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TRAINING RESEARCH

The purpose of studies described in this section was to evaluate effectiveness of training in terms of behavior change. This was generally accomplished by measuring behavior and evaluating performance before and after training.

Fawcett and Miller (1975) conducted a training study designed to improve public speaking. Topics included how to structure a talk (e.g., acknowledging the introduction, statement of appreciation to introducer, greeting the audience, topic introduction) and body movements such as hand movement and eye sweeps. The program included written instructions, role-playing, and performance feedback. Results showed the program effectively increased the frequency of target behavior and the speaker's performance ratings by members of the audience.

Maher (1981a) described a training project within which special educators were taught how to develop individualized educational programs (IEPs) for special education students. The program concentrated on discussing the essential roles of IEP components and skill development in developing educational goals and objectives. Training in group conflict management also was provided. Results indicated productivity with respect to developing IEPs improved among educators involved in the training project.

Hall and Hursch (1981/82) found that reading the training manual and holding meetings with a consultant increased the amount of time four university faculty spent on important tasks. Self-reports of efficiency and satisfaction also improved. One notable contribution of this study is that the authors presented information on ways to obtain accurate, reliable, nonreactive measures of time use. Some of the problems associated with those methods complemented other work on reactivity in behavioral observation (Haynes and Horn, 1982).

Maher (1982) also successfully implemented a time management program to increase the amount of time nine classroom teachers devoted to instructional behavior such as lecturing and holding discussions. Program components included diagnosing time management skills, analyzing time management problems, developing and implementing a plan for more productive use of time, and an evaluation phase in which trainees learned how to evaluate their progress in the use of time management. The program also included monthly social support meetings designed to facilitate generalization and maintenance.

Maher (1984) described and evaluated a training program designed to teach administrators OBM skills. Topics covered included problem identification, program design, implementation, behavior consequences, program evaluation, and staff involvement in the intervention. Results suggested the trainees were able to apply OBM techniques to improve organizational performance.

Bruwelheide and Duncan (1985) described a means by which an organization's labor relations course was evaluated. Supervisors received training and then scored a videotape on the degree to which the videotaped models adhered to the program principles. Results showed that subjects did better on the posttest than the pretest and that the trained group performed better on the test than a group that did not receive training. While scoring the participants’ performance in role-playing sessions would have enhanced the meaningfulness of the learning measure, what was noteworthy in this study is that the authors attempted to assess the opportunities to engage in these behaviors both before and after training. This is important because practitioners can determine the percentage of opportunities on which responses were emitted and adjust absolute frequency accordingly.

Welsh et al. (1989) extended work on improving meeting effectiveness (Briscoe, Hoffman, and Bailey, 1975; Seekins, Mathews, and Fawcett, 1984) by developing a manual designed to improve the performance of meeting chairs. The manual required little facilitator time and resulted in improved performance on a skills generalization test.

Nordstrom, Lorenzi, and Hall (1990) instructed managers in city government on OBM techniques. Results from skill acquisition and performance measures showed that the managers learned the material and employee performance improved. Managers also were satisfied with the program.

Hopkins and colleagues (1986) conducted an intervention designed to reduce employee exposure to toxic chemicals. Training consisted of a description of behaviors that would reduce exposure, along with a rationale of why those behaviors would work. Modeling, answering trainee questions, daily feedback, and reinforcement were other intervention components. Results showed that the program worked.

Johnson and Fawcett (1994) trained three receptionists of a human service agency to increase their frequency of courteous behavior. They provided trainees with written instructions, practice, and feedback on performance. The authors also implemented a lottery system to enhance maintenance. While some of the target behaviors appear to be outside the boundaries of courteous service (e.g., asking closed-ended questions when requesting factual information), the research is interesting and results documented program effectiveness.

