popular music and globalization

reading2bohlman_2002_globalization.pdf

Home >English homework help >popular music and globalization

Street musicians in the new Eastern Eufope

Edly cach weekday and Saturdar morning, ncrchants gather in tle markclplace ofclqj Napocr, Romari4 lo scll thei| ltares. Surrounded by ihe sterile md cnunbling ccmcnt edilices tlat make it dillicuh ibr Rommjans to forBet th€ $cialisl cconoDry t]rat dotuinatcd thcir naiioD fron the end of wo.ld war ll Dtil the 199os, thc Drnhdls oflhe Ch,j nufteqtrce sel evc.lthing, oid abd D.\r locally produced aDd nrtenatbnally ndulhclLrfed. There is a ldind ol pasl.nes rnd folkloric authcrlticily tharperwdes the ndrkctplacc.lD ndry bootlE sumpluors lcdihcr ADd 1trr Eoods arc 1br salc, and cloih goods piled hiSh:ud hdrging on lines stretched n om onc booih io ihe next catoh tb€ elt bccausc ol the colourful needle$'ork t}:t leads onc to beliel€ thtt thel dc troduccd bv cralislcoDle fi oh tbe CdrPdilitur Mouniaiis thtt dohinntc ccnlml 'l ftmsJlvnDia, where C\i is ihc calital ciry. TheDe'thanis, too, would bc dcso ibed by suidobooks os 'coknn tul' and Iblklikc'. obviNsly, mnnyhwedaivcd lbr lhc day 1l!n ihc $uloudnrg vilh6cs, oDlyto leave i}c city lator jn thc dry,lvhcD ihc o'irel closcs.lfwe t.ke the Sddcbooks liLe* ly, 'stou!tuI' nod 'lblklihc' nighirclcr to Lhc eLhDjc atrd racjal difcreDccs thal ,bourd id lhe

md (et. At LcAst lbrr lnngua8cs domindethe discussions flbouLthc sde of soods: Ron.ni.n, Hunsdrix!, 'lt ulhcDirn' (the SllNic lMsuasc ol LLc ccnlr.l Carydihians, wlich

'nixes Ukriininn md

Slovak in nlmcbus dia.lecrs), dd Roumy (the rndo-Etrrcpean raDsuage ofthe Roma). Thete,s no linsuaJian& i\ n)s markctpla@j not sen C{rmaD dd Enslish, both ofF,hictr are atso

NINi. is everr.lhere in t}e Chj markerpl.ce, very much a panicipnnt in the cultue of conmerce. Lou{trpeake6 blare, an.l the merc}ants aI.N thcir ndios to contibure to the crectronrc counterpoint. Some merchdrrs hale ca$ettcs ind CDs 1br sate, and more than a leiv otrer handcrafted insrruments, u{atly llut€s made fton wood or c.lay, but also more claborare striDsed iDsrruments. MlsicidN ply the aisles, wending their {,a)s through labyrinthine booths. They als, use ihc narketpl&e as a staains pojnt for forays i.to the centre ofchi, domnrated by a cathcd.al squarc anil tbe once-pruud lldoque archirecrure ofa uDivcrsitr cib. I.h music oi the stcct enters the everyddy wolld of Clui liom irs market. The musicians know only too w.lljust where tbey can ser up urctr po'tablc stag€s in o.der ro attracr rhe most gcnerous audrences. They know whjcb relerories vill bcsr sel ro Ctujk many studenrs, and they are sensitivc 1]o not making a fahc step by drawing attenlion to thc iongstanding frictions beh\cen Rotr,anhn- mq Hungdian{peakjng r€6idcnts. Thc street nnBicians a,e urLn more a$are ofthe newatrdienccs inr}e citl, the growing nunrbes of tourists $ho re visitibg Tfansylvania and Ronranja since the thll of the Ceau$oscu govclnfteDt in t99O. Etutern Eurolc cntered a period ofdizzyilgiransition int}e r99os, d'd Romanus srlecr nlusicians s€rc quick to malc rlle mosr ofit.

Thc street nNic of Cluj NapoQ is world nusic in ttre nlostmodcm scnsc. Il is glolnd husic tcltn)cd loc{lly. rtsjuxiryositions md uDprodistoblc mixtLn.cs c postmodcur. If orc toot$ rn(lthtcns l rg cnorgh, otre will clcornrcr mlsicnl cvidcncc garhcred fion cvc'y p{rl ofthc world. i he srrccr mrsicirbs Arc good &t h.rkcrirs thcmselvcs; ihcy uc prclc$ionAls, $d tbei. sLock in u.r,o N e cll)&ity to adapt thcftscivcs 10 ihc c}^ngnrg cuncnis ot. !,ultiottMnl q)ciery. r'hc streel nn$icofCIL{ is ,rl!) tudirion.l in

€olomiaX rNlrxs8esu pos&-

colonial worlds, ancl the

oloDa zaf ron or woff(I mu5!(

art s€nse $c might choose to usc that tetn, Man! musudns

plalin8 on rhe ci1,l s st.eets in thc day return to lillages ar night or

on the rveckcnds, \r'hen the! plar lbr dances, weddinss, or olhcr

dtuals that constihte traditional nrlk.!ltue. $'hereas 'nany

musiciarsrellorre.cnttecbnologies. sii 1biprodlc gcass€ttes

dd CDs ofthen own, thcy also pla! innndents made bI local

instnunent bdldcrs. lvhere eke $u d they lind handnvork and

lunins proftss to ival that of the locL bagpipcbujlder?

