ECE curriculm Assignment
12.1 Developmentally Appropriate Assessment
The primary goal of a developmentally appropriate approach to assessment is to inform your practices so that the curriculum youimplement matches the developmental needs and interests of the children in your care or classroom (Gullo, 2006; NAEYC/NAECS/SDE,2003). As you continue to think about theory as part of the "why" behind curriculum decisions, assessment of your students and yourprogram also provides practical, ongoing information and evidence to guide what you choose to do. For example, setting up yourclassroom using sound principles of design should theoretically provide children with opportunities to engage with materials, exploretheir ideas and imagination, and promote socialization. Your assessment of how children actually use the environment, however, mayreveal that some areas need more or fewer materials to balance movement and activity levels or perhaps additional strategies toencourage children to spend more time in the writing or math center.
Similarly, while you observe daily that Anna Bess is a highly verbal child, with a large vocabulary and sophisticated sense of storystructure as she relates anecdotes with details and expression, you may learn through assessment that she needs a great deal of supportto identify the sounds in words to help her progress in reading and writing.
Creating an Assessment Plan
Therefore planning for the assessment of groups and individual children should reflect a systematic, comprehensive approach (NAEYC,2005). Assessment of young children is most effective when it is curriculum-based—that is, aligned with learning standards as well as thegoals and content of the curriculum and used to modify activities and practices to advance the development of each child (Gullo, 2006). Ingeneral, assessments are categorized either as formative if they document ongoing development and progress or summative if they areadministered at intervals, such as end-of-year reports used to confer with a child's family.
Some widely used programs, such as Creative Curriculum and High Scope , offer integrated, curriculum-based assessment systems withtools, schedules, and guidance for teachers that are also aligned with state early learning standards. In elementary schools, assessmentsystems are driven by national and state standards and typically include a balance of formative and summative assessments (oftenstandardized tests) that measure overall achievement at the end of a school year. Independent or private early childhood programs maydesign their own assessment systems, such as the one displayed in Table 12.1, designed by an NAEYC-accredited program to meet thestandard for assessment. This example of an assessment system for a preschool program provides a timetable that indicates when andhow assessment information is collected, communicated, organized, and applied.
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Table 12.1: Sample Assessment System |
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Time Line |
Activity |
Instruments |
Product |
Follow-up |
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Atenrollment |
Developmentalscreening |
Ages/Stages Questionnaire (ASQ) forappropriate age andSocial EmotionalQuestionnaire (ASQ/SE)if indicated |
Formal reportfor child file |
Referral to BabyNet or Child Find andprocess via school district if warranted orfollow up with additional questionnairesfor more data |
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August |
Teacher–teacherconference |
Child file |
Draft GoalsForm (GF) forhome visit |
Confer with prior teacher if moreinformation needed |
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August |
Home visits |
Home Information Form(HIF), goals form photo |
Family/childprofile Initiate orrevise existinggoals |
Regular informal communications; referralsif needed |
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September |
New family orientation(evening session aboutassessment system) |
All assessment systemdocuments |
Present/discussassessmentsystem |
Q&A as indicated; ongoing informalcommunications |
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Ongoing |
Home/schoolcommunication |
Celebrations andConcerns form (CCF) |
Completedform |
Conversation, conferences if requested;information used to inform curriculardecisions |
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Fall term,monthly: August, September, October |
Observation, recording anecdotalevidence |
Anecdotal record |
Updated goals |
Individualizing instruction and adjustingcurriculum |
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Fall term,monthly: August, September, October |
Work samplecollection |
Portfolio |
Photo,video/audiorecording,artifact |
Used to inform curricular decisions andevidence of growth; shared duringparent/teacher conference |
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FallConferenceDay |
Parent/teacherconference; compile informationfrom various sourcesused throughout theterm |
Goals Form (GF) Celebrations andConcerns Forms (CCF) Work samples Early LearningStandards (ELS)checklist Performanceassessments |
Early LearningStandardsReport (SCELS)and worksamples Revised goals |
Referrals to BabyNet or Child Find ifwarranted; entry signed by both parentand teacher on goals form;recommendations for future curriculardecisions and individualization |
