GEOG ASSIGNMENT

Chapter 4: Design and Symbolization

4.1. Introduction

“Design is so simple, that’s why it is so complicated.” – Paul Rand, graphic designer

The difference between an ordinary map and one that is persuasive and interesting depends on

how well the cartographer incorporates principles of good design and symbolization. Data, in

isolation, cannot tell a story. It is up to the cartographer to make the data convincing by turning

mundane information into artistic expressions. The concepts in this section are fairly basic to

understand, yet they take years to put to good practice. Map design requires patience, trial and

error, and careful attention to detail.

This section will introduce you to key part of making maps:

 Basic map elements: key elements, such as a title or source, are found on most maps and understanding their purpose will give you a solid foundation for cartography.

 Design principles: there are many principles of good design, but we start with the two of hierarchy and balance, which make the difference between boring maps and maps that

pop out at the reader.

 Symbolization: cartographers have many tools to make data more memorable and convincing, and among these are symbolization basics including geometry and visual

variables.

By the end of this chapter, you should understand basic principles and tools you can use to make

interesting, aesthetically pleasing, and effective maps.

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4.2. Map Elements

Maps are composed of a varying number of elements. There are potentially dozens of these but

focus on key ones.

 Figure. The thing or place being mapped is called the figure of the map. In Figure 4a, the figure of the map is the grounds and building of the Department of Public Works.

 Ground. The figure is juxtaposed against the ground of the map, or in other words, the background.

 Frame. Maps often have frame, a line drawn around the figure and ground, that acts like a picture frame does for a picture. The more technical term neatline is also used.

Figure 4a. Basic map elements.

Other elements are informative enough to be used almost always, including a title, scale, legend,

and source information.

 Title. The title is short, descriptive text typically at or near the top of the map. A good title should provide some detail about the map’s content without being too wordy or

descriptive. Map titles often include all or some of the following components: the subject

of the map, the year, the spatial extent, the mapping resolution, and the data source.

 Legend. The legend lists the symbols and provides an explanation of what is being mapped. It is important to include the symbols on the legend exactly as they appear on

the map. Legends include both text and graphics, and they sometimes contain additional

details such as the source of the data or the year the data were collected. Labeling the

units in the legend is important so the audience can properly understand the data being

mapped. If your map of counties shows the number of bicycles per thousand people, then

the legend should say so.

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 Source/Credits. Think back to the data chapter and recall how important it is to know where the mapping data come from and what sort of biases are inherent in the data. For

transparency purposes, it is necessary to provide attribution to the source of the data, the

place, company, person or agency that made the data. These are also known more

generally as credits. Including the source makes it possible for the audience to track it

down and explore the data further if necessary. Knowing who made the map can help the

reader better gauge how accurate and reliable the data probably are. Sometimes the

mapmaker is highly regarded for accurate and unbiased use of data, other times, he or she

is known for having a political agenda that would raise doubts about data accuracy.

Source attribution can be as simple as a short text annotation near the bottom of the map,

or it can include more detailed information.

 Scale. Almost all maps include a scale because maps are smaller than the reality being mapped. Providing the map audience with information about what scale you are using is

important so they can have some understanding of relative size and distance. The scale is

often provided in a less prominent part of the map and is typically displayed with

graphics or text. There are times when the scale is so obvious that it is omitted from a

map. For example, a map of the entire world does not typically have a scale bar on it,

because everyone has a general understanding of how large the world is. Keep in mind

from the section on projections however, that many maps distort area, so the sizes that

you see on a map might not always be spatially accurate. In this case, listing the

projection with the scale is helpful.

There are many other possible elements that cartographers may include and that you may see

used in maps. These other elements, while not as frequently included, often represent good

mapmaking practice, especially if you want the reader to understand how the map was created.

These elements include the cartographer’s name or company, the production date, and the

projection. Some elements of the map, such as the north arrow, follow conventions, or

commonly understood rules. Typically, we equate the orientation “up” with “north,” so

cartographers will often omit the north arrow on a map unless the map breaks that convention.

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4.3. Design Principles

While a title, legend, source, and scale are necessary elements of all maps, they need be applied

according to map design principles in order to properly convey the information. Poorly designed

maps, like the one below, can be both difficult to read and confusing (compare it to the map in

Figure 4a).

