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Political Science: An Introduction

Fourteenth Edition

Chapter 9

Interest Groups

Roskin | Cord | Medeiros | Jones

A series of U.S. Supreme Court decisions boosted interest groups to new—some said dangerous—heights. Dubbed "super-PACs," the new groups allowed super rich anonymous donors to pour unlimited funds into political campaigns. Billionaires contributed millions to candidates and groups that supported their financial and ideological interests through these super-PACs. Campaign contributions and spending soared, but the overall net effect on election outcomes was unclear.

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

9.1 Define interest groups and distinguish them from parties.

9.2 Explain the relationship between interest groups and democracy.

9.3 List, with examples, the factors that make interest groups effective.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

9.4 Explain the several strategies interest groups use.

9.5 Explain and give examples of how interest groups may become too strong.

The Ubiquity of Interest Groups (1 of 3)

9.1 Define interest groups and distinguish them from parties.

Interest groups provide a critical link between citizens and government.

In general an individual has little influence over policy outcomes and government.

When individuals form a group, they can have a great deal of influence.

The Ubiquity of Interest Groups (2 of 3)

9.1 Define interest groups and distinguish them from parties.

Because everyone wants something from government, interest groups exist in all types of societies.

Even dictatorships have interest groups, although they may behave in ways that are very different from how they behave in open societies.

The Ubiquity of Interest Groups (3 of 3)

9.1 Define interest groups and distinguish them from parties.

When we talk about interest groups, we generally mean any group that is trying to influence government.

This is an important point, because Americans frequently use the term "special interest" to refer to groups they do not like that are trying to influence government, but in practice we are all special interests.

Interest Groups and Political Parties (1 of 3)

Interest groups differ from political parties in several ways.

Interest groups seek to influence policy but do not seek to control government, which means that most of their actions occur outside of the electoral process.

They are not accountable to either citizens in general or the government.

Interest Groups and Political Parties (2 of 3)

Interest groups differ from political parties in several ways.

They have a stake in outcomes but do not seek to run candidates under a party label.

They do seek to influence elections by contributing money to campaigns, often to both sides in an effort to guarantee access.

Interest Groups and Political Parties (3 of 3)

Interest groups are rarely represented in the structure of government.

There are no limits on the number of interest groups (the right of association) and there are over 20,000 interest groups in Washington, DC.

Interest group membership tends to be very narrow.

Some states foster the development of interest groups in society.

Who Belongs to Interest Groups? (1 of 3)

Having interests is part of human nature and the great diversity of interests that exist in society lends itself naturally to group formation.

Who Belongs to Interest Groups? (2 of 3)

Pluralist theories of interest groups suggest that a host of interest groups compete with each other for access to government.

As a consequence, no single group is able to dominate politics.

Policy outcomes are the result of this competition of interests.

Who Belongs to Interest Groups? (3 of 3)

Pluralism is good in theory, but in practice the playing field is not level among interest groups.

Wealthy people who tend to be better educated and have much higher levels of political competency are far more likely to organize to advocate for their interests.

The poor in society lack those organizing skills and are often cut out of the political process.

This can lead to outbursts of political violence, such as the storming of the Bastille prior to the French Revolution.

Interest Groups and Government (1 of 3)

9.2 Explain the relationship between interest groups and democracy.

For interest group activity to be beneficial, there must be a state worth influencing.

Weak states, where crime has interpenetrated politics, have groups that try to influence government, but that influence group activity is not necessarily beneficial.

corporatism: The direct participation of interest groups in government.

Interest Groups and Government (2 of 3)

9.2 Explain the relationship between interest groups and democracy.

As government grows, interest groups proliferate.

The funding of programs creates constituencies that want to see the programs continue.

Reagan tried to defund the Department of Education but was unsuccessful due to heavy interest group resistance.

corporatism: The direct participation of interest groups in government.

Interest Groups and Government (3 of 3)

9.2 Explain the relationship between interest groups and democracy.

Interest groups can on occasion participate in government.

When interest groups take over some of the functions of government, it is known as corporatism.

The Swedish Royal Commissions are an example of this.

corporatism: The direct participation of interest groups in government.

Government-Created Interest Groups

Not all interest groups are independent; some are created by the actions of government.

Government creates programs to serve the needs of citizens.

Those programs develop interest constituencies that form groups to advocate for the program.

The groups then lobby Congress.

Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae are good examples of this, as are U.S. farm subsidies.

Bureaucrats as an Interest Group

Bureaucrats themselves can act as interest groups.

They do this through their input in the making and implementation of laws.

Japan's ministries are extremely powerful.

Bureaucracies can develop their own interests, especially with respect to seeing their agencies continue and their budgets expand.

Interest groups can be offshoots of government as a result.

METI: Japan's Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry; formerly MITI, Ministry of International Trade and Industry.

Diet: Japan's national legislature.

Effective Interest Groups

9.3 List, with examples, the factors that make interest groups effective.

Political culture

The rise of big money

The rise of single-issue groups

Size and membership

Access

Political Culture

A country's political culture affects the likelihood of the development of interest groups.