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SpringTermmonthly:January,February,March |
Work samplecollection |
Portfolio |
Updatedportfolios withphotos andartifacts |
Individualizing instruction and adjustingcurriculum |
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ByFebruary15 |
Quarterlycommunication: Verbalor written updates asindicated/needed perfall conferences |
Conference and/orwritten narrativeprogress reportCelebrations andConcerns Forms (CCF) |
Update goals |
Conversation or formal conference ifparent/teacher requests |
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AprilConferenceDay |
Parent/teacherconference; compile informationfrom various sourcesused throughout theterm |
Goals Form Celebration andConcerns Forms Work samples Early LearningStandards checklist Performanceassessments |
Early LearningStandardsReport (ELS)and worksamples Revised Goals |
Referrals to BabyNet or Child Find ifwarranted; |
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AprilConferenceDay |
"Paper Day"—Updatefamily information |
Home Information Form(HIF) Health and EmergencyForms |
Completedform |
Compile list of students with allergies,inform teacher for involving parents andchildren in family and culturally sensitiveways, planning curriculum |
The NAEYC recommends that a well-developed assessment system should focus on identifying children's needs and interests, describingand reporting their progress accurately, and using assessment information to make curriculum decisions (National Association for theEducation of Young Children, 2005). As described in the 2003 NAEYC/NAECS/SDE position statement, an effective assessment system ischaracterized by:
· Ethical practices
· Fidelity between assessment practices and their intended uses
· Age, developmental, and cultural appropriateness
· Reliable and valid methods and instruments
· Alignment with desired outcomes that are educationally significant
· Application of results that improves learning and outcomes for children
· Concrete evidence collected in real-world contexts
· Conclusions based on multiple sources of evidence gathered over time
· Follow-through as needed to provide referrals or other needed services
· Limited use of standardized tests
· Collaboration between teachers, programs, and families
These principles make sense because they focus on acquiring information that is used to improve teaching and learning and identifychildren who may need interventions. Practices consistent with these principles promote access to services, efficient use of resources, andconfidence in determinations and decisions made on behalf of young children. NAEYC and NAECS/SDE assessment guidelines are basedon professional standards established by the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and theNational Center for Measurement in Education (NAEYC/NAECS/SDE, 2003).
The Importance of Objectivity
Critical to the use of any assessment strategy or method is objectivity. Teachers must learn to separate the accounting of what theyobserve or measure in children from interpretation, which should be done separately in the context of analyzing multiple sources of data(Jablon, Dombro & Dichtelmiller, 2007). In other words, teachers strive to separate facts from opinions.
Consider the two sample anecdotal entries below recorded by a teacher of a 4-year-old class:
1. Jamison stepped on a line of blocks that Camden was arranging on the floor in the block area. Camden looked at Jamison and said, "Stopit, you are wrecking my road." Jamison stepped on the blocks again and then kicked two of them out of the line. Camden started to cryand Jamison said, "You are just a big baby, I don't want to play with you anyways." Jamison backed away from the block center and stoodoff to the side with his fists clenched and tears in his eyes as Anya came and sat down next to Camden.
2. Camden wanted to work alone and was minding his own business arranging blocks in a line to make a road; Jamison intruded andstepped on them. Camden felt frustrated and when he said "Stop it, you are wrecking my road," Jamison kicked the blocks and in typicallymean fashion said, "You are just a big baby, I don't want to play with you anyways." Anya came over to make Camden feel better andJamison just sulked and pouted over in the corner.
The first record preserves the events as they occurred with matter-of-fact language, while the second clearly assignsprotagonist/antagonist roles to Jamison and Camden and assumes motivations for the behavior that occurred for all three children. Thefirst note, compared with other narratives, can be analyzed for behavior trends over time for any of the children. Perhaps this episode isconsistent with a pattern of aggressive (Jamison) or passive (Camden) or empathetic (Anya) behaviors, but it could just as easilyrepresent a departure from any of the children's usual interactions. The second entry clearly indicates that the teacher has already madea judgment about each of the children, and its usefulness for gleaning insights is limited.
Similarly, suppose four times a year a teacher conducted a fine motor assessment by asking each child to cut out a paper circle withscissors. Table 12.2 displays two records of this task on separate occasions as it might be recorded by different teachers.
