6 Page Speech Paper
mudalk
sources_and_facts.docx· A brief overview of the studies conducted that looked at interpersonal perception in light of gender and gender-role differences showed that there are many studies that showed differences between the genders in terms of ability to perceive interpersonal situations
· According to gender stereotypes, females are more interpersonally oriented than males and should therefore be more attuned to the interpersonal characteristics of other
· In fact, there is an extensive literature documenting women’s greater nonverbal sensitivity in making judgments of others. Hall (1987) reported that, in over 80 percent of the 120 studies she reviewed, women were more accurate than men in their judgments.
2. Hall, J. (2006). Women's and men's nonverbal communication: similarities, differences, stereotypes, and origins. In V. Manusov & M. L. Patterson The SAGE handbook of nonverbal communication (pp. 201-218). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Ltd. doi: 10.4135/9781412976152.n11
http://sk.sagepub.com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/reference/hdbk_nonverbalcomm/n11.xml
· The 1984 analysis found that when adolescents and adults were interacting with others, there was clear evidence based on 23 studies that women smiled more than men.
· five out of six published studies reviewed by Hall (1984) that measured objectively the extent or frequency of facial movements in adults found that women's faces were significantly more expressive than men's.
· In terms of speech-dependent hand movements and other movements of the head and arms, Hall (1984) concluded, based on 15 studies, that women engage in more expressive movements during conversation than men do.
· Men were observed to be more restless (e.g., foot and leg movements, body shifts, fidgeting; 14 results), more expansive (e.g., wide knees, legs, or arms; six results), more relaxed (e.g., trunk lean, reclining, feet on table; six results), and less involved (e.g., nods, forward lean; 18 results) than were women (Hall, 1984).
· Hall (1984) and Stier and Hall (1984) concluded that, in general, women were more likely to touch others than men were, based on 20 studies of children and 18 studies of adults.
· five studies of children and 18 studies of adults indicated that females oriented their heads and bodies more directly toward a conversation partner than males did.
· Men's voices tend to be louder and lower pitched and to contain more speech disturbances (e.g., repetitions, omissions, stutters, sentence incompletions); men also tend to use fewer listener responses such as “uh-huh” and “I see” while listening to another speak (called back-channel responses) and more filled pauses (filled with sounds such as “uhh”).
· men's voices were rated as different from women's on a number of global qualities—for example, less pleasant, more dominant, less enthusiastic, and less anxious.
· A comparison between the stereotypes and the actual gender differences indicates there can be no doubt that the stereotypes are overwhelmingly correct in substance.
· Kinesics - refers to the study of hand, arm, body, and face movements
· Head Movements - used to acknowledge others and communicate interest or attentiveness
· Head nod is a universal sign of acknowledgement in cultures where the formal bow is no longer used as a greeting
· Oculesics - The study of eye behaviors as nonverbal communication.
· Eye contact serves several communicative functions ranging from regulating interaction to monitoring interaction, to conveying information, to establishing interpersonal connections.
· Our eyes bring in the visual information we need to interpret people’s movements, gestures, and eye contact.
· eye contact helps establish rapport or connection
· Facial Expressions - Much research has supported the universality of a core group of facial expressions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust. The first four are especially identifiable across cultures.
· Vocalics is the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal qualities that go along with verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers
· volume helps communicate intensity. A louder voice is usually thought of as more intense, although a soft voice combined with a certain tone and facial expression can be just as intense
· People typically find pleasing voices that employ vocal variety and are not monotone, are lower pitched (particularly for males), and do not exhibit particular regional accents. Many people perceive nasal voices negatively and assign negative personality characteristics to them
· Proxemics refers to the study of how space and distance influence communication
· Territoriality is an innate drive to take up and defend spaces. This drive is shared by many creatures and entities, ranging from packs of animals to individual humans to nations
· There are three main divisions for territory: primary, secondary, and public.
4. Spangler, L. (1995). Gender-Specific Nonverbal Communication: Impact for Speaker Effectiveness. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 6(4), 409-419.