Interest groups flourish in open societies with little state control over group formation.

Americans and Britons are more likely to join associations than people in countries.

There have been some worries about the decline of associational life in the United States.

In societies that have a tradition of people joining groups, citizens tend to have higher levels of political efficacy.

efficacy: The feeling that what one does can make a difference.

The Rise of Big Money (1 of 5)

Money is probably the single most important factor in determining the success of an interest group.

This is especially important during elections.

The importance of money in elections has led to worries that politics is basically becoming the best government that money can buy.

Some countries have tried various reforms, including: limiting campaign spending, subsidizing political parties, and public funding of elections.

public financing: Using tax dollars to fund something, such as election-campaign expenses.

unforeseen consequence: Bad or counterproductive result when laws or policies do not work as expected

political action committee (PAC): U.S. interest group set up specifically to contribute money to election campaigns.

soft money: Campaign contributions to parties and issue groups so as to skirt federal limits on contributions to candidates.

The Rise of Big Money (2 of 5)

Money is probably the single most important factor in determining the success of an interest group.

The United States has been very resistant to public financing of campaigns.

This is primarily due to the speech issues that arise with respect to the First Amendment to the Constitution.

An accompanying problem is the cost of elections in the United States.

Consequently, political leaders in the United States have been unable to agree on a formula for controlling money in politics.

public financing: Using tax dollars to fund something, such as election-campaign expenses.

unforeseen consequence: Bad or counterproductive result when laws or policies do not work as expected

political action committee (PAC): U.S. interest group set up specifically to contribute money to election campaigns.

soft money: Campaign contributions to parties and issue groups so as to skirt federal limits on contributions to candidates.

The Rise of Big Money (3 of 5)

Money is probably the single most important factor in determining the success of an interest group.

A relatively new development has been the rise of PACs (political action committees) and Super PACs.

These groups, because of tax laws, are able to donate soft money, money not regulated by the FEC, to groups not working directly with a candidate.

public financing: Using tax dollars to fund something, such as election-campaign expenses.

unforeseen consequence: Bad or counterproductive result when laws or policies do not work as expected

political action committee (PAC): U.S. interest group set up specifically to contribute money to election campaigns.

soft money: Campaign contributions to parties and issue groups so as to skirt federal limits on contributions to candidates.

The Rise of Big Money (4 of 5)

McCain-Feingold Campaign Finance Reform Act

Bipartisan attempt to regulate campaign spending in the United States.

It was challenged in the Courts and was found to be constitutional, but subsequent rulings by the Court had rendered the act essentially irrelevant by 2004.

Super PACs spend millions of dollars on independent ads that denounce opponents.

public financing: Using tax dollars to fund something, such as election-campaign expenses.

unforeseen consequence: Bad or counterproductive result when laws or policies do not work as expected

political action committee (PAC): U.S. interest group set up specifically to contribute money to election campaigns.

soft money: Campaign contributions to parties and issue groups so as to skirt federal limits on contributions to candidates.

The Rise of Big Money (5 of 5)

The larger question is whether or not money is out of control in politics.

Pluralists argue that in the end, the amount of money has no real affect on politics because the interest groups are in constant competition with each other and no single group is able to dominate politics.

public financing: Using tax dollars to fund something, such as election-campaign expenses.

unforeseen consequence: Bad or counterproductive result when laws or policies do not work as expected

political action committee (PAC): U.S. interest group set up specifically to contribute money to election campaigns.

soft money: Campaign contributions to parties and issue groups so as to skirt federal limits on contributions to candidates.

The Rise of Single-Issue Groups

The 1970s saw the rise of single-issue interest groups, which are groups that care only about a single issue.

Issue intensity is extremely important with respect to interest groups as groups that care most intensely about an issue are more committed and gain the attention of politicians and decision makers.

Most single-issue groups are focused on moral issues, for example abortion, which makes compromise on politics very difficult.

single-issue group: Interest association devoted to one cause only.

AFL-CIO: American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations, the largest U.S. union federation.

NAM: National Association of Manufacturers, a major federation of U.S. industrial executives.

Size and Membership

The size of a group does matter when it comes to being effective in the interest group game, and large groups such as the AARP have a lot of clout.

Size isn't the only thing and group size can be countered by other resources, especially money.

Disadvantaged groups are often some of the largest groups in American politics but lack the time, money, and organizational skills to form an interest group and as such often have the least influence.

socioeconomic status: Combination of income and prestige criteria in the ranking of groups.

Access

All groups in the system want access to decision makers in order to influence policy outcomes.

Much of the money contributed to campaigns is not about results but rather about gaining access.

Structured access, an idea advanced by LaPalombara, occurs when groups have long-term friendly relationships with policy makers.

This greatly improves their chances of success in achieving their goals.

structured access: Long-term friendly connection of interest group to officials.

This graphic discusses the decline of American labor unions.

Membership in labor unions has declined since the 1950s by two-thirds.

School teachers and public service employees are more organized than factory workers.

Business has far more clout than organized labor in the United States.