The orcidl poirt is lot t|at tbese strccl musicians are ,,ti lvorld

mNiciaDs od trxdilional foll nrusicians, bul rather that they havc

collapsed the ditr€rcn.c bel}ten the two. r'hcJ have not been ii)rccd

inlo an economic situation \tlrere they cbooscbclwccnthe hcd and

Lhc global. btrt rntler ds mtNicians, they arc ablc b dnd ways of

rccolnnodahrg both. Ior thcse mnsiciaDs dt local !n retPlace

rnd ftc global mdlel arc at some ls'el th€ s.drc. t'he comPlex roles

of Cluj s street musjcirns should not surydse us CLuj NaDoc,is

tu)dcnib aDd DostntudernitX de th e Prxl[cts ol its pdt, that k, of

it! cullural accomDul ion to thcAusi!-Ihnr8drid tjDPire, to

the contcsLc.l culhrres oflluntsd.idns and Romanians, dltt to a

plethofu ofmiroritl sroups, anorg \don Jeis, R(nnd dDd

cerDnnsllayed M €nmordimrily inrprtant rn. insbapinsthe

.iry's hisbry So cnlhndly complcx wu the I*t thar thc cib htus

ducc names eveDtod4, cluj Napoe (Rornxniar), Kolos^ar

(lluBaridt. aDd Klrtscnburg (GcnflD). Thc haditidtal music

h* bccn and contiNes t )he tldt ol a cosnopolirtrr cil}, dislinctivc

i,r itl orvn w.Lys, yci constnrtlx i,r tftursiiior. llistoricdl], its

ci(ryddy crllurc truiccl cd thc sdtrlc .osmoPolilaDish thrt

detd'nriDes wlnt wo d ntsic is lulay, iD a postnftlen, glo1ll cm

L thc bcginnjnS ol!l)c 2lsl ccnhrry i.hc crcornler $ith workl

D,ustuh.s bocome on cvc'y(hX cxpoicucc, do inr$1!ithc

Rtrnrdscrlpc oi thcn$v ccnluryi iotrr oerlut} . 1 utghl cvol 8o so lfu

rs ro susgcsL rb.t !r 'rvc' wlo nre d1.rtu8 thc bcgin rnlg oi'thc ncw

krruN {rccodrcctcd ir DosnrllnlcNnrc bcctrusc olrlrc

er$unLcfljlb$o dDn$icwcsh €. Thcrc is, howcve\ A Ddedol

that hn ls in dre fonns of encounro t}at gcnerate Atobatization. Tf iDdccd {'e sha.e {'o.ld nusic globalry through our eDcounter $,ith it, we noDet|eless expcrience it in rtn difinrcnt so.lds, whictr nr lun are shaped nr distindiref- ditierenr wiys becausc of€coDomjc, cthnic and mcial, political dd historical djsradries. rhere are todat' more diilercnt techDologies thar cnabte !s to cncou er more wodd music than elcr before, but rhe rtucstion arises as to $,herhcr thcs€ facilitate or conplicare en.ounter Moe b the point, pronouncetncnls by ltcdia erpcrts abour rhe ubiquiU ofcDsj iridnet, drd the transn,rtional rccording inilusr., notwithstanding, Dor cvel]lnc jn tne sod.i has equal access t rhe tc.hnolosics of\orld husic, and mosrpcotte in rhe world lare no access.'tb. wo ds of$old rnusic, th erctbre, n^ve lrolife.ded D.cause 11r can eDcount€r thcm $) nnrh hore nnrncdiatel)i_ To uhom, wc incr€asingly find o!Bclves askin6, do ttre elcryilav $odds of$o.ld music .eally bcldrs?

The global city and world music history Th€ cil.y is the entrcdt lb! rhc encounrc$ $th worl.t htrsic tu a postDrodc.n {'orld. 'fllroughort hkrory rhe ciq, has occrpied a disti :tivc position on the musical todscapc because oi Oe divcrsity ir cotrld atmct rnd rtrc pwer thar prt ttrft divcsiry to i!o|k bwad comnloD lblirical goals. The Dlusics ofrhc cii.y undersirdcd its positidi rrs rhc cent.e of tho nrsical laDdscrre. Thc nn,sical lilt ofthc prenrodcrn cilynight bc srid to possess thetrairs ofdprc+vodd music. h a city donlinarcd by r, adc, say, or ttrc Medilcrdnean co$t or dongille Silk ltoad, rhc ncrch.nrs sto prssed lhrougl 1lrclc undoubtcdly dccoNp{nied bynNsicirDs, ud D sicd goods - pcrlbNellg {ud ftc nlrkrid cuttrr of,nusic, $loh as iNtr,uxxlts - nnry luve con$riluicd nmch rh{r rva$ o crcd li)L *Llc. As ljhc lrcw)dcm ciiy glvc wtLy ro rhe nrodcN cir}' iL dcvelopcdtrom a nnrsicnl nrdkcrdacc for wor.ld music ro tr sjre lbf trr)rc cxrcdsiyc pmdncrion and cousuDrptior. ,\s prirt cuhn.c tdijcte<l Lhd !mducrion of ii)lk rnd poputarnrNics, p{|Licuhrly durin,athc Agc of Dhcolcry dnd thc.cnnn.ics of[trcpcan col(hi.l

1 3 3

er?dsion from the 16th to the late 13th centulx'. nes l'ms of

specializatior came to exert a prcfoud etrect on the dive6rt] that

nolrished a ciq"s nusical lifc lt 1Es in the tgth atd 2oth certuries'

hosevcrt that ubd culture undeNent an explosion oftrulv

wo dwide pn)pottions Cities multillied iD number and grew in

size. Thcy rerc no lonBcr ollv a PhenoncDoD of an overcrcsded

t u - p . . L u , n r h e c " n j P . d n J . t r l - . P o i n r ' ' L u r o ! ' n ' \ T " n ' ; o n

they began to rePlicatc EumPcm u$d stmLtur€s Asrhe

disintcgration ofcolonial emPires began in the carh' 2oth century

aDd eceleratcd later in the ccntutt, the internationd meFoPolis

what $e no$ call 'Slobal cities'or. more Parochiallv, 'world-clas

citieJ - surn*d d the sites ofcoftintrcd encouter, dominating

the dap of world mlsic.

The& is Do single trPc ofencounter iD Ure slobdl ciw, and it slrculd

surprisc Do onc Lhat thc t)l)es o{wo d music wc cncitnrcr are

virtu ly unlinitcd Thc Dodern citv Save the indtuiduat a greatc!

