w4 300+ words essay for Marissa Jones

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.2 The Buddha’s Birth Stories On this page: 0 of 2 attempted (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

The Buddha’s Birth Stories By Lynn Cianfarani

The exterior of the Ajanta Caves where they were cut into the stone on the side of a cliff by the Waghur River in India. These cave monuments, which date from the second century

BCE to about 480 or 650 CE, house depictions of Buddha and the Jātaka Tales. Photo courtesy of Shriram Rajagopalan / Flickr Creative Commons

In one of his former lives, Buddha was born a pigeon. That is, at least, how it is recounted in “The Pigeon and the Crow,” one of the 547 stories in the Jātaka Tales, a classic work of Buddhist literature.

Each of the Jātaka Tales offers readers a moral. The pigeon story, for instance, highlights the dangers of greed. But the stories are more than just fables. They are sacred Buddhist lore, outlining the lives that Buddha passed through before his birth as Prince Siddhartha. Jātaka literally means “story of birth,” and in the stories, Buddha (referred to in the Tales as the Bodhisatta—“one seeking enlightenment”) is born and

reborn in the form of animals, humans, and super-human beings, all the while striving toward enlightenment.

For Buddhists, the concept of past lives is hallowed. According to Robert Thurman, a professor of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Studies at Columbia University, “Buddhists see the continuum of lives of all beings as a commonsense fact, not a mystical belief.”1 Buddhist faith teaches that ordinary humans do not remember past existences, but enlightened beings have the gift of recalling their former lives in detail.2

Buddhists who hear the Jātaka Tales do not necessarily take them as a word-for-word accounting of past events, however. Devdutt Pattanaik, a Mumbai-based speaker, writer, and mythology specialist, says that the Jātaka Tales “are as real and historical to Buddhists as the stories of Christ’s resurrection are to Christians.”3 For most Buddhists, whether Buddha actually lived as a pigeon is not the issue; what matters is that Buddha did indeed have past existences which lessons can be learned from.

Reliable historical details of Buddha’s life—his early years as Siddhartha Gutam, and later, as the enlightened Buddha—are hard to come by. According to W.S. Merwin, a Pulitzer Prize winning poet, we don’t know how much of the Buddha/Siddhartha story “is pure fairy tale, and how much of it is historic fact.”4 As with most religions, it’s the message that guides followers.

Most scholars do accept that Siddhartha Gutam was an actual man, born to a royal family in India in 563 BCE. The factual events of his life, however, remain open to debate. According to Buddhist texts, Siddhartha married and had a child, but became disillusioned with palace life. He started to make trips outside the palace and grew distraught when he saw sickness, old age, and death.

In hopes of figuring out a way to end people’s suffering, Siddhartha left his family and his palace. For several years, Buddhist tradition holds, Siddhartha practiced asceticism. He sat in meditation and ate little; sometimes he ate nothing. Enduring hardship, however, only weakened him and offered little spiritual insight. Overdoing things, Siddhartha realized, was not the key to happiness. Siddhartha committed himself to the middle way, the path between extreme sacrifice and self-indulgence.

Legend has it that after giving up his ascetic lifestyle, Siddhartha sat under a Bodhi tree (a type of fig tree) for deep meditation, vowing not to leave until he reached a state of enlightenment. After several weeks of intense meditation he had gained a supreme wisdom—a mental clarity that included details of his past lives—and Siddhartha, at last, understood things as they truly are. He thus became, Buddhists posit, the Buddha, or “The Awakened One.” Today, the image of the Buddha meditating under a tree is as symbolic to Buddhists as the image of Christ nailed to the cross is to Christians.

After reaching enlightenment, Buddha shared his new wisdom with five holy men. They became his disciples, marking the beginning of the Buddhist community. For more than 40 years, Buddha and his disciples wandered throughout India spreading his teachings. The Jātaka Tales, of course, were part of these teachings.

