history

Module One: Mini Lecture

                                                                            

I.       Statistics:

        New Mexico is located in the ‘Four Corners’ part of the Southwest. 

        The ‘Four Corners’ means that New Mexico shares a common border with Arizona, Utah, and Colorado.

        New Mexico is the fifth largest state in the U.S. 

*   590 miles x 350 miles,

*   78 million acres, 121,666 square miles. 

*   44% of land privately owned; 34 % of land U.S. Government controls (i.e. forests, parks, military), 12.5% state owns/operates, 10%  Indian land.

a.                 Varied elevations, climates, temperatures, rainfall.

        70% days of sunshine, growing season between 148 and 220 days. Rainfall 8 to 40 inches per year, depends on elevation.

b.                Population, 2. 059, 179 (2010 census) 

*   44 % Anglo (approx.), 46% Hispanic (approx.), 10% Indian (approx.)

*   72 % urban population vs. 28% rural population.

2.       Geography

a.     New Mexico is cut north/south by Rio Grande & Continental Divide. Continental Divide in New Mexico at 3,650 ft., lowest in U.S.

b.     Deserts in south, extend up from Mexico:

        Chihuahua, east of Continental Divide, Sonora west.

        Plants Cactus: cholla, mesquite, saguaro in Sonora

        Reptiles, etc., Gila monsters, tarantulas, scorpions, rattlesnakes 2,500 ft above sea level to 8,000 ft above sea level.

c.      Watersheds/Drainage:  River flows in NM related to Continental Divide:

        Westward flowing rivers from Continential Divide: San Juan and Gila Rivers will flow into into Colorado River then into Gulf of California.

        East following: Rio Grande, 1,800 miles long, eventually flow into Gulf of Mexico.

                   *        Pecos River and Chama River flow into Rio Grande

Canadian River flows into Red River than into Mississippi River than into the Gulf of Mexico.

d.     Mountain peaks and ranges—very complicated geologically:

        Rocky Mts—known as the Southern Rockies in New Mexico. Coming out of Colorado and travel through New Mexico north to south.

        Sangre de Cristo (Blood of Christ) Range—Spur of Rocky Mts., Northeastern New Mexico.

i.                    In 1680 Pueblo people of New Mexico rose up against the Spanish.  The Franciscan Catholic Church next to Pecos Pueblo at that time was burned down during the revolt.  The Catholic priest who escaped looked back at the mountains behind the church and the mountains appeared to be blood red—the blood of Christ as he wept that the Pueblo people had rejected Christianity.

        Mogollon Mts., in southwestern NM—named after a Spanish governor of New Mexico in the 1700s

        Sandias Mts., behind Albuquerque—full name ‘El Corazon de lasSandias’ 

i.                    Spanish for ‘The heart of the watermelon’—name given by the Spanish as they thought that these mountains reminded them of the inside of a watermelon as they approached it in the 1600s.

        Also Mt Wheeler is the tallest at 13,161 feet above sea level. Santa Fe backdrop.

        `Also Sierra Blanca—near Ruidoso, 12,003 ft above sea level, in Sacramento Mts.

        And Mt. Taylor, volcanic, sacred to Navajo and to Pueblo Indians at 11,289 feet above sea level.

 

e.      New Mexico Rivers:

        Rio Grande: Comes out of the Rocky Mts., in Southern Colorado travels north to south through New Mexico then goes into Texas—total distance is 1800 miles. The Rio Grande overflows its banks every year and deposits dead vegetation from the Rockies.

i.                   Historically, the first Native American Pueblos in the 1400s were established along the banks of the Rio Grande.

        Pecos River: Comes out of the Sangre de Cristo Mts., and travelsNorth to South through New Mexico and into Texas for a distance of 800 miles.  Pecos can mean ‘where the water first emerges’.

i.                   Historically-Pecos Pueblo was established at the point where that river emerges from the Sangre de Cristo Mts,.

        San Juan River: North Western New Mexico.  Origin is the Rocky Mts., in Southern Colorado—comes into New Mexico for 124 miles and then returns to Colorado. 

i.                   Historically—this was a main water source for the Anasazi and is presently a water source for the Navajo.

        Gila River: South Western New Mexico:  ‘Know as one of the world’s muddiest rivers’  because of the dark soil that the river carries from the Mogollon Mts. Means the ‘Spider’  as the streams of water that come out of the Mogollon Mts., to form the Gila River resemble spider legs.

i.                    Historically—this was part of the boundary between the US Territory of NM and Mexico from 1848- 1853.

        Chama River: North Central NM.  Means red because of the red soil it carries.

i.                    Historically—the first Spanish settlements in NM were established in the early 1600s where the Chama and the Rio Grande meet.

 

f.       Continental Divide: 

        Known as ‘The backbone of North America’. 

        ‘The Continental Divide, is actually a giant fold or crest in the earth that begins in Canada and travels North to South through NM and then goes into Mexico.  Known as a ‘Drainage area’—because all the rivers west of the Continental Divide will eventually drain into the Pacific Ocean, and all the rivers east of the Divide will drain into the Atlantic Ocean.

i.                   Historically—when the US government wanted to build the first transcontinental R/R across North America in the 1850s—NM was to be part of this as the lowest point of the Divide in North American is in southern NM.