Wilson, Boni, and Hogg (1997) describe an intervention designed to enhance courteous behavior of two police officers and five public servants. The authors identified the target behaviors through on-the-job observation, a literature review, and a survey. Target behaviors included failing to smile or having a sullen expression, failing to give an appropriate greeting, keeping the customer waiting without acknowledgment, talking to a colleague while attending to the customer, having an abrupt or unfriendly tone of voice, failing to give the customer full attention, and ending the exchange abruptly. The training program included videos, discussions, and handouts describing the target behaviors. One video illustrated a discourteous interaction. The trainer played the video again while stopping the tape at various times to discuss the model's behavior. Trainees also viewed a modeling display of appropriate behavior. The trainees’ supervisors also participated in a training session designed to teach them how to reinforce courteous behavior in subordinates and to correct instances of discourteous acts. Results showed that the frequency of courteous behavior increased and that there was greater uniformity among the public servants’ percentages of courteous behavior following the workshop. However, performance decreased after a period of time.

Summary

A reasonable conclusion based on the ongoing research is that training is a useful technique for changing a variety of behaviors. What researchers need to ask and to investigate further is the question of why training is effective in changing behavior. Understanding why training works is important because it enables researchers to develop better programs for the target behaviors. For example, Maher (1982) described and evaluated a time management program that appeared to have been logically developed. Although we can conclude that the program was effective, we do not know whether the methods used were the most effective means by which people acquired skills such as analyzing time management problems. Incorporating the findings of the basic literature on learning theory into program development and validating those findings is one strategy that would increase our understanding of training and skill acquisition of employees.

COMPARISON RESEARCH

Comparison research typically involves determining which of two or more interventions is the most effective or efficient in changing behavior. Studies reviewed here compared different training techniques or compared training to other interventions.

Adams, Tallon, and Rimell (1980) compared the performance of trainees who received either a lecture on how to use positive reinforcement, or role-playing exercises supplemented with feedback. The performance of people who received the lecture improved initially after training, but declined thereafter. On the other hand, the performance of those who were involved in role-playing improved over time.

Brown and colleagues (1980) examined the effectiveness of training and feedback on customer service behaviors such as approaching customers, greeting them, and demonstrating courtesy. The four-hour program covered the company's courtesy standards, the relationship between customer service and performance appraisals, and listening skills and complaint handling. Training activities included viewing models, completing worksheets, and role-playing. Results showed that training had little effect on performance, but feedback improved performance dramatically. One feature of the investigation was the demonstration that the trained behaviors were associated with an important organizational outcome (customer satisfaction). One salesperson was told to perform alternately all of the target customer responses and then none of the behaviors for customer transactions. On average, customers who were recipients of the trained behaviors reported they were more satisfied than customers who were not exposed to the trained behaviors.

Maher (1981b) examined the differential effects of an active learning program (ALP) and an instructional learning program (ILP) in the development of educational programs. The author used social learning theory principles (Bandura, 1969) to develop the ALP. The ALP emphasized discussion, rehearsal, feedback, and social reinforcement. The ILP emphasized lectures, discussion, and formal didactic presentations. Trainee performance was evaluated in terms of quality and quantity of educational programs developed after training. Results showed that the active learning program was more effective than the ILP. However, we do not know what aspects of the ALP resulted in the program's superiority over the ILP. That is, we do not know the differential contributing effects of ALP components such as rehearsal or feedback. Moreover, the ALP program included homework assignments whereas the ILP did not. The impact of homework assignments on productivity, that is, above and beyond the ALP, remains undetermined.

Hanel, Martin, and Koop (1982) prepared a self-study time management guide and compared the effectiveness of that manual in developing and maintaining time management to that of a bestselling time management book. Participants in the self-instructional group were asked to work on the manual for one hour each day for eight days. People who used the popular-press book were asked to read it, which the researchers said could be accomplished within eight hours. Subjects in the self-study time management guide group also were given guidelines on how to use the manual; people in the bestseller group did not receive guidelines. The manual contained exercises, thereby enabling the participants to take a more active role in the learning process than subjects in the bestseller group. Results showed that the self-instructional group performed better than the bestseller group, although no rationale was offered as to why performance differences were expected. Moreover, although not assessed directly, guidelines on how to use the manual and supplemental exercises provided to the manual group may have enhanced subsequent performance.