Buddha’s birth stories moved beyond India, too, traveling via caravan routes and eventually influencing other cultures. According to archaeological and literary evidence the Jātaka stories were not compiled as text until somewhere between the 3rd century BCE and the 5th century CE.5 Written by multiple anonymous authors in a combination of prose and verse, the stories are included as part of the Buddhist canon, and continue to be part of Buddhist teachings. Each year, the Dalai Lama himself greets followers for a Jātaka Tales reading. In February 2013, thousands showed up in Dharasalama, India to hear him recite tale 29, “A Visitor from Brahmaloka,” a story of how a king overcomes his wrong views and develops humility.6

The stories of the Buddha’s many varied experiences have been shaping beliefs and values for centuries, and have deeply influenced various national cultures. In Thailand’s minority Laopuan community, until relatively recently it was customary for a woman to stay confined at home for several days after the birth of her first child. During this time her husband and others would stay by her side, reading—and sometimes chanting—the Jātaka Tales, presumably to convey moral lessons to the wife. This practice has been declining, but lessons from the Jātaka Tales continue to guide Thai society.7

The Tales have also served as the inspiration for art and architecture throughout Asia. The paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta Caves of India, which date back to the 2nd century BCE, depict Buddha and the Jātaka Tales and are a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site—a designation given to select spots around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity.8

Photographs of the inside and outside of the Ajanta Caves. The first shows a doorway surrounded by architecture with depictions of the Jataka Tales, and the second shows an inner room with many pillars and a structure with more images on it.

The Ajanta Caves in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, India. Photo Arian Zwegers / Flickr Creative Commons

And like those cave-carved renderings of the Jātaka Tales, the stories themselves speak to a wider audience than just Buddhist societies. All of us can relate to these timeless tales of human behavior. In the five Jātaka Tales you are about to read—Chronicles of Kings... of Birds... of Hares—you’ll see that these birth tales are absorbing accounts of ancient India, intriguing pieces of literature, and enchanting stories of kindness, compassion, and giving.

Multiple Choice Question

What is the primary intention of the Jātaka Tales? Choose the BEST answer.

to humanize wild animals to offer specific guidelines on how to successfully rule to provide amusing stories to entertain people with to demonstrate how to live with compassion and kindness

Multiple Choice Question

Which of the following details about the Buddha are accepted by scholars?

He was born into a privileged family in India in the sixth century BCE. The Dalai Lama is his modern-day incarnation. He once lived as a pigeon. He was crucified, just like Jesus.

1 Robert Thurman, personal communication with author, January 2, 2014.

2 F. Max Muller, preface to Jātakamālā or Garland of Birth Stories, trans. J.S. Speyer (London: 2010), ix, http://www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English-Texts/Garland-of- Birth-Stories/Garland-of-Birth-Stories.pdf.

3 Devdutt Pattanaik, personal communication with author, January 3, 2014.

4 W.S. Merwin, “The Buddha,” PBS.org, accessed January 11, 2014, http://www.pbs.org/thebuddha/.

5 Ruwan M, Jayatunge M.D., “Psychological Aspects of Jātaka Stories,” Buddhist Society of Queensland. accessed January 4, 2013, http://vgweb.org/bsq/jatpsy.htm.

6 “His Holiness the Dalai Lama Reads a Jataka Tale on the Day of Miracles,” Dalailama.com. accessed January 4, 2013, http://www.dalailama.com/news/post/913- his-holiness-the-dalai-lama-reads-a-jataka-tale-on-the-day-of-miracles.

7 Pranee Wongthet, “The Jataka Stories and Laopuan Worldview,” Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 48, No. 1 (1989): pp. 21-30, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1178532.

8 “Ajanta Caves,” WHC.UNESCO.org. accessed January 4, 2013, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242.

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.3 Jātaka Tales: Great King Goodness On this page: 0 of 2 attempted (0%) | 0 of 1 correct (0%)

The Jātaka Tales Translated by H.T. Francis & E.J. Thomas

Bhutanese painted thangka of the Jātaka Tales, 18th-19th century, Phajoding monastery, Thimphu, Bhutan.