dcgree ol freedom to tu,ve abo![ in th€ public spaces ofrhc

nctropolis, and onc ofthc most comnon ibmN ol'ncounlcfis

belween rhc indj dual dd the pLrblic sPr.cs tlrcqh which sle or

hc has thc liiee&n lo movc Tte Gemd philo$phcr Wdllcl

tscniami! (1892-1940) thcoriz.d the jndividual's cncounlcrs NitLl

rhe cdr!rc of thc city by enrPloying tlt mct'Pho! of th' sholling

arcade, whicb in the Pd is, li ankfud, dd lerlin of thc carlv

2oth ceslury had acqtrircd I spccial signilico!'c 'l be individlal

wdkirg thrcrgh thc sloPpiDs strccts of thc ciB comcs to kDorv rlis

ctrllue lry geiig ai the disPlav windows and heding thc irag'netrts

of conaersntion exch.nged bcl$tfl PasseN-bv. Musrc' too' rs a ld|i

o{ thc etcounto$ nade Possible bv lhe shoPPi!8 ararde, tb! its

uicries p s ii 1rcnlo{cal6swith nnrsic, the{trcs, and sfcet

trNsi(i$s. AL fisl glilncc, such iDdividrrd cn( rtc' s might scctr

nndo , bul Bci4min suggcsts tb.!t lhcv c Placcd ir p'ltorN lry

thc city ilsclf aDd conllibuic to thc wavs the cilv kllccts irs o$r

The physical loPosr.Phy of lhe NclroPolis dso eDlDn'es lhc

possibilities for encountcr, drd no one rccognizcs this more

stiltully t day thd street mlticiaDs. The world ofthe sbeet

musicim is eircmcly fluid, yet bound b the slreet irseli as $eI d

the other arteries along $ hic.h the civs residents md lisito.s movc

Stfeet mnsicials depend on movement, Their andicnces are not

stationa{'. bft rather in transit, and the mnsic of the s lreet mDst

lespond to the listen€B in-morion. Regulations ofvariols knrdr

rnale it possible to stay in one sPot for oDly shorl pedods, but this

does not necessariry work to tle disadvant.ge of the 'nusicians,

ib!

drey hav€ the opporlunil to play for new audicnces, in other words,

for those $bo balc not already given mo.ey or purc}ased audio

cdsettes and CDs.'lhc musicofthe sn€et, which incredingb

enters the slbwats, bus stalions, dd Pedestrian ntals. only nre\

belongsto thestrccL.lt is lot the nnNic ofaD cthnic Deighbou.hood,

but instead is tutc oilen imported irto tlre city, Sfeet mNicians

benefit fi om the poicntiaL to nolr from ciry to ciqt and it j$ not

3. Slrcet rnsi.ir$ in o.urLelplm h'ch$c*, Ro .nit(1993)

uncommon for ensenbles (c.9. AndeaD nnFicians nr DnmPe) to develop vdt nenvorks that connect uban cenb-es as if they $crc nodes on aglobL clniurc ofstreet music.

Thc posrmodem ci$ belies the .lains ibr global grey-oli, because nusical diveNiry toda! is, if anlthing, greatcr than eler before. It is clcd that the old models ofid,lligranl cdture, $dth the traces of thc old cotrntrj/ disappearing allo thrce generatiols, e€re ol€rly snnpllled. The sity ofiers nan) oppotunities for acculturation and the fomation of dNica] h) brids. It also oileF many more oplonunities for celeb.ating .iilcsjry. MtrsiciaDs jn tle poshoden city do lot jrn pcdbirn in public or P.il ate setttuss, nor do theX functron widrnr sn1glc cthnic conmurities or cla$ structures, bnt rother thcy ibr .omllcx aliiliations tlrat cut ncn)ss socioecoDomic, relisn)us aDd ethnic boundaries.

the music cultures ofcitics kday deinoDstnte latterns ofetLnic, racial, dd relisiols dn'e$jt] ih.tl diflirr iion oDe aDot}er, but gr^f

ftom thc disftictive s'r$ thlt ea.h cit) accomnodates em,Sranon iion ftc outsidc, migrotioD eitbiD the cily, aDd l.hc constart rcmixing oloLd aDd nerv neisbbouftoods. Thc mctaphor of island sNlds' rlighr cttlcti'elr represent thc Hispmic md Ca bbean ! sics olNcwYo'k Citr, ihercas itl ChicaSo cortnmnrs excbmge bcilveen the city .nd Msiro lcdrc silDess to tbe $ecial mcaning of s.cnd pilglimage to Gu4ddtrpc, honr io ihe shrnre to an xpltarucc o{thc Vir'gin Mdry in thc lalc 16th ccnttry. Tlte

difereDt coluial histories of London atrd Palis, sinilarh hav€

troDsforDed tlcnr inio vastly ditrerent sites lbr wo d nnNic, sll the

morc il^s fost-col('n ialism gjves s1ly n) Posimodcnisft and still

oftcr proccsses ofSlold Nllu ol ransitidr'

My lcfcrcn.e nt thc bcginnjnB ol'lhjs sjcli(r ro Urc ci[y $ m

tnltrt t lbr sofld usic wils not sirnPly a lct(tricd gcstLuc Jr it$

odgnul scnsc m cntre$t wes n wnrchonse thal scrvcd .s . lrcnrt lbr sarhq ius goods tllat would bc ,nade .vajlablc li)f salc lhe

orcouoi-crs wiur wo d nnLsic h tbe city, td), uc cornccled ir

compie{ i ats to the rnarketing ofwodd music_ In the premoden ci$ music acquimd its dirtrsif quirc litsattl iD the marketpla.e. The shops that lined Redanin's arcades, too, were plees of bNin€ss. Sbecr tulsicies deremire wherc dd $,hen rhey perfom in larB€ pafi becduse ol the financial benetits at e&h noile a.]ong thcir urban musical routes. Thc economies ofwo.lo nusc production dd con mltion will al$ inforn the discussio$ nr the renaining sections of rhis cbalter, ibr musicat tourism and the testiyaljzation ol *.rld Drusic a.e, at base, economicallr motn,at€d. And jllh€v {'erc not, tliey $(Nld nor haye sprea.l ro$ the global nusical laDdscipe ofthe 2ist centuy, definiDg .ver Dore shrph the domirant prcseDce of .ities oD lhlt lanckcape.

\,4anu Dibango: autobiography ofworld music I harc felt t,ushed rora otheN Ls I n.de hy ornr path. rfr hc{r easicr for me tl, till dre Bap nris v.y. I who Fas neirhd lbr€i$ef nor fo'nplelely inl(€nted into nrv wo.ld olorigin. I r?6 alrotren br gc Lrct$€en Lro rcids.