 

g.     Llano Estacado:   ‘The Stacked Plains,’ located in Eastern New Mexico and West Texas—is a gigantic Mesa or Plateau—formed nearly 70,000,000 (Cenozoic  Era) years ago, when Rocky Mts., were formed.

Boundaries include the Canadian River in the North, Palo DuroCanyon on the east, Pecos River on the east, and Edwards Plateau in Texas on the south.

 

Features of the Llano Estacado:

 

        Playas—meaning beach:  Disk shaped features, caused by wind erosion—rain water is deposited here and NM ranchers often use them as water sources for their cattle. Estimated about 20,000 playas dot the Llano Estacado.  Some are as large as 17 acres.

        Caprock—overlays the Llano Estacado—make up of calcium carbonate—is resistant to weather erosion—main reason why Llano Estacado has not weather eroded over time.

        Ogallala Aquifer—giant underground water source that contains water going back to Cenozoic Era.  Main water source for humans and animals on the Llano Estacado. 

i.                   In 1900, it was estimated that there was over 3 billion gallons of water trapped underground—but because of extensive human needs since 1900—only about 1 billion gallons remain.

Module One Lecture 2

The First New Mexicans                           

         Theme :  ‘How Climate and Environment affected first human cultures in NM—how these cultures changed and what elements of the cultures survived.’

1.      Anthropologists  tell us that the first humans probably emerged in Africa around 100,00 bc and then migrated ‘Out of Africa’ to Europe and Asia.  By 40,000 bc, some of these humans had migrated to the tip of Siberia during the last great world-wide ice age—the Wisconsin Ice Age (40.000 t0 10,000 bc).  These humans were big game hunters who traveled in bands of about 40-50 members to a band.  Mammoths and wild bison—animals well suited to cold weather-- were primarily hunted by these bands. 

 

        The Americas were probably first inhabited by humans coming over during the Wisconsin Ice Age.  At that time most of the world’s ocean water was trapped in giant glaciers which covered part of the northern hemisphere.  Land once covered by water was now exposed.  The area between western Siberia and Alaska was now exposed and a land bridge was created between western Siberia and Alaska from 40,000 to 10,000bc.  Across this land bridge went the Mammoth and wild bison as well as human hunting bands. These hunting bands would continue to move across this land bridge from 40,000 to the end of the Wisconsin Ice Age around 10,000bc.  As soon as these human hunters set foot into Alaska—Anthropologists will call them ‘Paleo Indians ’or‘Stone Age Indians.’

        Moving into Alaska, these Paleo-Indian big game hunters eventually migrated across North and South America by the end of the Wisconsin Ice Age.  Evidence of the earliest Paleo-Indian big game cultures emerge from ‘kill sites’ in North and South America.  One of these kill sites is located in East Central New Mexico at the Blackwater Draw site just east of Portales.  At this site are artifacts from the Paleo-Indian Clovis culture (11,300 BC-11,000 BC).  Artifacts include the large and distinctive ‘Clovis spear point’, used at this ‘kill site’ to dispatch mammoth as they came to draw water from the giant pond there.  By around 10,000bc, a world- wide warm weather change ended the Wisconsin Ice Age. In turn, the mammoth in the Americas could not adjust to this change and would eventually die out.  At the

         Blackwater Draw site, the Paleo-Indians adjusted to this climatic  

change by hunting the wild bison—which did adjust to the changing weather--  now primarily came to the pond.  Around 11,000bc the ‘Folsum Culture’ emerged (named after adistinctivespear point first found in Folsum NM).  This spear point was smaller and more slender.  But as the climate continued to get warmer, the wild bison would be forced to move further north—seeking cooler weather.  The Folsum Culture would come to an end at Blackwater Draw as some of these Paleo-Indians would move north also to continue to hunt these bison.

        Around 5,000bc in Western NM, the Cochise Desert Culturewould emerge around a now extinct lake called Lake Cochise. Again, due to changing climatic conditions, the Paleo-Indian population there would consist of part-time small game hunters of deer and rabbit, as well as part time farmers growing corn. Domesticated corn emerged first in North America in Central Mexico and through trade networks found its way into the Cochise Desert Culture around 3,000bc.

i.        The Cochise Culture Paleo-Indians probably traded turquoise from NM to central Mexico.  (Turquoise is not plentiful in Central Mexico and must be obtained through trade.)  The ‘mano and metate’ also first appears in the Cochise Desert Culture around 1,000bc.  The ‘metate’—a stone slab and the ‘mano’—a round stone— were used to process the corn kernels-- also came from central Mexico through trade.