Figure 4b. While this map contains the four necessary elements (title, legend, scale, and source), it fails

to practice principles of good design. It is unbalanced, disorganized, and uses white space poorly.

Designing maps to be visually appealing is an art form, and there are entire courses in

cartography devoted to these principles. Two of the foundational elements of design that all good

maps must incorporate are hierarchy and balance.

Hierarchy

Not all information on a map is of equal importance. A title is more important than the north

arrow, so making them the same size would lead to inadequate emphasis on the title. It also does

not make sense if a legend is so large that it overwhelms the actual figure that you are mapping.

Visual hierarchy is the design principle that takes these factors into consideration. A map with

good hierarchy emphasizes important information and figures by positioning them strategically

on the map and by using visual variables appropriately. Typically, the top of the map is a good

place for important information like the title (Figure 4c). Size and hue are two other important

tools in creating strong visual hierarchy, as the more important text and figures can be larger in

size (Figure 4d).

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Figure 4c. If this frame represents the layout of a map, it is often helpful to put your most important information on

the top or the top left side of the page. Information near the bottom of the page seems less important to the map

audience. Keep in mind that the “top-left to bottom-right” rule is relevant in the western context, but different

cultures have different rules of visual emphasis so it is important to understand the audience of your map.

Figure 4d. These three maps use various techniques of visual hierarchy. None of them is necessarily “correct,” but

you can see how certain techniques help to emphasize the important features. Note how these images use hues, sizes

of lines, and texture in different ways to emphasize certain roads and parks.

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Balance

Not everything that is important can be in large text at the top of the map. After you satisfy

requirements of visual hierarchy, the next step is to make sure that your map looks balanced.

This entails aligning text with other text or figures so everything looks neat and organized. If

your map is too cluttered it will be difficult to see the information, so maintaining a sufficient

amount of white space is helpful (Figures 4e and 4f).

Figure 4e. These are three examples of incorporating hierarchy and balance to varying degrees of effectiveness. The

map on the left has too much white space so it is difficult to make out the figure. The map in the middle does not

leave enough room for the legend and title. The map on the right offers the best example of good hierarchy and

balance as the text is aligned in the center, the image is well sized, and there is sufficient white space.

Figure 4f. This map incorporates good principles of visual hierarchy. Text is sized depending on importance, white

space is used appropriately, and everything is well organized and easy to read.

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4.4. Symbolization

Symbolization is the term used to describe how the features on a map are visualized. Unless you

are looking at an aerial photographic image, everything on a map is a symbol for something in

the real world. A mapmaker must constantly decide how a map feature should be symbolized in

ways that help the reader to quickly understand what it represents and its degree of importance

relative to other features in the map.

Before we continue, we need to consider a basic distinction between kinds of data, namely

whether they are quantitative or qualitative.

 Qualitative data deal with descriptions of a real-world phenomenon that relate to the quality (which is where ‘qualitative’ comes from), or in other words, differences in kind

or existence.

 Quantitative data are those that deal in measurements (or quantities, which gives us the terms ‘quantitative’) that deal with differences in amount.

A qualitative map of cities, for example, would show whether a city exists or not in a given

place, while a quantitative map would show the location of the city as well as some

measurement, such as the number of people living there. A qualitative maps of wildlife could

indicate where different kinds of animals live while a quantitative map would show the amounts

of different animals.

We look at two key components of symbolization: geometry and visual variables. Per Figure 4g,

these components all work together to make map symbolization.

Figure 4g. Basic building blocks of symbolization are geometry (points, lines, and areas) and visual variables

(shape, size, hue, and value).

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Geometry

Most map symbols are essentially variations on three simple geometric features: the point, the

line, and the polygon.

Figure 4h. Points, lines, and areas and how they can be used interchangeably. Each row represents a different mode

of symbolization, and each column represents a different kind of real-life thing or place.