(Dibnqto, 1994: 2)

Rorn i,r canicrcon ir r9rs, Mnnu DibaDso hs crjoJed a m{sjcal carecr that is iuseparaLrlc tonr the p osr,cotoDial hisrory of lves r Afi ica and irs irrtcNcctioD rviLh wo d nruic$ ofthe Atii.an di6poh. Wrerctus his Wesi AfricaD roo rs {.e ceicbrai"od by Fr ancc ud by ir{nsnalidal rccoding coDgloncrltes, hc has perh.ps flhv.ys been s lruc} | Wcsrcn.s anAftjcan Dtrsjcjan. Ditrflngo's carccr D world mrsnr mighr well bc rhc exhlodindry crse otpost- coloDial ctr.ounlc! wcre it nol 1bx rhe lbcr thar, {s he {trcsls in bis dutdio8rehy, mrch ol ir rvrs thc prcdrcr of d musicidn,s tite th.r wds ir sevc& signiicont ways qritc oxliDart

M'uu Dibm8o spcr1. ffosr of his chiklhood h l.hc tod ciry of Dorr a, Cdrcrlo,r, *hcrellis lhrhcr wu r.ivitscrvdnt, which aflbr.l0d hirn h.ny {dv{nrr8cs lior the Frencl colonRl sovcnnnctrt. As a clrikl, M{nu DibturA)was able Lo trtrcuo

1 3 6

nissionary schools, and at thc agc ofr5 hc was ablc to go with the suplort of a l'rench scholaNhip to ftrrher his studies in Fnnce. whereas his car\ cx!.ricnces $ere with other children in Douala, these entei his antobiographl vagtrcI wo\€n into images of a past evident ontt as occasbnal traces, albeit ne.essary tra.es for the images ofa world musician tbat &company Dibanso toddy. En@unter with Western nusic, on the other hd4 ac.ompdies thc r€ry firit memoies. By attendnB church, he writes, i discolcrcd the importdnce ofritual and song. His mothcr dircdcd rhc w)men's choir at dr church, and it ivas rhc ncnt choirmN tcr $ ho 'sare me the maBical nusical virrs'- So ordlnary em thc cncotrntcr tlat Dibanso bar€ty sensed its presenc€ and impact. "Ihc lchrch] nelodiesNere not mine, but orcr tine I apprcpriated thetu - so much so that when I later heud Bach's Card.lc, rhich I d lcarncd i,r cburch, I ms Rue it $ as nusic lion hon€, a sonB liom ny

The course ofManu Dibango's career bd! pdalleled thc !osl' coloDial history ofFrancophoDe Afiica. soon alid taking trp sludics i n l m r c c i n 1 9 4 8 , h e s u p p l a n t e d t l € m n s i c o f t h e d o D i n l commuDitics ofCaneroon with new encountcrs, tbis tifte rvith Alrican lmedcan nrlsicians, both iez aDd bh€s, md with Frcnch polular Dusic and Nrediter.anean .,/id?r.t. IIe beSd to $ttdy music more fornallri, rnd by his latc tecns hc dcvotcd nrorc and more time to learnins alto sd, which would qd.idy mnkc his tra.icctofy lo$nrd t]le nn*ic of bhcl ANericans unstomablc. li nright bc lcmp|iDg io sL,Sgcst thrt srrc.} r n Ajedorf workl destft)y what hw lrmcs ol Allfican musichtd sltrflved thetrm$ {nt*nnr Lo l.){Dq bul h l!rc|the r ulllowrrdjuz rnd the bltr€s opetrcd ncw ott oltuDitics Io! cnco!trlcri'ig AU icdls n knrg nrusic, h othcr wods, rhc colonjalprcscncc of tficMs in ile populd Nusic sccuc ofpost-Wo (l W{r ll llancc. Dibdgo devolopcd tlvcb olDttsical cotrtrds fion lDncothonc Alficr {nd blnck ,\niericrn exfdridics iq tmd.c.nd Belgnnn.Ilis nudcll comhhjtt nrchtlcd notorly- mdnotp.imarily- Canrercon, |ut Also zairc.nd orho l\cncl And Bclgi.n colories. IIc would cstrblish his playing.nreer

inierndtionally with Alri@ Aoerich musicids _ Harry Belafonte, Ar't Bla.key, Don Cherryt Hefiie H&cock - but atso with white musicians, amona rhem paut Snnon and JohnnJ ctegg.

Cme.oon bJ no nea.s disappetued fiom Dibango,s ousical adnities, especially dlrin8 p€riodr when he neeiled to depenil on the hore srabte income rhat carne from plaling for invitations to Cameroon. His career, noDcthete$, folowed an ino.Nnsry ,.teDational !ath, unde€irded b]' !-rcnch ed inrernational rccord comtdies. His brcakth.oLrgh into world music rrcul.t happen in 1974, rv}en his hit Sont MakNSa,wa5 nonindted for a cEmmyi liom that poi.t on, strccesscs and a$,ads pile{l up aL an aeF

At thc end ofdre 2orh cenrury, Manu Dibdgo hecdnc the chanpior ofhulticulturalisn nr world music. Frdrcc and the post, colonial wodd in whicn he grew np sc.e, morc than evcrj templarcs for what \orld music conld beconrc. Music irself had acqljred the Dotential to qrickcn the pace ofan cvenhat rarurochemeDr bcl,ween thc West and its colonies, Dibango wites h bis

P n is bc.o.ring nrixedjaco . . . I he rilhphone $x$ rc soru rvith tne hJ,tbn nDd cniclts ft. Thc ru r rcnnbrcer rh( drun! krt. Llorn .r drv: suddcn nrvenrnnrs, rhd nNsicd ,nisudor- slrndnrgs bdsrecn ihe conrineDr ff .t paris tihrltldissit:rte

'l he d4wn that fouowcd the post-colorjrl ela horuldcd a new t8c, whcLc Do rhusic i.om ile world need bc sroiticcd. ,Aliiqr ftusic rvds and renmirs ahtsic ofcncotrntosj inthis lics rrs Lracrrvc