Great King Goodness

Once on a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the Bodhisatta came to life again as the child of the queen; and on his name-day they gave him the name of Prince Goodness (Silava). At the age of sixteen his education was complete; and later he came at his father’s death to be king, and ruled his people righteously under the title of the great King Goodness. At each of the four city-gates he built an almonry, another in the heart of the city, and yet another at his own palace-gates, six in all; and at each he distributed alms to poor travellers and the needy. He kept the Commandments and observed the fast-days; he abounded in patience, loving-kindness, and mercy; and in

righteousness he ruled the land, cherishing all creatures alike with the fond love of a father for his baby boy.

Now one of the king’s ministers had dealt treacherously in the king’s harem, and this became matter of common talk. The ministers reported it to the king. Examining into the matter himself, the king found the minister’s guilt to be clear. So he sent for the culprit, and said, “O blinded by folly! You have sinned, and are not worthy to dwell in my kingdom; take your substance and your wife and family, and go hence.” Driven thus from the realm, that minister left the Kasi country, and entering the service of the king of Kosala, gradually rose to be that monarch’s confidential adviser. One day he said to the king of Kosala, “Sire, the kingdom of Benares is like a goodly honeycomb untainted by flies; its king is feebleness itself; and a trifling force would suffice to conquer the whole country.”

Hereon, the king of Kosala reflected that the kingdom of Benares was large, and, considering this in connexion with the advice that a trifling force could conquer it, he grew suspicious that his adviser was a hireling suborned to lead him into a trap. “Traitor,” he cried, “you are paid to say this!”

“Indeed I am not,” answered the other; “I do but speak the truth. If you doubt me, send men to massacre a village over his border, and see whether, when they are caught and brought before him, the king does not let them off scot-free and even load them with gifts.”

“He shews a very bold front in making his assertion,” thought the king; “I will test his counsel without delay.” And accordingly he sent some of his creatures to harry a village across the Benares border. The ruffians were captured and brought before the king of Benares, who asked them, saying, “My children, why have you killed my villagers?”

“Because we could not make a living,” said they.

“Then why did you not come to me?” said the king. “See that you do not do the like again.”

And he gave them presents and sent them away. Back they went and told this to the king of Kosala. But this evidence was not enough to nerve him to the expedition; and a second band was sent to massacre another village, this time in the heart of the kingdom. These too were likewise sent away with presents by the king of Benares. But even this evidence was not deemed strong enough; and a third party was sent to plunder the very streets of Benares. And these, like their forerunners, were sent away with presents! Satisfied at last that the king of Benares was an entirely good king, the king of Kosala resolved to seize on his kingdom, and set out against him with troops and elephants.

Now in these days the king of Benares had a thousand gallant warriors, who would face the charge even of a rut elephant, whom the launched thunderbolt of Indra could not terrify, a matchless band of invincible heroes ready at the king’s command to reduce all India to his sway! These, hearing the king of Kosala was coming to take Benares, came to their sovereign with the news, and prayed that they might be despatched against the invader. “We will defeat and capture him, sire,” said they, “before he can set foot over the border.”

“Not so, my children,” said the king. “None shall suffer because of me. Let those who covet kingdoms seize mine, if they will.” And he refused to allow them to march against the invader.

Then the king of Kosala crossed the border and came to the middle-country; and again the ministers went to the king with renewed entreaty. But still the king refused. And now the king of Kosala appeared outside the city, and sent a message to the king bidding him either yield up the kingdom or give battle. “I fight not,” was the message of the king of Benares in reply; “let him seize my kingdom.”

Yet a third time the king’s ministers came to him and besought him not to allow the king of Kosala to enter, but to permit them to overthrow and capture him before the city. Still refusing, the king bade the city-gates be opened, and seated himself in state aloft upon his royal throne with his thousand ministers round him.