Ford (1984) examined training in a health care facility. Specifically, he compared the relative effectiveness of a traditional training approach with a personalized system of instruction (PSI) approach. The traditional training methods included lectures, videotapes, films, and demonstrations. The personalized system of instruction in this study included features such as self-paced instruction, subject mastery before moving to new material, being able to work on multiple units simultaneously, and allowances for repeating performance evaluations. People trained with the PSI approach performed better on the training learning measures and received higher supervisory on-the-job performance ratings than those using the traditional approach. Training efficiency indices also were compared in this study. The percentage of people participating in the PSI approach who completed the program was greater than the percentage of people completing the alternative method (100 percent versus 73 percent). In addition, it took less time for the PSI participants to complete the program (47.32 hours versus 165 hours). Clearly, the PSI approach was more effective and efficient than the traditional learning approach.

Born, Gledhill, and Davis (1972) compared learning by subjects exposed to different instructional methods. One group received instruction via lectures; two other groups each received one of two types of PSI instruction; and a fourth group rotated among the three methods. Students in the PSI sessions performed better on tests than students who received lectures, especially on essay and fill-in-the-blank tests. Poor and average students appeared to obtain the most benefit from PSI.

Born and Davis (1974) also found that students scored slightly higher on knowledge tests after using the PSI approach than after the lecture method. The PSI approach also appears to have been the most costeffective method, as the preparation time for the two instructional methods were equivalent.

Neef and colleagues (1991) conducted two studies that essentially examined the effectiveness of modeling and role-playing. Respite care providers viewed videotapes of models providing respite care alone, with one other person, or as part of a group. Overall training appeared effective as skills acquired during instruction generalized to the job and in many instances were maintained up to six months. The authors also reported that presentation format had no effect on performance. The experiment was replicated with subject participants from human service agencies. Results indicated that training improved performance, but presentation format (alone, dyad, and group) had no effect on behavior.

Karlsson and Chase (1996) examined effects of prompting procedures on college student acquisition of a computer spreadsheet program. Continuous prompting involves telling the learner what keys to punch during the entire learning process. Fading is a strategy involving a gradual transfer of stimulus control from the instructions to the computer interface (e.g., keyboard or mouse). One type of fading had students guess at which keys to punch. The time interval before being told the correct response increased on successive trials (i.e., prompt delay). The second fading strategy involved discrimination (i.e., additional choices). Students had to identify which keys to punch where the number of incorrect alternatives increased over successive trials. Results showed that the college students who had received continuous prompting made approximately twice as many errors on a posttest than students receiving either of the two fading strategies. Their theoretically-based research clearly documents the advantages of having trainees take an active role in the learning process.

Summary

The research reviewed here shows that training methods are differentially effective, although the quality and quantity of training such as the use of homework was not always controlled. What OBM researchers need to discover is why certain training techniques are better suited for developing target behavior than other methods. For example, Ford (1984) demonstrated the superiority of the PSI approach over the lecture method; however, we cannot determine from the research why the program was best suited for the target behaviors trained. An extension of the research reported here would (a) clearly specify the target behavior to be trained, and (b) identify the training methods best suited for development of the behavior through application of basic research on instructional design. A systematic program of research of this nature should lead to the development of guidelines that would enable trainers to match training methods with different classes of target behaviors.

TRAINING AND MOTIVATION

Training is best suited for developing skills; it is not a very efficient tool for resolving motivational problems unless the instructional experiences target self-management behavior (e.g., Frayne and Latham, 1987; Latham and Frayne, 1989). The OBM research reviewed in this section illustrates that training is not a panacea for all organizational problems.

Quilitch (1975) compared the effects of memos, a workshop, and publicly posted feedback on employee attendance. Results indicated that neither the attendance memos nor training were effective in improving attendance. Feedback was the only intervention that improved attendance. In this situation training was not warranted. The root of the problem was motivational. Trainees did not exhibit a skill deficit; they demonstrated the ability to come to work but did not do so on a consistent basis.