1 3 3

R e c o r d i n g a n d t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s o f g l o b a l i T a t i o n

lmaEile 1br a noment $'hd aD ethnomusicologisti gallcry of

fi el;rcrl rvoukl conidn on one Nall tle'c would be rhotographs

oftlt peoplc the c lhnomosicologjst had studied On another thcre

misht be af.ilhcts brolrsht back liom the fi€kt' srclv Nrcd

iistruments and trore than likcLy othcr ktuts of rihrtl artiiir'ts

'rhen therc *oul.t lrobrblv be d ared in fr'nt ofthc third s'all $'jth

ilispla], cascs in \'lich ihc 1n$ic itscLf $as gath€rcd the

a;scn|tions. trPes, and liticos. amplned Mth evidencc fion

ne.lihvorkera $']rc had rrcvio$\ docutnented the s'nre nrca

linallt the.c rvould be I area demtcd to thc technololjr's that

marle the nekl{mk possible. eilh disPlav cascs fi of rccordnrg

nE.nnres dd cNrcras, and with a wdll devoled t(' photogra]rls of

dre cthnomlsicologist jn lhe ad of r€'ordn18 lhos€ sit} $ ho'n he

or she lnd cons tdL, in orher sords, lhe nnbNaDl i

AD imngiuory muftum of.lhnomusicological rcsearch? Hardh A

retroflccrive cthbit on fieldivorh iD m age ofcolonhlhm? Inde&l

that, but more rs well !-'tlDolNsi.olosists havc ahvrvs dnphitd n

DerchaDr Ibr shosin8 rlie nx,ls ofthen tnde and documentdlton oI

thcte.hnoloAics th allo(cdthen totrD the Iicld Dloa

ldboratory (sec lis$cs 21dnd 2 2). iflou \-isir the eiimologv

dirisnD ofr nationd Knlnd adive o' mulctrl ofsciences' v{r dre

likcly n) lird scvcrrl alers Llcvotcd to thc lleld\ork"f nnd thc

technoloSics o{:the iield Unn'crslrv clhnon\rsicologv dcl tlrenLs'

1oo, Dntthcir rc.ordtug deviccs on disph)', at thc vcry lcast those no

lons;radcqudc lro lhc latosl licldwor'k 'fhc rllotogrrphs ol'

c[hnom$icoli)gists ttodinS sitlScF rDd nnlsicians, 'ud rcllccttu$

nltcNnws an(l Pc bNtsccs cou1.1 lill vohnnos dct(ttcd to tl)c

llol(ls history lruccs Dcnsnrore is smrcd irl trotrt oflhc Amcrican

llLncAU olljthnology in r9r6, rc( il1gMonntaiD 'hnifol'tlc Blactlbot ttx)ltc (scc IiSuLc r'l) Bilt lldt6k

stxnds nr avilhgcin

Slovlrlli., s|eLcvilligt s snrgitrlotlc ltoN ol his$d'cvlindcr

rcco d(scc llisu( a 1). C.rl StrrnDfrnd 'rNrs

s'hiincnr'tru

sit with prisorc$ ftom thoughour rltc $orld iD r ']crmNd

pi$'rer of$d camp durinB world war l, recording their $ngs ibr

a slobal t,nonohy of nusic (see l igur€ 7.3). Domnutins thc

phot.graphs ofrhc cthnomrGicologisr a1 work is not so nn.h its

luman 6pect Ls the rna.hine its.li; givcr piide ofplace in the

photosraph in orde. b document someding .rucial about the

ethnomusicologist: eay of encounterins tire world-'l'he recoldins

machine is tlere to nate a statement about autheniicrt], loeer, and tie potential ofthe indiljdudl s.nohr io enter the field as an

ff we waDted lo $ rite d history ol ctdnomNicology by tracidg rh€

resroDse ofthe field to slecific technological admDces, it soul.l not

be nr the least difficr t. -A-s a discilline, modcrn ethnonnNicolosr'

has come to depend o,1 what wdltd tscnjarin called tl€ 'a8c of

m€cbaniol reproduction'. Indccd, in thc spirit oftechnolosl its.U,

a histo,t of etlrnotulsi.ologlca,l rcchnologics might pronde us *ith

an historiographic sbateBt tlnr coukl claim all the h apings of

Lrenrs scientinc. Tecbnolo8y nediatcs lhc cncounter xith world

Dnsic, {nd with e.cb techn(noBicd adlancc cthromnrido8isrs

gaiD a sense that they can gadrer more details alout world nrusic

throngh en@nnt€r lt's a s€dnctive beliei; which no

ethnonrusicolosist rcNm$h rcsirts. Ar8udlly, ihe neld of p r l - n n m u . . ' . 1 ' ! J I L L , . i r . ' l i n p r . - l i s b " c . . J " c , d r . ' r r ' . n r

. ' . h . r + . B i ' r h - v . a l l o * c l r h c l i . d b c l . , i m - I n , { - | i d { u ' r r

scientific basis. ftc( arc $rbdiscillincs withnr e$no rsicologi! irr

fi(t, thnt nly dhrosl .ntircly on tcchnologics lo Fediate tuusic rL!

drtt for objedive nrteryrctatn)n. S)s icmaiic musicologists ttu c

thcir irtelle(turl gencdbl{r ro l9rh- And 2olh-ccntuyschohB s'clr

$ Alexdddr Ellis, \\to dcviscd d sysLcn lbr diridnrs nusical scAlcs

iiro eqrd rno{strrcmcn ts ol licqucncics, or 'cc!ts', md carl shupl;

illc Ccrnd psychologisl s,ho cstablishcd d1c lirsl]a}orai(try

dovotcd to dnrly$ing lccotdin6s ol lorld mlsic al thc Univcrsily ol'

Rcr'liD.

llynohc.ns ist}e systcDtrti. iupllsc iD c tI nomusicokrg! orly

d{licatcd tothc scicnLili.dcs.d ion ol sound. Dshblishing lhc

.i!

E q

6 h 3 '

t t : 4

pa.aneteN of arthenticitr is e$ally a mottuation. Can the anahiis ofthe sound itsef reveAl more about shat we hear and interyret d mNic? Can the !hFi6 ofmusic, rhe ftpresentrtion ofmusic a walefon and timbral displays, tihsfom our undeNrmding of the metaphysics of music? Rcco.dins technology allows us - cvcn requires us - to think iD dillefent @!s aboui vhar authenLiciry might be. chansins technologies, it follo$. prodlce a listory of ethnomusicological ided thahcveals authenticjf tu consranr flL\

The question eises as to vhether dlsctr$ions about the ethics of recording dd technology can kccp !p with rhe blindiDg lace of technological ddnnce. The digital tech.ologi€s thai flood€d rhe Blobal m6ic mdlet dudng rhe 199os nrade ii po$ible lbr almosr anyon€ ro cnter the feld to encounter world mlsic.Irorld music alleared cvcryTbeE on CDs and the Internet, and rhe sheer welrer ofrecoldin8s owmhelm€d tirc lcgal encumbrances that mighr have siven the listoner rause tbr considdins tle ethical dimensions of encoultoing d world music with no other culhrral conrert rhan rhc IDternct. By raising these crhical dilemmas I do not med to takc a rcactionaiy stance. As clhical dilemm6, which arc alrcady spawning debate md {lion, they are ditrerent only in kind fton thc dilemmas about l)o$€r, allropriation, and cuhunl conilici thai havc always accomtanied cncounters sith Norld nnEic. Ifthcy aris€ f, om thc technological scctors ofthe etbnomlsicologi@l etrdeavon! they are no less trcnchant h the tuys tley.equire the ethnonrsicologist to nccept lhc noral responsibiliw of schol ship