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Table 12.2: Two Accounts of Cutting |
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Teacher A |
Teacher B |
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9/14: Does nothold scissorsproperly. Can't cut. |
9/14: Holds scissors in right hand sideways with thumb in one hole and index finger in the other. Holdspaper in left hand at 12 o'clock position. Attempting to cut in counterclockwise motion, starting at 6o'clock, but paper slides through scissors. |
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11/15: Good grip;still can't cut verywell. |
11/15: Right-hand grip now includes thumb and first two fingers with thumb up. Holds paper with lefthand at 9 o'clock position. Cuts counterclockwise from 3 to 12 o'clock and stops. |
Teacher A uses subjective labeling ("properly," "good") and language indicating an opinion about the child's performance on eachoccasion, while teacher B records information that can be interpreted to describe progress in measurable terms.
Another way teachers ensure objectivity is by using scoring tools, or rubrics, that rely on criterion referencing based on observablebehaviors or performance rather than subjective judgments. A criterion is similar to a standard or benchmark—a statement or descriptorthat conveys an expected outcome or level of performance. If a criterion describes an action or behavior that is observable, it is morelikely that anyone who performs the assessment will score it objectively, as the behavior will either be observed or it won't.
For example, suppose you are assessing self-help skills. Using criteria such as "not independent, working on independence, independent"is subjective; if two teachers rated the same child they might each have a very different idea about what "working on . . ." means or whatcriterion must be met to be rated "independent." A scoring tool that lists criteria such as "ties shoes, zips, cleans up without being asked,puts nap items away unassisted, asks for help when needed" is objective because the assessor must see the child perform each task inorder to check it off.
12.2 Identifying Children's Needs and Interests
Assessment methods can be formal or informal. Formal assessments include standardized measures that are norm-referenced; that is,they score an individual child's performance against the average, or mean, scores of a larger population of children. The larger populationis selected to be representative of the smaller samples of children to whom the test is administered.
Informal assessments are not normed, may be narratively expressed, and can be obtained commercially or teacher-designed. Informalassessments are implemented in the classroom or care setting to document learning, skills, and/or behavior. These measures contributevaluable information that provides a holistic, context-specific view of growth over time.
Other measures, either formal or informal, are criterion-referenced, or designed to assess each individual child or group of children withrespect to specific goals or desired outcomes expressed in curriculum materials, state early learning and academic standards, orindividualized learning plans for children with special needs, such as the Individual Educational Plan (IEP) or Individualized FamilyService Plan (IFSP).
Formal Assessments
Normed standardized instruments generally fall into one of three categories: screens, achievement tests, or intelligence tests. Thepurpose of a screening tool such as the Denver II (Denver Developmental Materials, 2012) or the Brigance Early Childhood series(Curriculum Associates, 2011) is usually to obtain a general picture of development or behavior to determine if a more detailedassessment or evaluation is warranted. Screens can be administered by trained professionals, but instructions are typically easy foreducators to follow. Some screens, such as the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (2012), are specifically designed for parents.
Achievement tests are intended to assess what a child knows or can do and are the types of tests administered annually to elementaryand high school students to measure progress toward meeting state academic standards and curriculum outcomes. A battery of severalsubtests is typically administered over several days. Use of a single achievement test to make high-stakes decisions, such as a child'sreadiness for school, is considered inadequate and developmentally inappropriate (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).
© iStockphoto / Thinkstock
Early childhood educators and researchers exercisecaution in using standardized test for a variety of reasons.
Intelligence tests are designed to determine a person's aptitude and capacitiesfor learning in comparison to all others in the population from which the normsare derived. The Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, developed by Alfred Binet andLewis Simon in 1905, was the first to be introduced. In 1916, Lewis Terman, atStanford University, adapted the scales for American use as the Stanford-BinetScales (Levine & Munsch, 2011). The test score was expressed as anintelligence quotient (IQ) or ratio of mental to chronological age.
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales, introduced by psychologist David Wechsler in1955, are also widely used and adapted the IQ concept to an intelligencedeviation score, basing norms on a distribution of scores across the normalcurve. These tests are reliable only when they are administered by trainedprofessionals, usually psychologists, and typically not before age 6.