This graphic discusses the use of tables in political science.

Tables are lists of things that you are studying.

They are used to organize variables and measures.

Interest Group Strategies

9.4 Explain the several strategies interest groups use.

Approaching lawmakers

Approaching the administration

Approaching the judiciary

Appeals to the public

Demonstrations

Violent protest

Approaching Lawmakers (1 of 2)

Most of the time when we think about interest groups, we think about them trying to influence legislators to pass (or not pass) a law.

Approaching lawmakers is the traditional interest group strategy.

Many are convinced that lobbyists buy Congress and get whatever they want.

lobbying: Interest-group efforts to sway legislation.

Approaching Lawmakers (2 of 2)

Approaching lawmakers is the traditional interest group strategy.

When a major interest is threatened by new laws or proposed changes in laws, they will spare no expense to work to prevent it from happening.

They are usually successful in their efforts.

Money buys access to lawmakers, increasing the effectiveness of well-funded groups to advocate for their interests.

lobbying: Interest-group efforts to sway legislation.

Approaching the Administration

Sometimes it is in a group's interest to approach and lobby the administration rather than Congress.

This occurs when groups don't necessarily want a new law but rather just a favorable interpretation of an existing law or regulation.

They use many of the same tactics that they would use on legislators in this process.

Approaching the Judiciary (1 of 3)

The courts are not immune from the influence of interest groups, and some groups have relied heavily on the courts to achieve their goals.

Interest groups can file class-action lawsuits, which are legal actions on behalf of a group or class of citizens, to try to force the courts to take action to correct a wrongdoing.

class action: Lawsuit on behalf of many persons acting together.

amicus curiae: Statement to a court by persons not party to a case.

Approaching the Judiciary (2 of 3)

Interest groups can also file amicus curiae briefs, which are also called friend of the court briefs. Amicus briefs allow the interest groups to submit to the court for consideration legal arguments on cases that affect their interests.

For example, the NRA filed amicus briefs in the Heller case.

class action: Lawsuit on behalf of many persons acting together.

amicus curiae: Statement to a court by persons not party to a case.

Approaching the Judiciary (3 of 3)

The NAACP used the courts to fight for changes to laws that promoted discrimination.

Many believe now that money buys results in traditional lobbying.

class action: Lawsuit on behalf of many persons acting together.

amicus curiae: Statement to a court by persons not party to a case.

Appeals to the Public (1 of 2)

Sometimes groups do not go to decision makers but rather go public with their causes and arguments.

This is an additional tool for many well-funded groups that can play the inside game as well, and they will run effective media campaigns in an attempt to convince the public they are good interests or are working in the public interest.

Appeals to the Public (2 of 2)

A good example of this is recent ads run by BP after the Deepwater Horizon explosion.

The efforts of the tobacco industry are also illustrative.

Demonstrations

Some groups do not have the resources to fund a media campaign, but they can still take their cases to the public.

Public demonstrations are one way they can do this.

The nonviolent protests led by Gandhi and MLK Jr. are both examples of how public demonstrations can raise the awareness of the general citizenry to an issue and increase the chances that decision makers will change policies.

Violent Protest

When groups lose faith in the system, peaceful demonstrations can move to violent protests.

This strategy can work on certain occasions.

For example, much of the Great Society Legislation was passed during a period of urban riots in the United States.

Interest Groups: An Evaluation (1 of 3)

9.5 Explain and give examples of how interest groups may become too strong.

Interest group activity is at the core of democracy, but it is important to think about how well interest groups serve the public.

There are several ways in which an interest group might fail to serve the interests of the public.

There is bias in the system and some groups, especially small groups, do not have any input into the process.

Interest Groups: An Evaluation (2 of 3)

9.5 Explain and give examples of how interest groups may become too strong.

There are several ways in which an interest group might fail to serve the interests of the public.

Some people, the poor for example, cannot organize into groups because they lack the time, money, and political competency to do so. This means that their interests are not represented in the system and politicians can ignore those interests.

Common Cause was founded as a citizens' public interest group.

Interest Groups: An Evaluation (3 of 3)

9.5 Explain and give examples of how interest groups may become too strong.

There are several ways in which an interest group might fail to serve the interests of the public.

Some groups may be led by a highly militant and radical leadership that has views that vary considerably with what members actually want.

This can lead to a split between leadership and membership within the group.

Skewing Policy (1 of 2)

Interest groups can skew policy in their favor regardless of which party is in power.

This occurs because groups often donate money to both main political parties in the hopes of assuring access to decision makers regardless of who wins the election.

subprime: Risky mortgage made to unqualified borrower.

scandal: Corruption made public.

Skewing Policy (2 of 2)

Even a political party that might favor the interest of the poor is going to be more likely to pass legislation favoring the wealthy due to that interest group's influence.

subprime: Risky mortgage made to unqualified borrower.

scandal: Corruption made public.

Stalemating Political Power

Interest groups can also contribute to a stalemating of political power because leaders may be beholden to so many groups that they will be reluctant to act on any controversial issue out of fear of alienating multiple powerful interest groups.