        The Cochise Desert Culture comes to an end around 100bc as a continuing warming trend would eventually dry up Lake Cochise. Some Anthropologists believe that to adapt to this climate change—some members of the Cochise Desert Culture became full time hunters or nomads in New Mexico.  Other Paleo-Indians from the Cochise Desert Culture may have emerged as full time farmers—associated with the Mogollon Culture along the Gila River in southwestern NM beginning around 100bc.  This Mogollon Culture (using the Gila River for irrigation purposes) continued some of the cultural features of the previous Cochise Desert Culture—such as trade with Mexico, the mano and metate, and the growing of corn.  Something new added to this culture included pit houses—houses half buried in the earth—and the ‘three sisters.’ The ‘three sisters’—the growing of three crops (corn, beans, and squash) in the same agricultural spot—also came up from central Mexico.  In turn, turquoise continued to be traded from NM down to the advanced Paleo-Indian cultures of central Mexico.  Around 750bc, some anthropologists believe that some Mogollon Culture members migrated to the four corners area of New Mexico and may have been responsible for the initiation of the ‘Anasazi Culture’ in the San Juan Basin of the ‘Four Corners’ area.

  *** Note—For a complete discussion of the Anasazi Culture of Chaco Canyon—refer to the Roberts and Roberts Text.

        Around 1400 ad, and again because of a continuing warming trend,  the Anasazi Culture of New Mexico would be replaced by Native Americans who would establish pueblos or towns along more reliable water sources—the river banks of New Mexico—Rio Grande, Pecos River, and the Zuni River in present day Arizona. Significant features in this Pueblo cultural stage include the ‘manoand metate,’ (Cochise Desert Culture) the ‘three sisters’ (Mogollon Culture) as well as above ground living structures and ‘kivas.’ (Anasazi Culture)

        Contemporary scholars of New Mexico history know quite a bit about the additional cultural features of the Post 1400 Pueblo people because of the arrival of the Spanish into New Mexico in the sixteenth century. Because the Pueblo people of NM had no written language—prior to the arrival of the Europeans-- modern scholars must rely on those Spanish documents that focus on the cultural traits of the Indians they encountered.

        Significantly, the Spanish tell us something of the religion of the Pueblo people of the 1500s.  The Spanish documents mention, that the Pueblo people worshiped weather spirits—called kachinas in the underground kivas.  In addition, part-time religious specialists called Shamen would lead the Pueblo people in religious rituals in the kivas.  These ‘Shamen’ acted as intermediaries between the weather spirits and the rest of the Pueblo population.

        The Spanish also noted that the Pueblo people would barter surplus ‘three sisters’ to the nomadic hunters of Eastern NM and West Texas.  These nomads bartered buffalo products—meat, buffalo hides, and robes—in exchange for Pueblo pottery as well as corn, beans and squash.

        The documents also state that every Pueblo had a ‘citizen militia’—part time warriors who would be led into battle by a shaman war priest.  A Pueblo ‘citizen militia’ often fought against aggressive nomads as well as the ‘citizen militias’ of other Pueblos.

        At the time of the Spanish incursion into NM in the 1500s, the nomadic groups of New Mexico included the Jumanos and theAthabaskan speaking nomads. The Jumanos—who probably emerged from the Cochise Desert Culture were full time buffalo hunters.  The Spanish would nickname these Jumanos—the Tattooed People—because of the extensive tattoos which covered their bodies. 

        The other principal nomads were the Athabaskan speakers—the Apache and Navajo—who came to New Mexico in the 1400s ad from the Lake Athabaskan area of Western Canada.  These Apache and Navajo probably came into New Mexico as a result of a population increase and severe drought in Western Canada.

Module One: Lecture 3

Spanish Cultural Baggage & The Americas)

          Part One:  Spanish Background (475-1400ad)

 

1.     Until the fifth century ad, Spain was part of the Roman Empire in Europe.  A major characteristic of the Roman Empire in Europe was its centralization around one individual—the Roman Emperor.  In the fifth century ad, German barbarians overran the Roman Empire and centralization collapsed.  For example, the German barbarians broke up France, England, Austria, and Spain into twenty parts each.  Each of these parts was controlled by a king—hence decentralization.  In Spain, the German barbarians---called the Visigoths—created twenty kingdoms—two of which, Aragon and Castile were located in the mountains of northern Spain.  And by the early 700s ad, many of these German barbarians in the former Roman Empire had embraced Christianity.

2.     In 610 ad Muslim warriors who embraced a religion called Islam, burst out of their homeland in the Arabian Peninsula, and swept across the Middle East—occupying Jerusalem—moving across North Africa and into Spain by 711ad.  Because Spain was decentralized, these particular Muslim warriors—called Moors (from North Africa)—would occupy all of Spain, with the exception of the mountainous Christian kingdoms—Aragon and Castile.

3.     Because of this Islamic threat to Christian Europe, France, England, and Austria would eventually centralize under the leadership of one king in each country.  By 1092ad the kings of France, England, and Austria felt strong enough to go on the offensive against Islam; this would result in the Christian Crusades—Christian Europe against Islam.  There would be 12 Christian Crusades in all—from 1092-1292ad.  The target of these Crusades was to recapture Jerusalem—a major symbol of Christian Europe—from Islam.

4.     To get to the Middle East, the Christian armies would utilize Italian merchant ships. The Italian middle class—who operated these ships—would transport the Christian armies over to the Middle East, and then return from the Middle East with silks and spices.  Since Europeans had previously little exposure with silks and spices, these items became popular with Europeans during the Crusades.

5.     In 1292, the Crusades had ended in failure—as Islam still controlled Jerusalem.  One of the reasons the Crusades ended was by the thirteenth century, the financial resources of France, England, and Austria had been depleted as a result of these holy wars. While this was significant, another important issue quickly became apparent—Europeans no longer could acquire silks and spices from the Middle East.