Entering the city and finding none to bar his way, the king of Kosala passed with his army to the royal palace. The doors stood open wide; and there on his gorgeous throne with his thousand ministers around him sat the great King Goodness in state. “Seize them all,” cried the king of Kosala; “tie their hands tightly behind their backs, and away with them to the cemetery! There dig holes and bury them alive up to the neck, so that they cannot move hand or foot. The jackals will come at night and give them sepulchre!”

At the bidding of the ruffianly king, his followers bound the king of Benares and his ministers, and hauled them off. But even in this hour not so much as an angry thought did the great King Goodness harbour against the ruffians; and not a man among his ministers, even when they were being marched off in bonds, could disobey the king, so perfect is said to have been the discipline among his followers.

So King Goodness and his ministers were led off and buried up to the neck in pits in the cemetery, the king in the middle and the others on either side of him. The ground was trampled in upon them, and there they were left. Still meek and free from anger against his oppressor, King Goodness exhorted his companions, saying, “Let your hearts be filled with naught but love and charity, my children.”

Multiple Choice Question

How did King Goodness respond to the threat from the king of Kosala?

He sent a minister out to neighboring kingdoms to wrangle up support. He did nothing. He mustered up a thousand warriors to repel the invasions led by the king of Kosala. He begged the king of Kosala to leave his people be.

Now at midnight the jackals came trooping to the banquet of human flesh; and at sight of the beasts the king and his companions raised a mighty shout all together, frightening the jackals away. Halting, the pack looked back, and, seeing no one pursuing, again came forward. A second shout drove them away again, but only to return as before. But the third time, seeing that not a man amongst them all pursued, the jackals thought to themselves, “These must be men who are doomed to death.” They came on boldly; even when the shout was again being raised, they did not turn tail. On they came, each singling out his prey, the chief jackal making for the king, and the other jackals for his companions. Fertile in resource, the king marked the beast’s approach, and, raising his throat as if to receive the bite, fastened his teeth in the jackal’s throat with a grip like a vice! Unable to free its throat from the mighty grip of the king’s jaws, and fearing death, the jackal raised a great howl. At his cry of distress the pack conceived that their leader must have been caught by a man. With no heart left to approach their own destined prey, away they all scampered for their lives.

Seeking to free itself from the king’s teeth, the trapped jackal plunged madly to and fro, and thereby loosened the earth above the king. Hereupon the latter, letting the jackal go, put forth his mighty strength, and by plunging from side to side got his hands free! Then, clutching the brink of the pit, he drew himself up, and came forth like a cloud scudding before the wind. Bidding his companions be of good cheer, he now set to work to loosen the earth round them and to get them out, till with all his ministers he stood free once more in the cemetery.

Now it chanced that a corpse had been exposed in that part of the cemetery, which lay between the respective domains of two goblins; and the goblins were disputing over the division of the spoil.

“We can’t divide it ourselves,” said they; “but this King Goodness is righteous; he will divide it for us. Let us go to him.” So they dragged the corpse by the foot to the king, and said, “Sire, divide this man and give us each our share.”

“Certainly I will, my friends,” said the king. “But, as I am dirty, I must bathe first.”

Straightway, by their magic power, the goblins brought to the king the scented water prepared for the usurper’s bath. And when the king had bathed, they brought him the robes which had been laid out for the usurper to wear. When he had put these on, they brought his majesty a box containing the four kinds of scent. When he had perfumed himself, they brought flowers of diverse kinds laid out upon jewelled fans, in a casket of gold. When he had decked himself with the flowers, the goblins asked whether they could be of any further service. And the king gave them to understand that he was hungry.