· A simple definition of nonverbal behavior was offered by Ellyson and Dovidio (1985) as "behavior that is not part of formal, verbal language"
· Henley (1977) explained that nonverbal communication is "how we say things with our body postures and movements, facial expressions, gestures, touching, eye contact, use of space, and so on"
· Research has indicated distinctive nonverbal communication gender differences. Several gender differences "are that women tend to smile more frequently, have more eye contact, and take up less space in proportion to their body size than men, while men initiate touch and interrupt more often than women" (Henley, 1977)
· Henley (1975) cautioned that "since males are likely to have more status and power than females, it may be difficult to determine whether sex or status is the appropriate variable to be associated with a particular behavior" (p. 187).
· Hall and Halberstadt (1986), According to their analysis of sixty-two studies of gazing in adults, females maintain eye contact significantly more than males do. One reason why women are more likely to maintain eye contact may be that they look for nonverbal behavior because they are better decoders.
· There is another reason for women's greater eye contact: the listener in a conversation tends to look at the speaker rather than vice versa (Duncan, 1969; Exline, 1963) and men tend to talk more than women do (Argyle, Lalljee, and Cook, 1968)
· Rachkowski and O'Grady (1988) noted several variations in hand movements. Females often had graceful hand movements from the elbow but male move- ments were precise and generally originated from the shoulder. Firm wrist action was designated a male trait whereas bent or broken wrist action was perceived to be a feminine trait.
· Women use less space than men in small group interactions and during interpersonal acts (Evans and Howard, 1973).
· Concerning being approached or approaching another, female subjects allowed both males and females to approach them more closely than they approached others.
5. Kurien, D. N. (2010). Body Language: Silent Communicator at the Workplace. IUP Journal Of Soft Skills, 4(1/2), 29-36.
· A gesture is a nonverbal body movement which may be voluntary or involuntary. It expresses human emotions, a state of mind and also emphasizes an idea. Gestures are movements made with the body parts like hands, arms, fingers, head, legs, etc.
· A few common gestures are listed below: Hand Gestures, Arm Gestures, Mouth covering gesture, etc.
· proxemics’ which is the study of man’s appreciation and use of space when communicating.
· Edward T Hall defined four zones which suggested the use of space so as not to impinge on other’s freedom. The first zone is the intimate zone (0-0.5 m) in which people may exercise personal touch. The second zone is the personal zone (0-1.2 m) where people can shake hands with each other. The third is the social zone (1.2-3 m) which is seen in daily encounters of a social or business nature. The fourth zone is the public zone (over 3 m) which ensures a good distance maintained between individuals.
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6. Briton, N. J., & Hall, J. A. (1995). Beliefs about female and male nonverbal communication. Sex Roles, 32(1-2), 79-90.
· These target gender main effects showed that participants rated hypothetical women significantly higher than hypothetical men on the following variables: interacting with other people at close dis- tances, recognizing faces, smiling, gazing, having an expressive face, paying attention to others' nonverbal cues, using the hands to communicate, laugh- ing, and having an expressive voice.
· Women were also perceived by our participants as having significantly better encoding and decoding skill than men.
· Participants rated hypothetical men significantly higher than women on the following variables: using speech dysfluencies such as stammers and false starts, interrupting others, having restless feet and legs, interspersing speech with "um" and "ah," speaking loudly, and touching themselves during interactions.
· Women were perceived by both male and female participants to be fluent, skilled, and involved communicators. Men were perceived as more dysfluent, less skilled, restless, and loud.
· This research suggests that beliefs about gender differences in non- verbal behaviors and skills are not unlike gender stereotypes for other forms of communication. Women were believed to possess greater skill and involvement in nonverbal communication, consistent with general sex-role stereotypes of women as more concerned with interpersonal relationships and the affiliative needs of others.