Geller and colleagues (1980) examined the relative effectiveness of a memo stressing the importance of practicing sanitation principles (hand washing), training, and feedback for improving cafeteria employees’ sanitation behavior. After collecting baseline data, some employees received a one-paragraph memo about videotaping them as part of a project focusing on hand washing. Some of the employees received training a few days later. Training consisted of a thirty-minute lecture and slide presentation on the importance of sanitation, defining conditions that should be followed by hand washing, and proper hand washing procedures. Performance feedback commenced ten days following training. Results found the memo to be initially effective in increasing hand washing frequency, especially for conditions that should be followed by hand washing, such as after touching hair. Training effects also were weak. Feedback had the most pronounced effects on sanitation behavior for both the trained and untrained employees.

The Geller and colleagues (1980) study is another illustration of a motivational issue, not a training problem. Training did not appear necessary as the data showed that the no-training group performed as well as the subjects in the training group when both groups received performance feedback. While it is possible that the feedback checklist sheets that subjects received taught nontrainees when to wash their hands, no supporting evidence was presented.

Conrin (1982) compared the relative effects of training programs designed to improve the completion of projects versus setting a target date for completing projects. The investigation included four phases. The first part was a training phase in which trainees were given written instructions on how to complete behavioral data sheets and weekly behavioral reports on clients of a developmental center. The trainer (the employees’ supervisor) stressed the importance of correctly completing the data sheets, explained the data system, reviewed sample reports, and answered questions during training. A psychologist gave the trainees blank data report forms requesting that they be completed by a predetermined date in the study's second phase. The psychologist gave the trainees blank data sheets with no completion deadline during the third phase of the investigation. The fourth phase was identical to the second phase in that a target date was assigned. Results indicated that trainees performed worst under the training-alone phase. Reports were on average twenty days late. Trainees performed best when given a deadline, where reports were on average two days late. Reports were submitted an average of nine days late during the third phase. The author concluded that the target date procedure was more effective than training in improving performance.

LaFleur and Hyten (1995) illustrate the importance of specifying work procedures and organizing the various job functions among hotel banquet staff. Hotel staff exhibited problems setting out all necessary equipment for banquet functions (e.g., napkins). Problems completing work as a unit also occurred because supervisors would assign staff identical tasks while leaving other tasks unassigned. The authors also noted that they could not identify deficiencies in the staff that precluded successful job performance. The treatment package included goal setting, feedback, a training manual, and a task checklist that were reviewed with the trainees as part of a training workshop. Results showed that the total intervention succeeded in changing staff behavior. However, it appears that training may have had little impact on performance. Employees who received the training prior to a second baseline data collection period did not have markedly different setup completion rates than the rates of recently hired employees who did not participate in training prior to the second baseline data collection period.

Summary

Successful training depends on several factors. As mentioned in the previous section, specifying the target behavior is critical. An analysis of whether the current behavior is a function of motivation or a skill deficit is equally important because, as each of the studies in this section show, training is not an effective tool for improving inadequate performance due to lack of effort. For example, the central issue in Conrin's (1982) research involved motivation, not skill deficits. Skills training is not appropriate in situations where people already possess skills needed to execute desired behavior. Self-management training (Kanfer, 1980; Marx, 1982) or the use of motivational strategies such as goal setting (Locke and Latham, 1990) and contingent reinforcement (Kazdin, 1994; Komaki, 1981/82) are more appropriate.

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

Several OBM papers have focused on, or have implications for, program development. Maher (1983) described a way to implement programs that included a framework from which implementation procedures can be derived. The implementation procedure was called DURABLE. The first step in this seven-step procedure, D (durable), is to meet with important people and/or groups in the organization to discuss the proposed intervention. U (understanding) refers to determining whether the organization is ready for program implementation (cf. Davis and Salasin, 1975). R (reinforcing) requires that management reinforce the behavior of those responsible for implementing the intervention. A (acquiring preconditions of successful implementation) includes ensuring that the goals of the program are clearly communicated and obtaining the budget necessary for successful implementation. B (building) reflects the importance of management exhibiting positive expectations about the program to the organization's staff. L (learning) includes providing activities to the implementors that enhance their ability to perform their assignments. Finally, E (evaluating) refers to assessing the extent to which the program was implemented, and the degree to which the program succeeded.