6.     In the 1300s, Marco Polo, an Italian merchant, believed it was possible to go to the origin of these silks and spices—India and China—by walking around the Islamic Middle East to these countries.  It took Marco Polo five years to both travel overland to Asia—by passing the Islamic Middle East and then to return to Christian Europe.  He not only became wealthy overnight by selling these Asian silks and spices, but he also became famous with a book he wrote about his adventures.  Some of the interesting features in this book:

a.      Marco Polo claimed that India and China were surrounded by water and that it might be faster for Europeans to reach these areas by boat rather than by traveling by foot.

b.     The rulers of India and China were not Christian nor were they Muslim—and his feeling in the book was that these rulers were interested in learning about Christianity.

 

IV.    Theme = Spanish Cultural Baggage & The Americas        

          Part Two:  Spain (1400s-1500s)

 

1.     In 1467, Christian Spain became centralized with the marriage of king Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella, the queen of Castile. In that same year, these Christian monarchs embarked on their own Crusade—called the Spanish Reconquista—to eliminate Islam from Spain. Significantly, the major cultural elements involved in this ‘Spanish Reconquista’ would be brought over to the Americas in the 1500s. 

a.     Foremost, this Spanish Reconquista would remain a ‘holy war.’  In this ‘holy war’ the Spanish king and queen wanted to convert the conquered Spanish Moors to Catholicism. To speed up this conversion process, the Spanish monarchs chose the monasticFranciscans and Dominicans to achieve this goal.  Why these monastic groups?  By the 1400s, the best educated Europeans were in the Catholic monasteries.  These monk spent their lives studying the Christian bible.  In order to read and reflect on the Bible, they had to know how to read and write the original language of the Old Testament—Hebrew; the original language of the New Testament—Greek; and when the Old and New Testaments were combined into one book—the language was Latin.  So it would be easy for these monastic groups to learn the language of the Spanish Moors—Arabic.

b.     While the Catholic pope would normally be responsible for assigning Catholic clerics to this conversion process, the pope, in the late 1400’s gave Ferdinand and Isabella that right in a special privilege called the ‘Patronato Real.’ (Special-Privilege).  This was given by the pope as reward for the success of this ‘Spanish Reconquista’ in the late 1400s.

c.      The monastic groups (Franciscans and Dominicans) who participated in this Spanish ‘holy war’ went enthusiastically into this task because they believed that the ‘Millennium’ was to come about in the year 1500ad.  The ‘Millennium’ was a medieval belief that Jesus Christ would return in the year 1500ad, to rule the worldfor a 1,000 years, and then the end of the world would occur.  The monastic groups believed that they would receive heavenly rewards by Jesus Christ for their devotion and zeal in converting the Spanish Moors to Catholicism.  These Reconquista ‘holy war’ features:  Franciscans and Dominicans, Patronato Real, and the Millennium would be part of the Spanish cultural baggage that would come over to the Americas in the 1500s.

d.     A social feature was also part of the ‘Spanish Reconquista’ of the late 1400s.  Spanish Christian officers could earn an additional‘Title of Nobility’.  Spanish Christian military officers were already members of the Spanish nobility—called the Hidalgo class.  Their nobility rank allowed them to have the title of ‘Don’ in front of their names.  As a reward for special services during the ‘Reconquista,’ a Spanish military officer could also be rewarded with a more prestigious title—that of ‘Adelantado’ (i.e. ‘Most Valuable Warrior’) that could be added to his title. This special title would also be part of the Spanish cultural baggage brought over the Americas.

e.      Another element of the Spanish Reconquista of the 1400s was economic.  Spanish Christian military officers could keep the‘Spoils of War’—a privilege often denied to the lower military ranks.  Also, while theoretically the Spanish king and queen would own all the conquered Moorish lands in Spain, the Christian monarchs would permit some of this conquered land to be loaned out to loyal Spanish military officers in what would be known as the ‘Encomienda System.’  Encomienda comes from the verb “to entrust.’  So, while all conquered land in Spain belonged to the Spanish monarchs, some of this landwould be entrusted (on loan) to loyal Spanish military officers.

f.        On this land were Muslim Moors who would supply the Spanish officer with food and clothing.  In turn, the Spanish officer would be responsible for the conversion of these Moors to Catholicism. For this task, the officer would bring in the Franciscans or Dominicans.  While these above social and economic features were only entitled for Spanish military officers—who were part of the Spanish nobility, it was possible for the non officer commoners to become eligible.  For example, if a lower rank in the Spanish army did something spectacular during the Spanish Reconquistaagainst Islam, that individual could be elevated to the ranks of the nobility—with the title of ‘Don’ and then be eligible for all the ‘perks’ the Spanish officers enjoyed.  Importantly, economic features of the Spanish Reconquista would also come over to the Americas.

g.     Yet another feature of the Reconquista were mystical elements. ‘Santiago Matamoros’ (St. James kill the Moors) was an expression that the Spanish military would yell as they went into battle against Muslim Moors.  During the Roman Empire period, James was a Roman military officer who died for the Christian faith.  During the Reconquista, members of the Spanish military, as they went into the heat of battle against Islam, believed that they saw the same James—now a Catholic saint—appear before them on horseback, and leading them into battle against the Moors.