The Rough Guides and the ethnomusicological encounter today As i1therc wclc iintcdng dotrbts that world rlusic had comc ofa:i with tlre 21st ccntlDi thc ,Rrugh Guides to Warld Mwb rcbrt th.- from thc sur( In no uncetain tems thc 8or8, Gzid?s cclebrlt. lheit own compreheNivencss I wo}ld hrsic js boundlcss and boundaryless, and it is'liLlir8 that [the] new cdiiion... ei'rcide!

with the stat of a new millennim, for it dedls with the oldcst and

nes{st music in the wo d'. Ifthen daims ring a bit herdldic' tbe

,qozgl Gztd.r noncthelss document the lostmodern encotrnter

with vorld music $ c(eDsively that few etlnomusicologisls, llon

amateur to eademic, from aficionado to actirist, $ould lot

redonably 1'ant to be witholt tbem. l he -Rozal Grala de a!

much ndvcrtisement - 1br musicids who tour the \torld aDd their

rcco.ding comlanies, not to mention tbr tbe travcl industrv that

sponturs the braDd ofwo d-hopping touism chaacteristic ofthe

Rotlh Guides as it is a real suidc ro the diesilv ofmnsi"l

phenodena that it claims 6 iLs subjccl LrltimatcLy, the R,zglr

Gztd$ conceln theDsclves far nxft $ith facilitating etcourtcr

\rith sorld music than vitll sorld msic itseli ThJough its Pagcs dd the $trltit ofcDs drd s'ebsites lhey introducc, the

ethnomusicologist of thc ,Rotg/i cziddr' lles dillcnnium' ert.N

ihc eorld of virtual etuomtei

ll sould be eNX e.ough to Project i tonc of Pe$snnisn and

rcsignatioD abotrt the stdtc of ethnonusicoiogls ApProi.hes to

worl.l music this linal section devoted to thc field add its scholars.

My usc of the tern litlaral .ncotrnter' niSht seem srggcstive ot

tcchnolosies oul of contui drd of music rcduced to mcdiaiion

tionc. Anyonc who turns lo the Ro,.sn Gu?d.r wil quicklv nnd

rcNous to dhw attentio! to tbeir lacun@. E!e! withnr acadcnic

cihnoNsicolosy, most ofus love to hr c the e'al thc Rou8n Gtil6

.cducc qodd nNsic md discouBe obotri world m$ictoso nrrnv

qrict-and-diftir bhr$s, but 1iw ol'us $ould derry thdl ihose blurbs

rrthq olLn come in handy. Alt ol us recognizc thnt scvcral ofolr

N)sl rcslccted collcdgues arc now contlibutiigthch cxPcttise Lo

ftc &rqr, Grtrdr, cvcn lvhcn wc hrve to close olr evcs to Lhe cuss

jonrDdlism rld ioo oilcn lills in lbe Erps. l hc norgl 6r,id?s lo

lilo/Ll M".rtd nuy prcdrce tuIcrlbct scholrirshiP, bui il is slill

emblcmnlio ofthc wrys in which i}c clbromusicologic,l cncounicr

does lakc plae lodrY.

It is possible n) oPcn thenoz8t Cr c.{just dbott dvwltcre n)

witness the cooditions of ethnomusicologicat encounr.r nrda]. Thc ho \olumes tue first dd f{'Emosr a slide to re@rdings dd the

'nusicids whose success hd resutied fronr the disseminarion md

consuoption d recordnrss. The issue $irh wlich ethnomusicologists toda], musr rcckon is not s,hetlru rco(urgs wrench music liom its coDrcxts: this is what all rccordings do. rte recording does, howcver esrablish new conterls, and rhese axe atlracbng an increasinB ievel of s.rutiny liorn ethnonusicotosists. As naftnalisn spreads i. mmy parts ofrhc *!rtd, feco(iinss hare edoged G d important context 1br slppor.ing and r€sisrinA it, Globilh recodinss and tlet cxchan8e arc !e raDs rhc most viral discouNe for eDcoul.crnrs diaspora.

Thc Ro&gn czldls also sen e as a suide, pohlps uninrcntbnallri, to reccnt direc lions in ethromusicology. Most obviols ot,aI, rtrey a.e guidcs DriDarilr to popular musiq aDd there can bc lirLle qnesrion thal. no area - I should Bo so i:u as t{) ca| ir a subdisciptine, wirtr fts o*! inlly arLiculat€d rLeory aDd merhods, ofethnonuscorosl, $Nr a-s rapidh aDd becme d innueDtial nt the r99os as popltar tuusic studies. Growinsnr ldgc parlrom the aoi€n 6z?drr, privilegiDg of popular music is a discour$c that embraccs and analyses h),biditjr, 1iNnm, aDd bordeFc&ssins, h orhcr $r s the conditions of Slobalizafi)n rhar are nrescapable todal. t]Ic n,zsn Gutde! could bc .oniirscd n)r a pudsr,s bible b) no oue, Dur no. roo lhcrc is o trtcssd8e, pcrdars l biurr one ro rhc ptrrisr clin8iDg to an oldcf sospcl, about thc cn(ounr.r$ thnr gcncrrte lor.td nusi. rod .. Iindl)r thcrt can bcnoqncsrion th;rt rhcsites ofcncounre.rre ihenrseNcs vi$tly dilftknr. \,r'(r'td nruic intensilics in nnnrignnt and cxilc comnnhiticsi it le ds jrsclf to idcotognjal nnniPl rtnrr across thc slcctrun of poliric{l poweri it trllixcs irse! to rcvivatno lcss thaD ro Urc avrnLgardc; it is thc stutfoflistiyd Nrrrrc uq xouristr.'l hc globd dtlturc thrl wodd nusic tu.ticularcs is irnpcnctftbly dcrse, so much so rlnr cncoutrrcflil.b $orld nnric hru, hddy, bccoNe iDscprRLblc t'iodr ou! cvcryd.y *ortds.