This article is important for two main reasons. First, it emphasized identification of organizational contextual factors to consider before implementing training (cf. Goldstein, 1991). The sample questions Maher provides are also noteworthy and should help practitioners gauge the likelihood of an intervention's success.

Behavior taught in training should have support in terms of whether emitting those behaviors actually leads to improved performance. Surprisingly, there has been little systematic OBM research on the identification of the most important behavior to train prior to program implementation. Clark and colleagues (1985) conducted research that is one notable exception. They surveyed subordinates regarding the type of supervisory skills they believed to be important in improving their satisfaction and productivity. Other individuals observed videotapes of supervisors and identified those behaviors likely to improve productivity and job satisfaction. The authors also conducted a literature search to identify good supervisory behavior. Clark et al. developed vignettes containing interactions based on the facilitative behaviors identified as well as interactions and behaviors that were believed to have negative and no effect on performance. Judges observed the vignettes and identified behaviors they felt would improve, maintain, or decrease performance. The authors developed a training program based on the principles identified as important in improving job performance. The program was found to be an effective means of improving supervisor behavior.

Alavosius and Sulzer-Azaroff (1986) studied the effects of feedback on safe lifting behavior. Although not a training study per se, the study is included here because it illustrates how to conduct a thorough task analysis. The authors based their analysis of the steps involved in safe lifting by reviewing training materials, consulting with a physical therapist, and reviewing the lifting literature.

Jones, Fremouw, and Carples (1977) conducted an interesting study examining the behavior of former trainees who became trainers. Three teachers were trained in classroom management. These three trainees then became trainers who instructed other teachers in classroom management. Results showed that the training worked. The frequency of student disruptive behavior decreased in the trainee-trainers’ classrooms as well as in the other teachers’ classrooms. One noteworthy feature of the project is the effects of becoming a trainer on classroom management performance. The two trainee-trainers who profited least from their original training improved their classroom management performance after training other teachers.

Van den Pol, Reid, and Fuqua (1983) extended our knowledge of peer training. They trained directcare staff of a residential facility how to respond to fires, manage aggressive resident behavior, and aid residents experiencing convulsive seizures. Peer training was successful. What makes this study noteworthy is that the authors monitored the trainers’ behavior after they provided instruction to others. The process of training others resulted in further development of the trainers’ own skills in the topics they taught. Trainer performance in topics not taught declined over time. The van den Pol, Reid, and Fuqua (1983) and Jones, Fremouw, and Carples (1977) studies demonstrate the importance of spaced practice in learning. Using former trainees as trainers is one way of providing them with the opportunity to recall and practice previously acquired skills, which is important for generalization and maintenance of their own learned skills.

Summary

The research described here showed that the way programs are developed impacts training. Researchers should extend this body of literature by specifying the linkages among learning theory, instructional design, and target behavior. Knowledge of the linkages could be used to develop efficient and effective training programs. For example, incorporating spaced practice in the design of the program is one way to increase maintenance of the behaviors Jones, Fremouw, and Carples (1977) and van den Pol, Reid, and Fuqua (1983) investigated.

CRITIQUE AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Training and development of individuals in organizations has received a great deal of attention from OBM researchers. To date, investigations focusing on skill acquisition are in the minority relative to the number of studies examining the efficacy of reinforcement (Komaki, Blood, and Holder, 1980; Runion, Watson, and McWhorter, 1978). This is not surprising given radical behaviorism's emphasis on consequences in behavior repertoire development.

We can conclude from the OBM training research that training is an effective intervention. Organizational behavior management researchers and practitioners also know how to ensure generalization and maintenance of skills acquired in training. Illustrations in the OBM literature also describe how training fits into a broad range of techniques designed to bring about behavior change. On the other hand, we have not learned much about the generalizability of learning theory concepts in employment settings. There is a gap in the OBM training literature regarding knowledge of which instructional methods or combinations thereof are maximally effective in facilitating learning for classes of target behavior. Finally, we cannot conclude confidently that many of the programs were costeffec-tive.