So away went the goblins, and returned with rice flavoured with all the choicest flavours, which had been prepared for the usurper’s table. And the king, now bathed and scented, dressed and arrayed, ate of the dainty fare. Thereupon the goblins brought the usurper’s perfumed water for him to drink, in the usurper’s own golden bowl, not forgetting to bring the golden cup too. When the king had drunk and had washed his mouth and was washing his hands, they brought him fragrant betel to chew, and asked whether his majesty had any further commands. “Fetch me,” said he, “by your magic power the sword of state which lies by the usurper’s pillow.” And straightway the sword was brought to the king. Then the king took the corpse, and setting it upright, cut it in two down the chine, giving one-half to each goblin. This done, the king washed the blade, and girded it on his side.

Having eaten their fill, the goblins were glad of heart, and in their gratitude asked the king what more they could do for him. “Set me by your magic power,” said he, “in the usurper’s chamber, and set each of my ministers back in his own house.”

“Certainly, sire,” said the goblins; and forthwith it was done. Now in that hour the usurper was lying asleep on the royal bed in his chamber of state. And as he slept in all tranquillity, the good king struck him with the flat of the sword upon the belly. Waking up in a fright, the usurper saw by the lamp-light that it was the great King Goodness. Summoning up all his courage, he rose from his couch and said: “Sire, it is night; a guard is set; the doors are barred; and none may enter. How then came you to my bedside, sword in hand and clad in robes of splendour?”

Then the king told him in detail all the story of his escape. Then the usurper’s heart was moved within him, and he cried, “O king, I, though blessed with human nature, knew not your goodness; but knowledge thereof was given to the fierce and cruel goblins, whose food is flesh and blood. Henceforth, I, sire, will not plot against such signal virtue as you possess.” So saying, he swore an oath of friendship upon his sword and begged the king’s forgiveness. And he made the king lie down upon the bed of state, while he stretched himself upon a little couch.

On the morrow at daybreak, when the sun had risen, his whole host of every rank and degree was mustered by beat of drum at the usurper’s command; in their presence he extolled King Goodness, as if raising the full-moon on high in the heavens; and right before them all, he again asked the king’s forgiveness and gave him back his kingdom, saying, “Henceforth, let it be my charge to deal with rebels; rule thou thy kingdom, with me to keep watch and ward.” And so saying, he passed sentence on the slanderous traitor, and with his troops and elephants went back to his own kingdom.

Seated in majesty and splendour beneath a white umbrella of sovereignty upon a throne of gold with legs as of a gazelle, the great King Goodness contemplated his own glory and thought thus within himself: “Had I not persevered, I should not be in the enjoyment of this magnificence, nor would my thousand ministers be still numbered among the living. It was by perseverance that I recovered the royal state I had lost, and saved the lives of my thousand ministers. Verily, we should strive on unremittingly with dauntless hearts, seeing that the fruit of perseverance is so excellent.” And therewithal the king broke into this heartfelt utterance:

Toil on, my brother; still in hope stand fast; Nor let thy courage flag and tire. Myself I see, who, all my woes o’erpast, Am master of my heart’s desire.

Thus spoke the Bodhisatta in the fulness of his heart, declaring how sure it is that the earnest effort of the good will come to maturity. After a life spent in right-doing he passed away to fare thereafter according to his deserts.

Response Board Question Compare and contrast the virtues offered in this story with your own.

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Originally published in Jātaka Tales, translated by H.T. Francis and E.J. Thomas (Cambridge University Press, 1912). Public domain.

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.4 Jātaka Tales: The Golden Goose On this page: 0 of 1 attempted (0%) | 0 of 1 correct (0%)

The Golden Goose

Once upon a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the Bodhisatta was born a brahmin, and growing up was married to a bride of his own rank, who bore him three daughters named Nanda, Nandavati and Sundarinanda. The Bodhisatta dying, they were taken in by neighbours and friends, whilst he was born again into the world as a golden goose endowed with consciousness of its former existences. Growing up, the bird viewed his own magnificent size and golden plumage, and remembered that previously he had been a human being. Discovering that his wife and daughters were living on the charity of others, the goose bethought him of his plumage like hammered and beaten gold and how by giving them a golden feather at a time he could enable his wife and daughters to live in comfort. So away he flew to where they dwelt and alighted on the top of the central beam of the roof. Seeing the Bodhisatta, the wife and girls asked where he had come from; and he told them that he was their father who had died and been born a golden goose, and that he had come to visit them and put an end to their miserable necessity of working for hire.