Points are typically used for discrete features, such as a tree or the location of a store. Lines are

often used to represent roads, telephone lines, or other long, continuous features. Polygons are

typically used to represent boundaries such as counties or parks, but they can also be used to help

generalize data such as the concentration of many individual animals. It is very common for all

three of these geometric objects to be used in a single map, such as the map of Montreal below

which contains the locations of roads (lines), cities (points), and parks (areas).

Figure 4i. Satellite Image on the left compared to a map incorporating point, line, and area symbolization on the

right (from MapQuest).

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Visual Variables

We can modify the appearance of basic geometries of maps (points, lines, and polygons) in many

ways. The modifications or variation of these points, lines, and polygons are referred to as visual

variables because they describe how a given visual entity, like a line for example, varies from

dark to light or big to small. Visual variables are important in displaying both qualitative and

quantitative data. The four main visual variables that are commonly manipulated on maps are:

shape, size, hue, and value. The table below highlights the main tenants of these visual variables

as well as what types of data they are best suited for.

Visual Variable What Type of Data is it Used For?

Shape Qualitative

Size Quantitative

Hue Qualitative

Value Quantitative

Figure 4j. Quantitative Data vs. Qualitative Data

Shape. Shapes often indicate differences in kind, so they are good for qualitative data. There are

certain conventions of shape use, such as an airplane for an airport, or a cross for a hospital

(Figure 4h). Shapes can also have much more specific representations. A wildlife map might

show simple pictures of different species of animals to show the location of their habitats.

Corporate logos can also be used, indicating the locations of dealerships for different models like

Honda or Ford, or someone looking for a nearby fast food restaurant can easily distinguish

between the locations McDonald’s or a Burger King.

Size. Size is a visual variable especially

well-suited for quantitative attributes.

Large sizes are often understood to

represent something of high value or

importance, while small sizes represent

low or less important values (Figure 4k).

Size is limited by the ability of the map

audience to estimate the difference

between sizes.

Figure 4k. This map uses one hue and

incorporates changes in size to demonstrate

quantity. This proportional symbol map uses

different size circles to represent five different

classes of data. Five is an important number as it

is the most number of circles that a map audience

can easily distinguish on a map.

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Hue. When people speak about color on a map they usually refer to what is technically known as

“hue.” Hue is most commonly used to distinguish between qualitative data. Decisions are based

on psychological and social factors because we associate certain colors with certain real-world

things: blue (water), green (forest), and red (Republicans in the US). It is also common for red to

be used to signify intensity or importance while calming colors such as blue or grey help to

signify something of less intensity (Figure 4l).

Figure 4l. Different hues (colors) are used to demonstrate discrete qualitative data.

Value. Value refers to the lightness or darkness of a hue (Figure 4m). It is most commonly used

for quantitative data as it can demonstrate the relative importance or amount on a continuous

scale. While the distinction between light and dark is fairly obvious, be careful not to use too

many different values on a map. The human eye has difficulty distinguishing more than about

eight values on a map.

Figure 4m. This chart has 22 different values of red. High value refers to a color that is very light, while low value

refers to colors that are dark.

4.5 Conclusion

In this section, we have looked at the basics of symbolization. Basic map elements include the

triad of figure, ground, and frame as well as ones commonly seen on maps, including title,

legend, scale, and source. These elements are then yoked to design principles, particularly

hierarchy and balance, and the tools of symbolization, such as geometry and visual variables

including shape, size, hue, and value.

Resources

For more information about symbolization:

 http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/cartocom/section5.html

 http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/cartocom/section4.html

 http://cartography.uni-muenster.de/en/symbols/visual-variables

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Test Your Knowledge

1. The map to the right incorporates which type of symbolization?

a. Hue

b. Shape

c. Value

d. Hue and Value

2. What type of data is the map to the right most suitable for?

a. Quantitative b. Qualitative

3. What are the four elements present on almost every map?

a. Date, Legend, Title, Scale b. Name of Cartographer, Date, Scale, Title c. Legend, Source, Scale, Title d. Source, Legend, Title, North Arrow

4. What does the practice of map hierarchy involve?

a. Making less important information smaller on a map b. Making more important information larger on a map c. Making all the information similar in size d. Both A & B

Answers

1. c; 2. a; 3. c; 4. d

Source: Star Tribune, 11/26/2011

Source: UK Census 2011