Concerns about cultural bias in the norming processes first expressed by AlfredBinet (Siegler, 1992) persist today, since many believe that the heavy reliance onlanguage in these tests compromises results for children with limited English proficiency (Levine & Munsch, 2011).
Widespread implementation of standardized testing with children under the age of 8, especially if not balanced with the holistic data thatinformal assessments provide, is considered developmentally inappropriate (NAEYC/NAECS/SDE, 2003). Such tests offer only a "snapshot"of what the child can do, don't allow for modification to accommodate individual differences, don't accurately reflect a child's real-lifeexperience, may be linguistically or culturally biased, and focus only on what rather than how a child learns (Anderson, Moffat, & Shapiro,2006; Branscombe, Castle, Dorsey & Taylor, 2003; Gullo, 2006). While teachers need to understand how formal measures such asstandardized tests are developed and used, their administration should be limited to instances where it is clear that the results maybenefit children in a specific way, such as identifying a child with special needs who would be entitled to support services(NAEYC/NAECS/SDE, 2003).
Informal Assessments
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Programs and teachers that apply developmentally appropriate principles toassessment make extensive use of informal assessments, also known asalternative or authentic methods. Informal assessments match curriculumgoals, actively involve children and families, focus on change and growth overtime, and occur in real time in the classroom or care setting (Branscombe,Castle, Dorsey & Taylor, 2003; Gullo, 2006; Jablon, Dombro, & Dichtelmiller,2007; Wortham, 2011). Often, authentic assessments focus on recordingobservations of individual children during play (Beaty, 2009; Bodrova & Leong,2007; Flagler, 1996; Gullo, 2006; Jablon, Dombro, & Dichtelmiller, 2007) or dailyroutines, interactions with family members, and in group interaction (Jablon,Dombro & Dichtelmiller, 2007).
Teachers also design performance or skills assessments and collect andanalyze learning artifacts to evaluate growth and identify needed curriculummodifications. Authentic assessments don't require that the teacher "prep"children, in contrast to the coaching that teachers sometimes provide to preparechildren for a paper-and-pencil standardized test. Rather than offering the child a preselected group of available responses that may notnecessarily match what the child knows, authentic assessments record behavior and performance in the precise terms or actionsdisplayed by the child (Anderson, Moffat, & Shapiro, 2006; Gullo, 2006).
Observational Strategies and Tools
Assessment information obtained via the direct observation of children can provide valuable data over time, in multiple contexts, in thewords of the teacher or child, and during many kinds of activities (Jablon, Dombro, & Dichtelmiller, p. 42). For example, a teacher mightobserve a child during indoor or outdoor play, at lunchtime, or during transitions. Tools for observation can be premade, obtained fromvarious resources, or constructed by the teacher. Observations should always be dated and the observer noted if multiple people areassessing the same group of children. Types of observational assessments include those described in Table 12.3.
Table 12.3: Observation-Based Assessments
What the teacher does while observing varies by the purpose, timing, and characteristics of the observational tool being used. Forinstance, an anecdotal record or note is an "after-the-fact" narrative; a teacher might make entries during planning time, at the end of aday or week while memory is fresh and events can be recalled accurately. A running record or time/event sampling is recorded in realtime as behavior is occurring. A teacher might use a checklist to observe and assess a child or group of children for vocabulary and socialinteraction skills while interacting with them during lunchtime or he or she might record the same kind of data while standing or sittingoff to the side as children build with blocks or engage in dramatic play.
Performance-Based Assessments and Developmental Checklists
Teachers sometimes conduct assessments with individual children in face-to-face interactions to determine their level of mastery ofparticular skills. Performance assessments provide information about what a child knows or does. The teacher may ask a child to performan action, such as scissor-cutting to assess motor skills. Or the teacher might ask a child to complete a task to assess the extent to whicha child has attained a cognitive skill such as one-to-one correspondence. She could select items from the classroom math or manipulativecenter, set them up in a line on the table, and ask the child to point to each item while counting, repeating the assessment as many timesas necessary to determine for sure what the child can do. Further, to document a child's reasoning ability, a teacher may ask the child todemonstrate how he or she might solve a problem such as dividing a set of objects into two equivalent sets and record information aboutthe child's ability to do so.