h.      Another mystical element concerned the ‘Seven Cities of Gold.’ This legend emerged during the late 1400s, and focused on ‘Seven Cities of Gold’ that existed somewhere in Muslim Spain.  This legend became an incentive for the Spanish military to acquire as officers could keep the ‘Spoils of War.’  These mystical elements also came over to the Americas. 

i.        Finally there was the institution of the Inquisition that would also be part and parcel of Spanish cultural baggage.  The Inquisition(from the verb—to inquire) was a Catholic Church organization --established by the Spanish king and queen to root out heresy (false Christian belief) during the Reconquista and the target group was not Moorish, but Jewish.  At the beginning of the Reconquista in 1469, the sizeable Jewish population of Aragon and Castile—who were craftsmen, merchants, and bankers—loaned substantial funds to Ferdinand and Isabella to help fund Reconquista, with the provision that these loans would eventually be paid back to the Jewish population with interest.  But, as the Reconquista became successful in the late 1400s, the Spanish monarchs sought ways to renege on these loans.

i.        One strategy was the announcement during the latter stages of the Reconquista that only one religion would be tolerated in a liberated Spain and that was Catholicism.  Since the Moors would already be forcible converted, the Jewish population of Spain would have to voluntarily convert to Catholicism or else leave Spain forever; and by choosing to leave Spain, the Spanish monarchs would confiscate all their property and more importantly, the loans would not have to be paid back.

ii.       Not surprisingly, those members of the Jewish faith that had lent money to the Spanish crown, and wanted to be paid back,--embraced the Catholic faith—and would be known as‘conversos.’ The large number of the Jewish population that converted to Catholicism surprised the Spanish monarchs.

iii.  Still aiming to not pay back the loans—even to these ‘conversos’, the Spanish king and queen brought about the Inquisition in Spain in the late 1400s.  This Catholic Church organization, made up of members of the Catholic clergy—archbishops and bishops, was established to ask questions. ***(Note: The Catholic monarchs could establish this Catholic Church organization in Spain as a special right under the  Patronato Real). 

iv.  The questions that the Inquisition asked would focus on whether or not a person was truly Catholic or if that person practiced heresy—i.e. following the Jewish faith.  The questions were phrased that there was no right answer, so that upon completion of the questionnaire—no surprise—you were accused of practicing heresy and told to leave Spain immediately, leaving behind all property and forfeiting any chance of getting your loan money back from the Spanish monarchs.  The Inquisition came over to the Americas as part of Spanish cultural baggage.

Module One:  Lecture Four

 

Spanish Cultural Baggage and The Four Major Expeditions into New Mexico in the 1500s.

1.      Francisco Vasquez de Coronado Expedition (1540-1542):

Cabeza de Vaca , one of the four survivors from the 1528 Narvaez expeditions had traveled from Florida to northern Mexico between 1528 and 1537 provided valuable information about Indian culture and stories--especially stories about a Pueblo people who lived  along a great river and who had sophisticated city structures and engaged in intensive agriculture.  This information of advanced Indian cultures became linked in Spanish minds with legends of fabulously wealthy provinces known as the ‘Golden Cities of Cibola', where the houses were lavishly decorated with silver and gold.  These beliefs would also inspire the Francisco Vasquez de Coronado expedition that ventured throughout the Southwest 1540-1541.   

a.      In Spain, however, the Spanish king concerned about past treatment of Native Americans in the Caribbean and central Mexico was determined to inaugurate a new approach/agenda to Spanish expeditions--beginning with the Coronado expedition.  The expedition--which included Franciscan military chaplains--would be therefore financed by heavy private investment, including funds from Coronado and many of the expedition's members.  They were also to carry all they would need and were forbidden by the Spanish king to live off the land--nor could they require the Native American population to work for them.  The entire Coronado venture would be predicated on the assumption that any material wealth found in the Southwest would replicate the silver and gold sources encountered by earlier Spanish 'conquistadors' in central Mexico and Peru.

b.     The Coronado expedition set out in early 1540 and by mid-year had reached the main city of Cibola--the Zuni Pueblo of Hawikuh--in what is now southern Arizona.  Bitterly disappointed at what he encountered at Hawikuh, Coronado recorded his reaction:  "It is a small rocky pueblo, all crumpled up, there being many farm settlements in New Spain that look better from afar."

c.      In addition, Coronado's expedition met increasing Native American resistance at Hawikuh to demands that the Indian population acknowledge the over-lordship of the Spanish king. In response, yelling ‘Santiago Matamoros’ the Spanish soldiers took Hawikuh by force, and in the battle's aftermath, Coronado believed that the Indian population had accepted both the Spanish king and the Christian God. 

d.      Significantly, the Indians gifts of animal skins and turquoise the sealed the relationship would be distinctly disappointing for Spanish soldiers who had expected metal riches beyond counting.

