Technologies and Cyberpsychology

WHAT IS THEORY?

"Theory, in simple terms, can be seen as "a world view, a way we organize and explain the world we live in." (DeMarrais & Lecompte, p. 3).

How do social scientists use theory?

· To organize thinking about phenomena and relationships.

· To guide inquiry and research questions.

· To organize research findings into meaningful patterns and frameworks.

· To make predictions about the future based on what has already been observed.

FUNCTIONAL THEORIES

Also known as: Consensus theory; Structural Functionalism "society as a kind of machine where one part articulates with another to produce the dynamic energy to make society work"; (SCS, p. 114)

"A major function of schools is to develop, sort, and select individuals by ability levels to fill hierarchical positions… this is a rational process based on the merit of individuals.” (Ballantine, p. 62)

Features:  Each part of society is related to others parts and follows roles and rules in a rational way.

School roles: Schools socialize students;  teach shared values; encourage social cohesion and harmony; sort and select students according to their ability for roles in the society and economy.

Assumptions: Equilibrium and consensus in society are normal. Individuals are primarily motivated by prestige and wealth. Schools can rationally select the most talented and motivated students.

Weaknesses: Does not explain persistent social problems that schools and education have little power to change.  Many of the assumptions about individuals’ motivation and the abilities of educational institutions are either questionable or contradicted by evidence.

Sample question about student academic achievement How are the achievement levels of students related to family economic status of students?

CONFLICT THEORIES

Also known as: Neo-Marxist, Correspondence, and Reproduction theories "Ideologies or intellectual justifications created by the powerful are designed to enhance their position by legitimizing inequality and the unequal distribution of material and cultural goods.”  (SCS p. 115)

"Problems in the educational system stem from the conflicts in the society as a whole…a system that is based on ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots.’” (Ballantine, 1997, p. 64)

Features: Dominant groups have power over subordinate groups through overt and subtle forms of force and manipulation.

School roles:  Perpetuates or reproduces the existing class or social system by preparing children for roles in the capitalistic, technological society; Legitimizes unequal power and distribution of resources through achievement ideology; Schools are sites of conflict.

Assumptions: Conflict in society is inherent; contradictions between dominant and subordinate groups are inevitable sources of social conflict and tension. 

Weaknesses:  Reduces interactions to abstract struggles. Offers little explanation of social order, incremental change and improvement in society.  One dimensional view of education as reproducing inequality without alternative possibilities.

Sample question about student academic achievement How are the achievement levels of students related to family economic status of students?

INTERACTIONAL THEORIES

Also known as: There are specific theories such as phenomenology, symbolic interactionism, andethnomethodology.

"Interpretive theorists study social meanings and interaction at the microlevel through qualitative and descriptive research methods. They view the participants in their studies as engaged in the process of constructing culture through daily interactions.” (deMarrais & LeCompte, 1999, p. 26)  

Features: Focuses on interactions between individuals and small groups. The objective is to explain how people make and negotiate meaning and how they act and interact based on their understandings.

School roles: Places where people construct meaning through interaction. Schools include specific sites for interaction such as classrooms, hallways, athletic fields, and virtual meeting places.

Assumptions: Social reality is negotiated and is dependent on the context. Culture and meaning are constructed by individuals through day-to-day interactions. Individuals act based on meanings that they perceive.

Weaknesses: Focus on the microlevel ignores the external (macrolevel) social, political, economic constraints and dynamics.  Subjectivity and bias may cloud the research.

Sample question about student academic achievement What roles do teachers and state assessments play in evaluating student achievement?

THEORY MATCHING QUIZ

There are five steps to this quiz including identifying the features, school roles, assumptions, and weaknesses for each theory. Refer to the readings in Sadovnik, pp. 3-17 for a more in-depth discussion of these and other theories. Your answers will not be seen by your instructor or graded. To start, simply drag and match each theory with its description.

Part 1: Theory Features

1. Each part of society is related to other parts and follows roles and rules in a rational way.

2. Focuses on interactions between individuals and small groups. The objective is to explain how people make and negotiate meaning and how they act and interact based on their understandings.

3. Dominant groups have power over subordinate groups through overt and subtle forms of force and manipulation.

Part 2: School Roles

1. Perpetuates or reproduces the existing class or social system by preparing children for roles in the capitalistic, technological society; Legitimizes unequal power and distribution of resources through achievement ideology; Schools are sites of conflict.

2. Places where people construct meaning through interaction. Schools include specific sites for interaction such as classrooms, hallways, athletic fields, and virtual meeting places.

3. Schools socialize students; teach shared values; encourage social cohesion and harmony; sort and select students according to their ability for roles in the society and economy.

Part 3: Assumptions

1. Social reality is negotiated and is dependent on the context. Culture and meaning are constructed by individuals through day-to-day interactions. Individuals act based on meanings that they perceive.

2. Equilibrium and consensus in society are normal. Individuals are primarily motivated by prestige and wealth. Schools can rationally select the most talented and motivated students.

3. Conflict in society is inherent; contradictions between dominant and subordinate groups are inevitable sources of social conflict and tension.

Part 4: Weaknesses

1. Reduces interactions to abstract struggles. Offers little explanation of social order, incremental change and improvement in society. One dimensional view of education as reproducing inequality without alternative possibilities.

2. Does not explain persistent social problems that schools and education have little power to change. Many of the assumptions about individuals’ motivation and the abilities of educational institutions are either questionable or contradicted by evidence.

3. Focus on the microlevel ignores the external (macrolevel) social, political, economic constraints and dynamics. Subjectivity and bias may cloud the research.

Part 5: Match question with appropriate theory

1. How are measures of academic achievement, such as grades and test scores, related to the educational level, ethnicity, and cultural capital of parents?

2. To what extent do teachers and guidance counselors influence students’ academic and vocational choices?

3. How are teachers’ academic expectations of individual students and groups of students formed?

REFERENCES

· Ballantine, J. H. The sociology of education, Fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

· DeMarrais, K.B. & Lecompte, M.D. (1999). The Way Schools Work. New York: Addison Wesley Longman.

· Sadovnik, A. (2007). Theory and research in the sociology of education. In A. Sadovnik (Ed.),Sociology of education (pp. 3-21). New York: Routledge.

· Sadovnik, A.R., Cookson, P.W., Semel, S.F. (2006). Exploring education, Third edition.Boston: Pearson.

CREDITS

Subject Matter Expert:

Paul Englesberg

Interactive Design:

Nate Kerl

Instructional Design:

Brian Satrom

Project Manager:

Jay Her-Neish