World music festivals: all the wofld's a stage

The ethrographic present: 22 Seltenber 2001- Wo.ld mnsic as I cncounter it in my home city, Chicago, d I mite the closing section of thc linal chalter ofthis book. .!!orld Mtrsic Festtual, Chicaso 2oo1' has bccn unde$my for only t\ro days, btrt the entire ci$ has, lbr thc third year, been transfotued into a stage for world music. LooKng at the eve.ts schedlrled for today a total ol selenteen appear in the oficial pmsrdmc - we get some jdea ofinat we night uDdexstand 'a stase fo. rvortd musiC really to be.

Thc melropolis becomes r metaphor ibr the ltotld, mappins its muric dd its nusic clltru€s so that dyonc dd everyone can parllcipab h the eDcounter The map ofthe festival delibeutely sttutchcs to all distncts ofthe ciry, tu lhc neighbolrhoodJ, as chicaBoans arc accustomed to rcfer to lhe lasing oftheir cultltrl

Beqralhy. fhe rcnue for e&h conced is mdked by a twoletter neighbourhood address, such as 'HP'for Hydc Parb the nejgllbou.hood $tcre ihe UDiIeNi!, of ChicaSo is locatcd. It is pe rairs not by chrncc $ar the leiSirbou rood dddrcsscs assume the appeardrce ofthc caf siick€F iliat escribe ndiidMl origin, such as GB'or'?L'. chicdgo nejghbouriroods dt rdthcr lamous lbr clannjng ndtidhl And natioDalist alle8l{nco, so much so that hosr residents ol l.hc ci! know thet ?ilsen is McxicaD md the Northwcsi

Side k ?olish. A cl.xcr look at the tr{p o{ thc city's world music lbsti\rl, howere! rcvcals ihat ii doer not sinply replicatc the DciShboufhood's etbnic and naiiontl identities Perhaps hAll ofthc

ddrcsses arc not jtlst Deishbourhoods reconnsured as stascs 1or

lvorld nusic, brt fllc re. stages lcconligurcd, ifl mtiy bc

dehberatc\ rcdundur, rs stAgcs lbrworld husic: thc chicqo

Sybphory Ccntcr 1br examplc, will host. pe bmancc of|he

I,olestiDi{n ,l pldycl, Sinotr Sh.Lhccn, lhis $eDin8, and AlSedan

rai stxa Khdlcd, i5 biucdlbr the'cl$ing concct' on SdPtembcr 30th

ri lho Rivien Thcairc. Ncjghbou lood 'ccnlres', usudly dominrred

by brold'nngnrg socifll Dd civic selviccs io the neigllbourhood,

also bemnestagcs. Lcast$lrprising oi nll, so do bstions ol'1blk and

tmditioDal n$iq Dotably the Otd ToM School or Folll Music, and mary sites oflrdrsDational culture brokering in the citJ, such as Bo.deN Books drd Music.

Werc one so inclincd, it woutd be e6y enoush to dEmiss the .Worlil Music Festivnl, Chiago 2oori d no more thm cnterlainhent an.t tourism. Thcrc is a fair ntrmber ot srl-knoM $ortdbeal eNehble' nost ofthem le|fonnirg at lhe dpensrve venues. The Lstival's oryanizeB, the Mayois Omce ofspecial Events, makes no bones abour rhc porential io draw tounsts to tle ciry 6 aurtrhn begins, alier ile sunner scasoD oi Dusic lbstiujs concentHted nr ceDhalrylocated Grant Pdk. The tslus Festn al, J&z Fesrivit, Gospel Fesinal, Celtic Festiwt, dil Via Iatina, wtic} roScther punctuated the srmtue. monrls, have prcv€d that rwrld nusic brings moncX to thc cib! cvcn thougtr they th€nNelvcs requtrc no ddnission chdrge, lhe concern about atrrdLtjDg culture tourars to chicago is all the motu crnicat dutjn8 the ,lrrortil Music treslilal, Chicago 2oot'because oi$e unccrtanrry accompdyjns thc sh,ck oftho *tacke on Scttenbcr rrrh,

It is also thc cNe rhdt ryone wishins ro attack world music as homogeDized Eiobal poD, cuttu.at inf erialisd nnde smorous, wuid lind convenient td8crs. Snch att(ks, howercr, M)ura nisintcryretthc srys in which world lnusjc had remapped rtre ciiy and rcExDdcd to iD cnodnous raDgc oflocal thcto,s..l !e deDscsr neighbouhood c tqr.phr ii)r exaDtle, is that Drcvide{l by blucs nnsicixns. t]. is denso becousc ttre map ol rhc lestival nerelydr{ys {tcn|n)b to whd is! ready { densc, cosn]opotiratr husiccriture, kno$n tlfoughout the $o.ld os,Chiclgo btucs'orillban brL,es.ln cont'.s1, thc weckcDd providing lhc wor{d Nusic ercuunleF rof this closing section is ffllcd with Ndivc Anreicau evcnis,the donrnrnnt ol'whicir is Lhc Dschilogor IMiatr I'osvow Socomptcx a re xhc cont€,{Le fbr this linal grcdr gdr[cling of Lhc lDrvsow scayrr, whichbcgnN in ihc wcsrcm Arncdco srdes andCanadi.D troulccs, ahd DD\$ tumss drc cotrrincnl to concl c tu chicago, thot it is almost inrrcssible ro sotl itrem out. The pcrlbNances

ro. Postc i qilvctising drc E\chiknE,u PorvlvoN 2oor, t€aruring th€ Nrtic Amcricm horscman fron ltu montrnent at dE enFaD.e to GrmlP&hat l}€ ni€rsectionoflric]rigan Arcnnc dthc Congress

begin $ilh a Ntrti\c Amcdcd nqnnrox celebrdnni, $ hjc\ indc.d,

t*cs llacc loday, the vellai equnrox. The roNlxv ilsell,

histodcallyan ildigenizarion of ideDtilrnd resistancc anong lhc

p.oplcs olrhc Greal PhnN, will occuprthc sitc initially loc cdon

tle ma! of Chiclgo at the lv('ld's colorbia! Cxposiiion o11893,

thc lhirgrouDds where t}e liNt etllno8nphic L.(trdirg$ ol wofld

nusic wcrc Dndc. Avisible, hig}ly D$nrctdl sct ofwcckend

ped(rJn.occs, thc ilschikagou ltrdio Po$wo{ respnds io lhc

i(lcohgi.rl slrlrgglc 1i)! idcDtjiy in 2l sl-ccnnnf Ndth Ahcd.{ by

historiciztug lhurgh musical lcrlbdnnnk tho unchccltcd

cncornter dul ptrshcd NrLiycADrcricds fion the vql lards ao oss

whidr thcir'2oor |meu(^v scason h.$ nuvdl,

ts thc lcsl.ivaIol$uld Nrsic jus1. Molhcf idcttrocc oltrn.h&kcd

sl<)hdtdliod.trd tho ri.rnnizaLi, ', ol i'rliSlnousaDd bcd

nnsiciris ro b(trressthc Dolvcr oltho prcd uccs ofwotldlc.Lt?