© Monkey Business / Thinkstock
Teachers create anecdotal records bymaking notes about each child, either on aregularly scheduled basis or as needed todocument behavior and observations. Thenarrative record about learning that buildsover time may be used for many purposes.
The main advantage of this type of assessment is the opportunity to use materials familiar tothe child in a context where you can also ask questions and invite the child to explain his orher thinking or reasoning. As discussed in earlier chapters, many of the state standardsdocuments provide examples of things you should be observing as indicators that eachcriterion is being met. These "snapshots" can be very helpful as suggestions for skillsassessments.
Some teachers do performance assessments on a predetermined schedule, such as twochildren per week for a particular set of skills; others do so on an as-needed basis forcompiling conferencing reports or completing comprehensive developmental checklists.
Artifacts and Work Sampling
An artifact is a concrete sample of work produced by a child, such as a journal page, painting,photograph of a block construction, or recording of a child speaking or reading. Artifactsprovide direct evidence of what a child can do, and a collection of artifacts contributes to theteacher's understanding of growth and learning.
Teachers employ work sampling by selectively choosing and saving artifacts that reflectcurriculum goals and developmental benchmarks. The Work Sampling System developed bySamuel J. Meisels and colleagues (2012) is used by many early childhood programs, includinga version specifically designed for Head Start.
Self-Assessment
Even very young children can provide information about what they know and what they cando through self-assessment, which helps teachers document their growth and learning.Sometimes self-assessment occurs naturally through conversation or verbal interactions. Forinstance, a 3-year-old might say "My jacket is wrong" as he tries to close the snaps before going outside. The teacher observes that he hasfastened some snaps but that they are not matched correctly. Therefore she knows that he does indeed have the fine motor skill neededto press the two pieces of a snap closure together and that he realizes they also need to be matched properly.
A kindergarten child may come to the teacher with his writing journal and state, "I know the word "papa" starts with "p" but I don'tknow what letter comes next, "o" or "a." This statement reveals that the child has already narrowed down the sound that follows p to twoviable alternatives, one that represents the sound he hears and the other perhaps an indication of emerging knowledge that words aren'talways spelled the way they sound.
© Digital Vision / Thinkstock
Teachers selectively choose learning artifacts, such as achild's artwork, to represent evidence of growth andchange over time.
In other instances, teachers intentionally engage children in self-assessment in ashort interview or conference. For example, upon completion of a study of birds,the teacher might ask each child, "What birds do you know about now that youdidn't before? Can you tell me some things you learned about them?" Or, after achild has spent several days building an airport in the block center, the teachercould show the child several pictures of the structure in progress and ask,"What was the hardest part of building the airport? I see that you made aparking garage with a ramp, can you tell me how you figured out a way to makethe roof? How did you decide when the airport was finished?"
Writing conferences with children allow for a child to isolate specific problemsencountered or challenges overcome, such as circling words in the draft of astory that might be misspelled or underlining words the child is confidentabout.
Similarly, a teacher can engage a child in making evaluative judgments. Forinstance, she could ask the child to look at two different paintings and choosethe one that represents his best effort and to explain why he thinks so. Or shecould give him two different highlighters with which to identify his best examples of written letters and ones he needs to practice more.
The value of self-assessment is that it gives voice to a child's ideas about her own strengths and weaknesses and contributes toconstructing an image of herself as a partner in the learning process. The child's observations may be congruent with the teacher'sindependent evaluations, identify misperceptions the child might have about her skills, or provide additional factors for the teacher toconsider.
Identifying Children with Special Needs
Each state is required to provide a process for referring, evaluating, and implementing early intervention services for young children asneeded under the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). Part C of IDEA focuses onchildren from birth through age 2, and Part B covers individuals aged 3 through 21.
Providing support for children with disabilities is a collaborative process, and part of your role in assessment is noting and sharingobservations with families when you see indications that a child may be showing signs of developmental delay or atypical behavior. Yourconcerns should be noted with a high level of sensitivity, as parents often feel anxious or confused and may need help with initiating areferral request.