“You shall have my feathers,” said he, “one by one, and they will sell for enough to keep you all in ease and comfort.” So saying, he gave them one of his feathers and departed. And from time to time he returned to give them another feather, and with the proceeds of their sale these brahmin-women grew prosperous and quite well-to-do. But one day the mother said to her daughters, “There’s no trusting animals, my children. Who’s to say your father might not go away one of these days and never come back again? Let us use our time and pluck him clean next time he comes, so as to make sure of all his feathers.” Thinking this would pain him, the daughters refused. The mother in her greed called the golden goose to her one day when he came, and then took him with both hands and plucked him. Now the Bodhisatta’s feathers had this property that if they were plucked out against his wish, they ceased to be golden and became like a crane’s feathers. And now the poor bird, though he stretched his wings, could not fly, and the woman flung him into a barrel and gave him food there.

As time went on his feathers grew again (though they were plain white ones now), and he flew away to his own abode and never came back again.

Multiple Choice Question

Why did the woman and her three daughters need help from the goose?

Their greed had landed them into poverty. After their family patriarch died, they had no means of support. The daughters were too young to work. They didn’t have enough animals to raise a flock of geese.

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.5 Jātaka Tales: The Foolhardy Jackal On this page: 0 of 1 attempted (0%)

The Foolhardy Jackal

Once on a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the Bodhisatta was a maned lion and dwelt at Gold Den in the Himalayas. Bounding forth one day from his lair, he looked North and West, South and East, and roared aloud as he went in quest of prey. Slaying a large buffalo, he devoured the prime of the carcass, after which he went down to a pool, and having drunk his fill of crystal water turned to go towards his den. Now a hungry jackal, suddenly meeting the lion, and being unable to make his escape, threw himself at the lion’s feet. Being asked what he wanted, the jackal replied, “Lord, let me be your servant.”

“Very well,” said the lion; “serve me and you shall feed on prime meat.” So saying, he went with the jackal following to Gold Den. Thenceforth the lion’s leavings fell to the jackal, and he grew fat.

Lying one day in his den, the lion told the jackal to scan the valleys from the mountain top, to see whether there were any elephants or horses or buffaloes about, or any other animals of which he, the jackal, was fond. If any such were in sight, the jackal was to report and say with due obeisance, “Shine forth in thy might, Lord.” Then the lion promised to kill and eat, giving a part to the jackal. So the jackal used to climb the heights, and whenever he espied below beasts to his taste, he would report it to the lion, and falling at his feet, say, “Shine forth in thy might, Lord.” Hereon the lion would nimbly bound forth and slay the beast, even if it were a rutting elephant, and share the prime of the carcass with the jackal. Glutted with his meal, the jackal would then retire to his den and sleep.

Now as time went on, the jackal grew bigger and bigger till he grew haughty. “Have not I too four legs?” he asked himself. “Why am I a pensioner day by day on others’ bounty? Henceforth I will kill elephants and other beasts, for my own eating. The lion, king of beasts, only kills them because of the formula, ‘Shine forth in thy might, Lord.’ I’ll make the lion call out to me, ‘Shine forth in thy might, jackal,’ and then I’ll kill an elephant for myself.”

Accordingly he went to the lion, and pointing out that he had long lived on what the lion had killed, told his desire to eat an elephant of his own killing, ending with a request to the lion to let him, the jackal, couch in the lion’s corner in Gold Den whilst the lion was

to climb the mountain to look out for an elephant. The quarry found, he asked that the lion should come to him in the den and say, “Shine forth in thy might, jackal.” He begged the lion not to grudge him this much.