orly if one wis|es to trcat iL ntrolilhica llti .s I singlc evcnt LhdL h

no morc nor lcss thtu a Drctaphor for the hegemoDl, of the .ivcat.

,\nd thotrshour this book I have resisied iloing precisety thai. A ttstival is nor a singlq conccntrarc.l monent for rne peribfmdce of rvo d husic. tr rendls, nrher fron the confltrence or tuaDv J , f l e r , h , . t , , t r . f r r p \ i . . a r h J . r d ; d i n t r h r ' r r i \ . . . . - ! t u r - L o t p w . r l d n u ! l J , \ 1 1 . , , r p - i , e . a r I , r . . t h n p d , R i r , 1 l h \ , , - . O l

the lirst lercl, mnsi.ians dd audjences continue to lcsponil, Lhe fcstial norwirhsrddil8, ro local ethnic, narional, aD.l religious communities, Music nakjng at ihis lercl iltersccrs wirh orher cvrnts at the iastnd dd ftus estabtishes c.nnectn,N bctond rhc local th.mes.'Ibe music irsetf dohnrahs the sta8e. Thc sportjght is iocuscd onjazz of lio,Cuban lisnD or cettic.tance lrscorru.lt miahl also Lrc ttre ca* rhar a holiday or hkioricat eltnL rs ccleLrrated, efcctil,ely recoDnectjng thc husic to contclt rlrorgl rerilrl, wlich deDends oD tcnivats for irs lifeblood. Fjnattr, ther can bc no dorb hat *o d nnNic festnah explicitb, aftonlt ro kconlrgur nn$ic itself as a means of rchaDDirg the $rrtil l,thour bonnda.ies, thereby c}arrtns a ubpiaD wo d ii wtrich locat, ertrdit, racial, and rolisious difier.nce dissotvc. hr thar uiopid $odd rhf encounter with $orld rnusicis dcniedtono onc.

In thc cthnograf hi. prescnt of rhis ctosinB section the lbstivd of world music is as ubiqLrirous as jt is oerydali No rader oI rtrjs book nc.d look very tar no! writ vcg long Lretbn hding the olportunitl lo rttcnd i'ch a fesiivnl..lhouljh I hrR D)ade a cale ror ur. ltstirali2dioD ofwolld DrNica trctur! ofourccnhry r $,nnr !o crntion thcrxder liun rc8ardiDg thot lcstjvdizdnn s rhc ldeololitul cndpojn r ol ar historicrl /irrAa ./z?trl for rvorld DrNj.. 'lhe lrpcs ol cncotrnlcr bktr,g)rr rbour lry r \lorld nn,sic lirstivrlrre nol ncw' rn(l thcytrrc surcly nolthc iDcvit$h conlorrcrcc or hist(nical t&mds h Lhc Dcir nritlcnnium. Sonrc ti)nns or cncotrnr., htrvc dis{Dpe cd,butoihos luvc incrc$((] iI ntrjnb.r {n( vucol ' l h - . r . l i l , , I . h . , t . , r t , r . . n u c r i , t . r , , r t . r r r t r . , 1 - r n . r . , l wrys ol cncounieringM d !N$ic i4lay shxv dn], si8trs o f db nrs. lfwc cxADriic the ercounfcru rh^r tillawor,ld nnNj. t..sri!.t1oday more eLhnoAr arhi(ally, $ erbnonnuicot{)sisr b L rlso xs slobrt

citizens in the 21st @ntury, we reognize that e&h event, pl@d on the sia6e ofa met opolis remnpped 6 ihe world, bears witnes to a differeni kind of encomter It may or may not require our participatioq md it may or may not alter the ways we iDter&t 6 selves ed otheN. The history ofencouter ftom which world music ha.s emerged, howeyer, is Dot about to come to a halt. E&h of N ethnonNicologisf nusicidr, avid amateur, pa$ive listener will inrcdingly en@unts the nusic of the world in a Srowing vdie1' of ways, drawing us ineluctably into a wodd, the identitX and culture ofwhich is no longer sepdable from our oM livs.

1 5 0 151

References

rIft are rhe details of the wolks and researct€s discused in this book. Silce t}e ea.ly 199os, it hs be@me common pr&tice to lulljsh CDs with bools on mdd nusic, eslecialy wtren tne book hs BroM fton ext€nsive S€ldmrk, in th€ lists that follow, rherefore, I haw ind'cated wl€n a book inctudes a cD.

chtuls Keil ahd Steren Fel4 Muic cjooe*: Essdys dhd Dialagut (Univesity of Chicago !re!s, 1994)

Bfr\o NenL me W6tem Impact on Wa d Muic: Chdkg., Adaptatio4 dnd s!ryt@l (Sclim€. Bools, 1985)

Bnrno Nettl at' dl, 4*ar&iotu in tvora Muic, d edn. (p€nri.e Hdl. 2007)

Timothy D. Thylo! ciobai Pop : WotA M6ic, wortil Mmhatt (Routl€dt€, 1997)

Iefr'ri\on et dl., worlda ofMurrc, 9!d €dn. (Schi.m€r Books, 1992)

c[!pte] 1 David W Ames and Arrhony U KjnE, cksffiry afHausa MBic ana ftt

Soatal Cor,€ars (Norrbwalreln UlireEity !re!s, 1971) Pi.tEn Chea, Chank af w Chin@ Buddhist Monattd*i (A-A

Editions, fort\coming) (CDinclud€d) Stephen Creenblatt, Mdroeio@ PoMtiow: Tha Wond'r aftha Ntu

ryorld (oxford UlireFity !.e$, 1991)