Teachers play an integral role in thesupport system for children and familieswith special needs.
As an early childhood educator or caregiver, you will be part of an assessment team thatdetermines the possible existence of delays or disabilities that constitute eligibility forservices and, second, ensures that your curriculum and assessment strategies support thosechildren who do need extra help (Division for Early Childhood of the Council for ExceptionalChildren, 2007). If a child in your care is determined to be eligible for services, you will alsoparticipate in documenting the child's progress toward goals that are established andperiodically revised in the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or Individualized FamilyService Plan (IFSP). The kinds of authentic assessment strategies and tools described in thischapter are preferred:
Because the participants or informants for most criterion- or curriculum-basedassessments are teachers and care providers who know the child best, these assessments[e.g., anecdotal records, performance assessments, work sampling, etc.] may be moreefficient and may also facilitate the development of collaborative partnerships. Resultsalso provide a direct and functional link to IFSP/IEP development, curriculum planning,and implementation. The information collected can easily be translated for use ininstruction. (DEC, 2007 p. 14)
Children who may not qualify for the specialized education outlined in an IEP or ISFP but whohave a disability such as an illness, injury, or chronic condition such as asthma or allergies arealso protected under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with DisabilitiesAct. This provision declares that all children with disabilities are entitled to accommodationsso that they may fully participate in public school activities. A "504" plan might include suchthings as a wheelchair ramp, peanut-free environment, or keeping an inhaler at school (U.S. Department of Education, 2012).
Week 3 Assignment Instructor guidance
Assignment: Assessment Data to Guide Practice
For your assignment this week you are focusing your attention on observation, “one of the most widely used methods of assessment” (Morrison, 2009). Observation is defined as “the intentional, systematic act of looking at the behavior of a child in a particular setting, program, or situation” (pg. 69). It might surprise you to know the number of new teachers who feel that observation is “simple” because it just involves watching. This could not be further from the truth behind what observation is. In fact, if you reread the definition provided above, you will notice the word “systematic” is used. Morrison (2009) states, “the significance and importance of critical behaviors may go undetected if observation is done casually and is limited to unsystematic looking” (pg. 69). Teachers must have a plan for how to conduct observation on any given day, but also overall in their classrooms (you will actually be tackling this very thing this week). Subsequently, another mistake in thought process is that observation is only used to determine if a child is grasping a particular skill. While this is definitely one of the functions of observation, as Wortham (2012) states, it can (and should) also be used to assess a child’s behavior and for “the teacher to get to know the child as a unique individual, rather than as a member of a group” (p. 116). As teachers and caregivers, if you strive to find concrete information out about your students to use in planning, reporting, or conferencing with families, observation is a crucial part of this! As your text shows there is a definite process to observing your students, as well as many varied types of observation. That is where your work starts for this assignment. To prepare for this assignment, consider the following scenario:
Next, review the resources for Anecdotal Records, the Rating Scale, and the Checklist provided for you within the classroom. You will use the instructions below to guide your creation of your curriculum plan based on the assessment data in the resources. Remember, this plan is to be in the form of a 2-3 page Word document that includes the following:
1. Introduction: Write a brief introduction that informs the reader of the topic of the assignment and its organization. Remember, an effective essay introduction tells the reader what you will discuss in your paper.
2. Assessment Observations: Describe the observations that you made from the data using several examples from the assessments (1-2 paragraphs).
3. Child Observations: Describe the strengths and areas of opportunity (i.e., weaknesses) for the child based on the assessment data (3-4 paragraphs).
4. Short-Term Goal: Explain three specific instructional decisions for a short-term goal for the child based on the data analysis (3-4 paragraphs).
5. Long-Term Goal: Explain one specific long-term goal for the child based on the data analysis (1-2 paragraphs).
6. Conclusion: Write a short conclusion that informs the reader of the main points from the assignment. Remember, an effective essay conclusion summarizes what you have discussed in your paper.
Writing Tips:
· Use APA formatting consistently throughout the assignment, which includes citations in the body of the assignment, the title page, and references list.
· Remember to reference three scholarly sources in addition to Jaruszewicz text (so four total).
· Remember your paper is to be two-to-three pages, not including the title and references pages.