Said the lion, “Jackal, only lions can kill elephants, nor has the world ever seen a jackal able to cope with them. Give up this fancy, and continue to feed on what I kill.” But say what the lion could, the jackal would not give way, and still pressed his request. So at last the lion gave way, and bidding the jackal couch in the den, climbed the peak and thence espied an elephant in rut. Returning to the mouth of the cave, he said, “Shine forth in thy might, jackal.” Then from Gold Den the jackal nimbly bounded forth, looked around him on all four sides, and, thrice raising its howl, sprang at the elephant, meaning to fasten on its head. But missing his aim, he alighted at the elephant’s feet. The infuriated brute raised its right foot and crushed the jackal’s head, trampling the bones into powder. Then pounding the carcass into a mass, and dunging upon it, the elephant clashed trumpeting into the forest.

Seeing all this, the Bodhisatta observed, “Now shine forth in thy might, jackal,” and uttered this stanza:

Your mangled corpse, your brains mashed into clay, Prove how you’ve shone forth in your might to-day.

Thus spake the Bodhisatta, and living to a good old age he passed away in the fulness of time to fare according to his deserts.

Response Board Question How do the themes in the Jātaka Tales compare to the themes explored in stories with similar structures? Before you answer, think about stories that are similar to the Jātaka Tales in tone, length, intent, etc.

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Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.6 Jātaka Tales: The Hare’s Self-Sacrifice On this page: 0 of 3 attempted (0%) | 0 of 1 correct (0%)

The Hare’s Self­Sacrifice

Once upon a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the Bodhisatta came to life as a young hare and lived in a wood. On one side of this wood was the foot of a mountain, on another side a river, and on the third side a border-village. The hare had three friends, a monkey, a jackal and an otter. These four wise creatures lived together and each of them got his food on his own hunting-ground, and in the evening they again came together. The hare in his wisdom by way of admonition preached the Truth to his three companions, teaching that alms are to be given, the moral law to be observed, and holy days to be kept. They accepted his admonition and went each to his own part of the jungle and dwelt there.

And so in the course of time the Bodhisatta one day observing the sky, and looking at the moon knew that the next day would be a fast-day, and addressing his three companions he said, “To-morrow is a fast-day. Let all three of you take upon you the moral precepts, and observe the holy day. To one that stands fast in moral practice, almsgiving brings a great reward. Therefore feed any beggars that come to you by giving them food from your own table.” They readily assented, and abode each in his own place of dwelling.

On the morrow quite early in the morning, the otter sallied forth to seek his prey and went down to the bank of the Ganges. Now it came to pass that a fisherman had landed seven red fish, and stringing them together on a withe, he had taken and buried them in the sand on the river’s bank. And then he dropped down the stream, catching more fish. The otter scenting the buried fish, dug up the sand till he came upon them, and pulling them out cried thrice, “Does anyone own these fish?” And not seeing any owner he took hold of the withe with his teeth and laid the fish in the jungle where he dwelt, intending to eat them at a fitting time. And then he lay down, thinking how virtuous he was! The jackal too sallied forth in quest of food and found in the hut of a field-watcher two spits, a lizard and a pot of milk-curd. And after thrice crying aloud, “To whom do these belong?” and not finding an owner, he put on his neck the rope for lifting the pot, and grasping the spits and the lizard with his teeth, he brought and laid them in his own lair, thinking, “In due season I will devour them,” and so lay down, reflecting how virtuous he had been.

Multiple Choice Question

On what basis did the hare argue for feeding anyone in need on a day of fasting?

Those who feed people in need will be rewarded. Certain animals had the responsibility to do good deeds. Feeding people on a fasting day is the ultimate test of faith. Giving food away to strangers is a proven strategy for converting them.

