to you, try brainstorming a list of ideas, talking through your ideas with a friend or coworker, and avoid putting too much pressure on yourself, which can lead to frustration.

Problem Solving

Problem solving is the process of effectively working through an issue or question to find a solution. Individuals who are information literate are able to successfully apply information to solve problems. The problem-solving process consists of six steps: understand the problem, identify the cause of the problem, brainstorm a list of solutions, evaluate the solutions, apply the best solution, and evaluate the outcome. Figure 1.2 illustrates the problem-solving process. At any step in the process, you may decide to go back and repeat an earlier step. For example, once you begin brainstorming a list of solutions, you may find that you still do not have a good understanding of the problem and will need to revisit step 1 to gather more information about the problem. Let’s explore each step in the problem-solving process and see how Mike applied this process in the workplace.

Understand the problem. Before a problem can be solved, it must be understood. To understand the problem, ask yourself questions such as Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? Using this step is like putting the pieces of a puzzle together.

For example, the production of syringes in a medical manufacturing plant has consistently been on back order for more than three months. It seemed the plant could not keep up with an increase in product demands. Concerned, Mike was quite distressed by this problem and the attention it began receiving from his bosses. He set out to identify what was causing the backup in production and how he could increase production to meet customer demands.

Mike’s first step was to begin gathering information from each of his section managers. After reviewing their status updates and visiting their departments, Mike discovers the backup in production is connected to the current process used to clean the equipment. He suspects this could be preventing his plant from meeting its increase in production.

Identify the cause of the problem. Once the symptoms of the problem have been identified, the root cause of the problem can then begin to be defined. This will prevent a reaction to superficial symptoms.

Mike needs to make sure he knows the real cause of the problem, making sure to eliminate the symptoms of the problem. He needs to be able to accurately state what is causing the backup in production to company leaders. Upon deeper inspection, Mike realizes the process for cleaning the equipment is quite time consuming and involves numerous steps. This current cleaning process, while sufficient when production was low, is now highly inefficient not only in time, but also in the electricity it consumes. This holdup is resulting in the plant not being able to meet its daily production quota.

Brainstorm a list of solutions. Once the problem and its symptoms have been identified, take time to brainstorm a list of possible solutions. Be careful of jumping in head first to fix the problem. This approach does not allow you to consider all of your options.

Mike begins brainstorming solutions by reaching out to the company’s other plant directors. He wants to see if they have encountered similar issues, and if so, how they solved them. He also meets with the equipment-cleaning manager and the staff responsible for carrying out the machine-cleaning process. Mike gathers their input and ideas on the situation and begins creating a list of possible solutions.

The information he receives from other plant directors confirms that (1) his is the only plant using that cleaning method and (2) his plant is the only one still using older model equipment for production. He was able to determine that two cleaning methods are currently being used at other plants that may work for his. Each one would take some modifications to work efficiently at his plant. He also received a possible solution from the equipment-cleaning manager and his staff. This group has been frustrated with the process for a while and was conducting its own research into how to best solve the problem. The group’s solution is untested, but it is the least expensive of the three and uses less electricity than the current process or the other two solutions on the list.

Evaluate the solutions. Using a set of criteria, you need to evaluate each solution. Is the solution feasible? Is the solution acceptable to those who have to implement it? The plant director must now decide which of the three solutions will solve the problem.

Mike begins by evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of each solution. He decides to focus only on the options that would meet the company’s goals of waste reduction and cost savings. This leaves him with two possible options to carefully consider. Looking closely at each one, he evaluates the cost, efficiency, reliability, and required maintenance of each cleaning alternative.

Apply the best solution. Once a solution is selected, there must be careful planning to ensure it is implemented effectively.

Mike must now decide how to implement the new cleaning process, who will do it, and when it will begin. Since he decided the new cleaning method proposed by the equipment-cleaning department would be best, he meets with the team to discuss logistics and implementation. Additionally, he also needs to factor in how much time it will take to put in the new system and how much production will be lost during this process.

Evaluate and measure. The solution must be monitored and evaluated to confirm its success.

With the new cleaning system in place, Mike must now watch over the new system to ensure it is working properly. He must also evaluate the results of the new cleaning system by collecting data. If the problem is not resolved, he will need to evaluate what is and is not effective.

Once the new cleaning solution was implemented, the plant’s syringe production was able to finally handle demand. It also significantly reduced the amount of electricity used, which ended up meeting two of the company’s goals. The new cleaning system became so successful that company leaders plan to use this same system in many of their other plants.

Higher-Order Thinking

Higher-order thinking is reasonable, insightful thinking that uses questioning, investigating, observing, comparing, and connecting to make decisions. In 1956, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed a classification of intellectual behavior and learning. Figure 1.3 illustrates the hierarchy of Bloom’s taxonomy, beginning with a base level of knowledge (low-level thinking) and evolving toward evaluation (high-order thinking).

Bloom’s taxonomy uses a set of action verbs to represent the type of thinking that occurs at each level: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Information literate individuals will move throughout each of the levels depending on their need and purpose for information. You may find you tend to use higher levels of thinking in your academic and professional lives. Let’s look at each of the levels by taking a closer look at Sherry’s demographic project as an example. Notice that two levels in Bloom’s taxonomy are the same as two aspects of critical thinking.

Knowledge is the recalling of previously learned information, and it generally lays a foundation for greater learning.

This may involve remembering a variety of material, from drawing out facts to a complete theory. When Sherry’s boss asked her to identify a potential new demographic group, she began by making a list of the groups they currently were not marketing to. She then increased her knowledge of each group by locating information on their potential interest in her company’s products.

Comprehension is the ability to understand the meaning of information. This level goes one step beyond memorization.

At this level, Sherry begins to summarize the data she has gathered on new demographics, looking to see if one stands out as a potential new customer.

Application is the ability of knowing when to apply learned skills in new situations.

Sherry and her boss could have benefited from the construction of customer scenarios, where they could apply what they knew about their potential new demographic before conducting the focus groups.

Analysis is the ability to examine pieces of information in parts and as a whole to determine the intended meaning of the information and what it represents.

Following the presentation of the two focus groups, Sherry and her boss compare and contrast each one, analyzing which would be most appropriate.

Synthesis is the ability to put together parts to form a new whole, such as compiling various pieces of information, ideas, or concepts together seamlessly.

After all the data on the possible new demographic is in, Sherry compiles the demographic project data, including her recommendations into a report for the company.

Evaluation is the ability to use a set of criteria to judge the value, credibility, and legitimacy of information, such as a statement, research report, novel, or documentary work.

Sherry will assess her project recommendations and performance to determine if they were accurate and effective.