7. Hall, J. A., LeBeau, L. S., Reinoso, J. G., & Thayer, F. (2001). Status, Gender, and Nonverbal Behavior in Candid and Posed Photographs: A Study of Conversations Between University Employees. Sex Roles, 44(11-12), 677-692.
· the most notable was for smil- ing: there were no smiling differences for candid photographs but in posed photographs lower-status women smiled markedly more than lower-status men (the difference for higher-status individuals was also positive but did not achieve significance, p < .12).
· Turning now to nonverbal gender differences, we found some but not a large number of gender differences. Our findings that women tended to do more smiling and to have more erect posture and more forward lean are consistent with the literature (Hall, 1984).
8. Plant, E. A., Kling, K. C., & Smith, G. L. (2004). The Influence of Gender and Social Role on the Interpretation of Facial Expressions. Sex Roles, 51(3-4), 187-196.
· Therefore, in order to examine how gender influences the interpretation of adults’ emotional expressions, researchers have matched the expressions of male and female posers as closely as possible using Ekman and Friesen’s Facial Action Coding System (FACS; Ekman & Friesen, 1978). By using FACS, male and female posers can be trained to form facial expressions that are matched with respect to both the specific facial muscles that are moved and the intensity of the muscle movement.
· Plant et al. (2000) used this approach and found that the gender of the poser influenced the interpretation of facial expressions of emotion. For example, when the male and female posers made expressions that were FACS-equivalent blends of anger and sadness, the raters evaluated the expressions in a gender-consistent manner, such that female posers were rated as sadder and less angry than the male posers. In addition, when participants saw FACS-equivalent angry faces, they interpreted the anger expressions as angrier when the poser was male than when the poser was female
9. Semnani-Azad, Z., & Adair, W. L. (2011). The Display of 'Dominant' Nonverbal Cues in Negotiation: The Role of Culture and Gender. International Negotiation, 16(3), 451-479. doi:10.1163/157180611X592950
· Gender Differences in the Display of Dominant Nonverbal Behaviors
· Based on gender role stereotypes, men are viewed as dominant, aggressive, and extroverted, whereas females are viewed as nurturing, adaptive, and agreeable (Matsumoto 2004).
10. Bello, R. S., Brandau-Brown, F. E., Zhang, S., & Ragsdale, J. D. (2010). Verbal and nonverbal methods for expressing appreciation in friendships and romantic relationships: A cross-cultural comparison. International Journal Of Intercultural Relations, 34294-302. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.02.007
· First, a few studies suggest the possibility of gender differences, even if they are slight. For example, for women as well as for those who are more psychologically feminine, it is more important to treat Valentine's Day seriously as a special time to show appreciation to others (Ogletree, 1993). Also, men's friendships appear to be characterized by less concern for things like giving and receiving (Parker & de Vries, 1993) and gratitude acknowledgment (Katz et al., 2007).
· The basic answer to the research question posed about the role played by relationship type (friendship or romance) and gender in methods of expressing appreciation appears to be that there were no significant overall influences of either variable.
11. Reid, J. (1995). A study of gender differences in minimal responses. Journal Of Pragmatics, 24(5), 489-512. doi:10.1016/0378-2166(94)00066-N
12. Montague, E., Chen, P., Xu, J., Chewning, B., & Barrett, B. (2013). Nonverbal Interpersonal Interactions in Clinical Encounters and Patient Perceptions of Empathy. Journal Of Participatory Medicine, 51.
· Nonverbal communication is defined as the aspect of communication that information is exchanged through nonverbal cues which are not purely linguistic in content,[ 29] such as gesture, touch, posture, facial expression, eye contact, clothing and hairstyle.
· Eye gaze is a particular point of interest in nonverbal cues related to understanding trust, empathy, and rapport.
· Touch is another nonverbal interaction that is important for the development of empathy.
13. https://www.natcom.org/CommCurrentsArticle.aspx?id=749
UMUC Library Key Search Terms:
("nonverbal behavior" OR "nonverbal communication") AND (relationships) AND (men OR women OR male OR female)