Learning Principles

Little has been mentioned in the OBM training literature concerning how laboratory-based learning principles (see Bower and Hilgard, 1981; Catania, 1992; Honig and Staddon, 1977; Mazur, 1990) are incorporated into instructional techniques. It is almost as if readers have to accept at face value that developers designed training programs to facilitate and maximize acquisition and retention. One consequence is that little of the research reviewed here advanced our knowledge about the generalizability of basic learning principles to normal adults functioning in work settings. Although this assertion should not be construed as a criticism of OBM for overemphasizing technology (cf. Geller, 1991), more research needs to be done to increase understanding of human behavior in the laboratory and in applied settings.

Studying learning theory concepts is necessary to increase Understanding of how people acquire skills. For example, induction, shaping, and fading are all important concepts in understanding how learning occurs; however, I could not find one OBM study that specifically addressed how these concepts can be used to train employees more efficiently.

Investigations are needed that improve our understanding of how strategies based on learning concepts such as induction, fading, and shaping enhance and/or detract from the acquisition of taxonomies of target work behaviors. Karlsson and Chase's (1996) work with college students’ acquisition of a spreadsheet program is one excellent illustration of needed research. Another avenue of applied organizational research that is tied to basic learning theory is to conduct experiments that lead to development of a theoretically based set of rules indicating how to best shape the skills necessary to troubleshoot malfunctions in machinery.

Program Structure

In most of the articles reviewed here, researchers merely described the training without explaining why they chose the instructional methods. In some studies, authors described the training program in only one or two sentences (see Johnson and Fawcett, 1994, for an exception). Organizational behavior management researchers need to focus more attention on program design. Describing program design and why it is suited for development of the target behavior serves two purposes. It allows for empirical evaluation of instructional techniques and enables readers to judge the degree to which the training method adheres to sound instructional principles.

Organizational behavior management researchers and practitioners need to consider why certain training techniques are thought to be more effective and under what conditions they should be maximally effective (e.g., course content, purpose of training, etc.). Gagne's framework (Gag-ne, 1985; Gagne, Briggs, and Wager, 1988) is relevant here. He described different learning outcomes and the conditions needed to facilitate the learning of those outcomes. Applying Gagne's framework to training involves specifying the target behavior, classifying the target behavior in type of learning outcomes, and arranging instruction so that the relevant conditions for learning are present (see Resnick, Wang, and Kaplan [1973] for an illustration). Research of this kind is needed in OBM.

One method that has been used to evaluate different training strategies is comparative research. Researchers who wish to conduct comparative studies should review Van Houten (1987) and Johnston (1988). Van Houten (1987) claimed that one cannot indiscriminately compare training programs without ensuring that each program is optimally effective. To compare two programs (e.g., Programs A and B) where Program B is not optimally developed, and then conclude that Program A is superior to Program B is misleading because we do not know whether differences would have existed had Program B been developed adequately. While it is difficult to discern whether most interventions in the comparison research section of this chapter were optimally developed, Van Houten's article deserves attention because some comparative intervention research described previously did not appear to make fair comparisons.

Johnston (1988) questioned the value of comparison research for a variety of reasons, one of which being that the primary focus of comparison research is on understanding procedures rather than understanding behavior. He believes, like Van Houten (1987), that a full understanding of the behavior and the intervention is required before comparison studies are conducted. Doing otherwise leads to results that have poor generality. Johnston (1988) also adds that achieving full understanding is a highly unlikely event. In the event that complete understanding is achieved, it may be obvious which procedure is better, thereby obviating the need to conduct comparison research.

Van Houten (1987) and Johnston's (1988) papers have somewhat different implications for organizational behavior management researchers. While Van Houten (1987) suggests that comparison research is important provided that the programs compared are optimally developed, Johnston (1988) implies that comparison research may not be necessary in most instances.