***Note:  This pattern would be replicated throughout New Mexico and the Southwest as the Coronado expedition searched for the elusive'Golden Cities of Cibola'. 

e.     And when encountering Pueblos along the way, the Coronado expedition expected the Indian population to submit to Spanish authority and to embrace the Christian God. However, these repeated intentions--the replacing one rule with another, and especially of attempting to change the Indians' religious life, would always lead to conflict. 

***Note:  The Spanish strategy of was based on a the fatal assumption that Native Americans would easily and willingly give up their own culture in preference for Roman Catholicism and a Spanish style of life.  Thus, the seeds of discourse were sown and later on in the seventeenth century, when Indians made clear their determination to protect their own traditions, while at the same time the Spanish would perceive resistance as treachery.

f.       In the later sixteenth century, Spanish expeditions made forays into New Mexican territory.  Two small exploring parties, in particular, both of which included Catholic missionaries, ventured into New Mexico in the early 1580s.  One was led by Franciscan friar, Agustin Rodriguez and Captain Francisco Sanchez Chamuscado. The other was under Antonio de Espejo.  Significantly, these expeditions demonstrated that the Pueblos had not forgotten the lessons of the Coronado campaign, but the Spaniards largely had forgotten. 

 

***Significance  of Coronado Expedition and its connection to Spanish Cultural Baggage:

        Searched for a City of Gold

        Coronado to get title of Adelantato

        Spanish military were allowed the ‘Spoils of War’

        Franciscans part of the Expedition in order to convert Indians

        Why Franciscans?  Because of Spanish King’s privilege under the‘Patronato Real’

        ‘Spanish soldiers yelled ‘Santiago Matamoros’ while going into battle with the Pueblo People in New Mexico

        In addition, Coronado’s Expedition established Standard Operating Procedure (S.O.P) for dealing with the Pueblo people of New Mexico in the 1500s---while searching for city of gold, the Coronado expedition lived off the land.

*Pueblo people supplied food and clothing to the Spanish as a form of tax or tribute in exchange for the privilege of being introduced to Christianity.

g.         Coronado’s report to the Spanish king in 1542 stated:

*          There existed no city of gold in the area now known as New Mexico.

*          The report highlighted the issue that --- some reason the people living in that area (i.e. Pueblo People) are hostile to the Spanish.

*          If the Spanish plan to settle there, it will cost a lot of money—because there if no gold or silver.

*          The report would be misplaced in the Spanish archives in Madrid, Spain and will not emerge until late 1500s.

h.  In the later sixteenth century, other Spanish exploratory expeditions made forays into New Mexican territory.  Two small exploring parties, in particular, both of which included Catholic missionaries, ventured into New Mexico in the early 1580s.  One was led by Franciscan friar, Augustin Rodriguez and Spanish military officer, Captain Francisco Sanchez Chamuscado. The other was under Antonio de Espejo.  Significantly, these expeditions would largely demonstrate that while the Pueblos had not forgotten the lessons of the Coronado campaign, but the Spaniards largely had forgotten. 

 

2.      Agustin Rodriguez and Francisco Sanchez ChamuscadoExpedition (1581-1582)

a.   Franciscan Fray(friar) Augustin Rodriguez and Francisco SanchezChamuscado’s  expedition crossed the Rio Grande in Chihuahua , and visited Pueblo settlements at a site near present day Mountainaire, New Mexico. During the next six months, the expedition visited all the pueblos in NM, and Rodriguez recorded everything he witnessed. A problem emerged when Chamuscado—not finding any hints of precious metals-- decided to return to Mexico but left behind friar Rodriguez, who at his insistence, wanted to remain and Christianize the Pueblo population. Remaining in New Mexico, he suffered martyrdom at the hands of the Pueblo people. The remainder of the expedition arrived in Mexico City in the spring of 1582, without Captain Chamuscado, who became ill and died along the way.

 

****Significance of Augustin Rodriguez and Captain Francisco SanchezChamuscado Expedition and its connection to Spanish Cultural Baggage:

        Franciscan friar, Rodriguez was influenced by the idea of theMillennium.

        Chamuscado searches for City of Gold in New Mexico.

        Chamuscado’s military escort allowed ‘Spoils of War’.

        Spanish attack Pueblo people yelling ‘Santiago Matamoros’.

        Expedition uses S.O.P. established by Coronado.

Significantly:  The expedition submits a report to the Spanish king—written by Rodriguez-- which focused on how many Pueblo towns Indians lived along the rivers in New Mexico, as well as aspects of Pueblo culture.           

i.                    Franciscan Rodriguez stays behind to Christianize Pueblo people.

 

3.      Antonio de Espejo Expedition (1582-1583) :

 

a.     Concern for the safety of the Franciscans left behind led the Spanish king to organize the next expedition into New Mexico.  Spanish born,Antonio de Espejo, a rancher in northern Chihuahua, volunteered to finance and lead the expedition to rescue the Franciscans. 

i.                    His reason for doing so was to not only escape punishment for having killed several of his ranch employees, but also to look for potential gold and silver deposits in New Mexico.

b.       The party left for New Mexico on November 10, 1582, and followed the Río Conchos to the Rio Grande---which Espejo named Río delNorte.  At the Pueblo site of Puaray (the remains of this Pueblo are located today in Coronado State Monument near present day Bernalillo), Espejo was told that the Franciscans--who the expedition intended to rescue--had been killed. In retaliation, the Spanish burnedPuaray and killed some of the inhabitants.

c.       In the aftermath, Espejo did not return to Mexico City, but instead, was determined to locate precious metal deposits.

d.      The Espejo expedition explored the Pecos River area about thirty miles southeast of Santa Fe and followed the river south to the site of present Pecos, Texas.

e.     The expedition returned to Mexico City in 1583 and submitted a report to the Spanish king. They had found no riches, but they had learned much about the land.

***Note :  Espejo’s expedition probably did more to stimulate the future Spanish settlement of New Mexico, than did the reports of any other of the early explorers.

****Significance of Antonio de Espejo Expedition and its connection to Spanish Cultural Baggage:

        A Franciscan chaplain is part of the Espejo expedition.

        Espejo searches for City of Gold.

        Spanish yell Santiago Matamoros as they attack Puaray.

        Expedition uses S.O.P. established earlier by Coronado.

Note:   Espejo’s report states that he did not find city of gold, but that the soil along the rivers is very fertile.

 

VII. First permanent Spanish presence in New Mexico

1.      Juan de Onate Expedition (1598):

a.     It was not until 1598 that Juan de Onate, born in northern New Spain (Mexico), led the first Spanish colonization of New Mexico.

b.     Onate’s Agenda:

        Onate instructed by Spanish king not to look for gold and silver as there is none there—Coronado’s report has surfaced.

        Onate is to search for Strait of Anian (Northwest Passage) believed to be somewhere in New Mexico,

        Onate’s military to provide protection for Franciscans in New Mexico as they Christianize the Pueblo people.

        Onate provides incentives to Spanish military who will stay in New Mexico:

i.        Onate will provide them with their own encomiendas in New Mexico.

ii.      Onate will allow them to look for gold and silver—this is in violation of Onate’s contract with the Spanish king.  Spanish king believes that looking for gold and silver will antagonize the Pueblo people in New Mexico, thus threatening Spanish position in New Mexico.

         ***Significantly , the Spanish king appointed Juan de Onate as the first governor of the Spanish province of New Mexico. 

c.   The Onate expedition--numbering around 150 Franciscans and Spanish solders with their families--arrived in northern New Mexico in late 1598 and received Indian permission to occupy two unoccupied Indian pueblos at the confluence of the Rio Grande and the Chama rivers and then renamed these sites--San Juan and San Gabriel.  

d.   Soon after the expedition's arrival in New Mexico, Onate moved throughout the region holding a series of councils with Pueblo leaders and he believed that he received their acceptance of both Spanish rule and of Christianity. 

e.   The Spanish newcomers, however, were incapable either of housing or feeding themselves and thus, expected to live off the Native Americans--and would ultimately lead to conflict. As Onate's expedition arrived in New Mexico too late to plant crops, they began to force the Pueblos to supply them with food. 

i.                    At one Pueblo-Acoma--a battle erupted between the local residents and the Spanish and in which the Pueblo was completely destroyed. 

Note:   In the aftermath of the battle, the Spanish government would remove Onate as governor and force him to defend his actions against the Indians at a trial held in Mexico City in 1608.

 

****Significance of Juan de Onate and its connection to Spanish Cultural Baggage:

        Franciscans are part of the expedition and responsible for converting Native Americans in New Mexico.

        Onate earned the title of Adelantado and was granted a giant encomienda in New Mexico.

 

VIII. Indian groups in New Mexico in 1600:

        ‘Gente Vestidos’: were the Pueblo People: , Sedentary farmers of corn, beans, and squash large and small towns, Pecos Pueblo largest of Native American towns in New Mexico. Pueblos speak several distinct languages.

        ‘Indios Barbaros’:  were the nomads –i.e.  Native Americans who were warriors, hunters and farmers. Examples include:

i.                    (Chiricahuas Apache in Southwest NM andMescaleros in Southeast NM. 

ii.                  Also Navajos in Western NM.

iii.                Jumanos on eastern plains. 

iv.               Utes to north. (Note: Jumanos and Utes had limited contact with the Spanish—little known.

v.                  

IX.       Spanish Colonization of New Mexico 1598-1680:  Begins in 1598 with Don Juan de Onate settlement in New Mexico.

1.     Spanish Crown establishes as a  ‘Mission Colony ‘ set up to convert Pueblo People of NM to Catholicism.

a.  Mission Colony  supported from Mexico via El Camino Real (the Royal Road)

i.                    Run by Franciscans in Mexico City—a 3 yr round trip from Mexico City, up through Chihuahua to New Mexico.

ii.                  1500 miles each way.

iii.                Mule trains at first travel up the ‘El Camino Real’ then wagons later on.

2.      Mission Colony  & the Franciscans

        Franciscans in Spain and Mexico City  volunteered to serve in New Mexico--- sent by Spanish king to NM by the  authority of the ‘Patronato Real’

        Franciscans in NM--headed by a Franciscan superintendent called a “Custos”. (manager)

        Franciscans were members of the Franciscan monastic order—comprised of various nationalities--who made vows of personal poverty.

        In New Mexico they were given their own encomiendas, which supplied the Franciscans with Pueblo tribute and labor.