One tactic that bridges the views of both authors is component analysis. Component analysis is used to understand the relative and/or additive contributions of a part, or several parts, of a strategy designed to predict and control a target behavior. It is accomplished by manipulating the exposure of trainees to features of the training program (e.g., role-playing exercises), and assessing the impact of the manipulation on behavior. In and of itself, a component analysis is not a research design. Rather, it is a tactic that can be employed in a variety of within- and between-subject research designs. Proper component analysis research requires specification of the task, identification of the desired learning outcome, and an explanation of the rationale behind the application of basic research on instructional methods to training program development. Describing the rationale behind the intervention involves some discussion of why we would expect the component alteration/inclusion to modify behavior. Research incorporating component analysis tactics integrates Van Houten's (1987) and Johnston's (1988) comments because it provides a justification for the intervention or any program alteration, thereby (a) avoiding the appearance of indiscriminately comparing methods, and (b) focusing attention where it should be, on the target behavior. When done properly, component analysis research results enable investigators to ascertain what comDonents make the training intervention effective, and is useful in developing optimal training programs. Such research also increases under-standing of how to change behavior efficiently.

Utility

The reporting of cost-benefit analysis is the exception rather than the norm. Although the demonstration of utility poses unique challenges and may have unanticipated effects (Latham and Whyte, 1994), organizational decision-maker requests to justify training necessitates the documentation of training value (Morrow, Jarrett, and Rupinski, 1997). Some approaches to cost-benefit analysis in the OBM literature include comparing the cost-benefit ratios of two programs (Brown et al., 1980) and logic (Alavosius and Sulzer-Azaroff, 1986). An alternative means by which the value of a program is determined is through a utility analysis, in which the cost of a program is examined relative to the gain in productivity. Excellent references on how to estimate training/intervention costs are found in the industrial and organizational psychology literature (Cascio, 1982; Gold-stein, 1991).

More utility estimates should be reported in the OBM literature while concurrently being sensitive to the organization's need to remain competitive by keeping findings confidential (Balcazer et al., 1989). The recommendation to justify the costs of training is not new (Johnston et al., 1978; Mawhinney, 1975). Unfortunately, the call has not been heeded.

Perhaps one reason why there are few reports of utility in the OBM literature is that much of the training research occurred in mental retardation facilities. Programs designed to increase the effectiveness of people employed at mental retardation facilities are not likely to demonstrate economic utility. That is, the gain in dollars of improved client behavior as a result of staff training is not likely to outweigh the cost of the intervention. Evaluating these training programs in economic terms is inappropriate because decision makers may be tempted to conclude that such programs are not worthwhile.

Interventions aimed at helping directcare workers better manage the behavior of developmentally disabled clients of residential facilities should be evaluated on other criteria. For example, Fleming, Oliver, and Bolton (1996) collected data on trainee subordinates to assess, in part, the effectiveness of a supervisory training program. Methot and colleagues (1996) examined the effects of their training intervention on two levels of supervision, frontline staff, and client behavior. Another alternative to computing utility estimates on a single training intervention is to evaluate the utility of different training programs. Allison, Silverstein, and Galante (1992) illustrate the approach in their work on monetary incentive systems.

CONCLUSION

Organizational behavior management research has focused on evaluating the efficacy of training in a variety of settings. The studies reviewed in this chapter indicate that while not a cure-all, training can be an effective technique for changing behavior. Training is essential to certain behavior changes. That is, against a context of high instrumentality and great reinforcement value for performing well, absence of knowledge or skill needed to produce reinforcers will preclude both performance and receipt of reinforcers contingent on it.

Much remains to be learned about how to train employees in the job-related knowledge and skills they need to perform effectively. Understanding how to best structure instructional sequences to maximize learning and behavior change for complex jobs is just one of the challenges facing researchers and practitioners. I look forward to reading original research addressing this and other substantive issues.

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(Redmon)

Redmon, William K. Handbook of Organizational Performance. Routledge, 20130403. VitalBook file.

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