        In New Mexico, the Franciscans had a dual role—to convert Pueblo people and to serve as priests to Spanish colonists.

        The Franciscans were church builders, engineers, teachers, and musicians in New Mexico.

3.      Techniques  of Franciscan conversion:

         Baptize and instruct Native Americans in Catholic Doctrine.

        Forbid native ceremonials, use harsh punishment for Indian disobedience

        Collect encomienda tributes—which included tribute of food and the forced labor of Pueblo People to build churches.

4.      Fray (brother) Alonso de Benavides , Father Custos of NM, 1626-1630)

        Wrote two extensive reports called  Memorials , 1630 and 1632. These were mission inventories. 

i.    According to the 1630 report: By 1630, 50 churches of various sizes existed in NM.

ii.   He brought with him a statue of the Virgin Mary—‘Our Lady of the Assumption, or Our Lady of Sorrows.  The statue will be renamed La Conquistadora, still later Our Lady of Peace.  Today, it is located in St. Francis Cathedral in Santa Fe.

iii.  Significantly, the Memorial(s) mention increasing conflict between the Franciscans and the civil authorities in New Mexico--that began with Onate’s reign as governor. Conflict is over the treatment of the Pueblo people. Spanish colonists force Pueblo people to work for them that hinders Franciscan attempt to Christianize them.

X.        Notorious Conflicts between the Franciscans and Spanish governors in NM (1600s)

        Governor Luis de Rosas (1637-1641)—Rosas hated by Franciscans.  Considered the most abusive of governors to Franciscans and to Pueblo people.

        Spanish Governor, Lopez de Mendizabal, (1659-1660) publicly whips and imprisons Franciscans and even permits the Pueblo people to bring back their old religion.

 

XI.       Pueblo Revolt of 1680:  (Background):

a.   Number of pueblos down from 75-80 in 1600 to 43 in 1675. Disease and hunger have taken their toll on the Pueblo people.  Epidemic of 1640s leaves pueblos weakened, and an early 1659 revolt against the Spanish was aborted.

b. Conditions go downhill steadily.  Pueblo people blame lack of

pre-Spanish ceremonials for lack of rain.  Bring back kiva ceremonies after 1661.  Pueblo People are also aware of disputes within Spanish settlements and hypocrisy of Spanish Christianity.

c.      Pueblos east of Rio Grande face increased Apache attacks from

east and west, are deserted in the early 1670s.  (They will be known as the “Cities that died of fear’).   By 1675 Pueblo people are restless.  Significantly:  Spanish in NM also unable to defend their own settlements from these Apache attacks. The Spanish seek help from Mexico City.

d.     In 1675, Spanish governor, Juan Treveno arrests 47 shamen.

i.              One of these was  Pope , shaman from San Juan Pueblo.

ii.                   Many of the Pueblo people unite and demand the release of their shamen—Treveno gives in and releasesshamen.

iii.                Pueblo People finally realize they have power in unity. 

iv.               As the shamen are released, Pope goes to Taos Pueblo and plans a revolt against the Spanish.  He uses knotted ropes to count days until revolt is to begin

Significant  = Revolt is first time pueblos known to have acted together for a shared goal.

v.                 Revolt begins August 11, 1680, and lasts ten days  400Spanish killed.  Most of the Spanish survivors seek refuge in Santa Fe.  Safe passage will be given to Spanish to leave NM.

vi.               Governor Otermin in Santa Fe, and Lt. Gob.  Alonso Garcia near Isleta, retreat south with 2,500 Spanish settlers.

vii.             They take statue of Our Lady of the Assumption with them to Spanish town of El Paso in Chihuahua. There they stay in exile for 12 years.

viii.           Several attempted returns to NM by the Spanish in 1680s—but not successful.  Pope inhabits ‘Governor’s Palace’ in Santa Fe, acts like a dictator.  Tries to eliminate all things Spanish, including all metal objects, tools, weapons, domesticated animals, churches, language, but many want to retain some of the good Spanish things.  He tries to reestablish many of the ancient Pueblo ceremonials.  But four generations of Pueblo People have passed since the Spanish arrived in NM in 1598 and memories of many of these older ceremonials had been forgotten.

ix.                Pueblo unity dissolves when Pope dies in late 1680s and thus are unable to resist Spain’s efforts to re-colonize NM in 1692-1697.

 

XII.      Spanish Reconquest of New Mexico (1690s)

1.     Don Diego de Vargas, Spanish born noble and brilliant militarytactitican is appointed governor of New Mexico by the Spanish king in 1692. 

a.     In that year Vargas leaves El Paso with a sizeable Spanish military force and travels up the Rio Grande—visiting each of the pueblos.  The Pueblo people agree to allow the Spanish to return in 1692.

b.       But ten months later as Vargas leads the Spanish colonists in El Paso back up into New Mexico, the entry is not peaceful.  150 Indians are killed, 400 are taken prisoner, and 21 Spanish colonists are killed.

c.      Peace finally reestablished by 1696.  Statue of ‘Our Lady of the Assumption’ brought back to NM by Vargas, renamed now ‘La Conquistadora,’ for the successful re-conquest. This opens a new chapter in NM history.