The monkey also entered the clump of trees, and gathering a bunch of mangoes laid them up in his part of the jungle, meaning to eat them in due season, and then lay down, thinking how virtuous he was. But the Bodhisatta in due time came out, intending to browse on the kusa-grass, and as he lay in the jungle, the thought occurred to him, “It is impossible for me to offer grass to any beggars that may chance to appear, and I have no sesame, rice, and such like. If any beggar shall appeal to me, I shall have to give him my own flesh to eat.” At this splendid display of virtue, Sakka’s white marble throne manifested signs of heat. Sakka on reflection discovered the cause and resolved to put this royal hare to the test.

First of all he went and stood by the otter’s dwelling-place, disguised as a brahmin, and being asked why he stood there, he replied, “Wise Sir, if I could get something to eat, after keeping the fast, I would perform all my ascetic duties.” The otter replied, “Very well, I will give you some food,” and as he conversed with him he repeated the first stanza:

Seven red fish I safely brought to land from Ganges flood, brahmin, eat thy fill, I pray, and stay within this wood.

The brahmin said, “Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and by.” Next he went to the jackal, and when asked by him why he stood there, he made the same answer. The jackal, too, readily promised him some food, and in talking with him repeated the second stanza:

A lizard and a jar of curds, the keeper’s evening meal, Two spits of roasted flesh withal I wrongfully did steal: Such as I have I give to thee: brahmin, eat, I pray, If thou shouldst deign within this wood a while with us to stay.

Said the brahmin, “Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and by.” Then he went to the monkey, and when asked what he meant by standing there, he answered just as before. The monkey readily offered him some food, and in conversing with him gave utterance to the third stanza:

An icy stream, a mango ripe, and pleasant greenwood shade, ‘Tis thine to enjoy, if thou canst dwell content in forest glade.

Said the brahmin, “Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and by.” And he went to the wise hare, and on being asked by him why he stood there, he made the same reply. The Bodhisatta on hearing what he wanted was highly delighted, and said, “Brahmin, you have done well in coming to me for food. This day will I grant you a boon that I have never granted before, but you shall not break the moral law by taking animal life. Go, friend, and when you have piled together logs of wood, and kindled a fire, come and let me know, and I will sacrifice myself by falling into the midst of the flames, and when my body is roasted, you shall eat my flesh and fulfill all your ascetic duties.” And in thus addressing him the hare uttered the fourth stanza:

Nor sesame, nor beans, nor rice have I as food to give, But roast with fire my flesh I yield, if thou with us wouldst live.

Sakka, on hearing what he said, by his miraculous power caused a heap of burning coals to appear, and came and told the Bodhisatta. Rising from his bed of kusa-grass and coming to the place, he thrice shook himself that if there were any insects within his coat, they might escape death. Then offering his whole body as a free gift he sprang up, and like a royal swan, alighting on a cluster of lotuses, in an ecstasy of joy he fell on the heap of live coals. But the flame failed even to heat the pores of the hair on the body of the Bodhisatta, and it was as if he had entered a region of frost. Then he addressed Sakka in these words: “Brahmin, the fire you have kindled is icy-cold: it fails to heat even the pores of the hair on my body. What is the meaning of this?”

“Wise Sir,” he replied, “I am no brahmin. I am Sakka, and I have come to put your virtue to the test.”

The Bodhisatta said, “If not only thou, Sakka, but all the inhabitants of the world were to try me in this matter of almsgiving, they would not find in me any unwillingness to give,” and with this the Bodhisatta uttered a cry of exultation like a lion roaring.

Then said Sakka to the Bodhisatta, “O wise hare, be thy virtue known throughout a whole seon.” And squeezing the mountain, with the essence thus extracted, he daubed the sign of a hare on the orb of the moon. And after depositing the hare on a bed of young kusa-grass, in the same wooded part of the jungle, Sakka returned to his own place in heaven. And these four wise creatures dwelt happily and harmoniously together, fulfilling the moral law and observing holy days, till they departed to fare according to their deeds.

Your Turn

Response Board Question List at least three ways in which the hare (Bodhisatta) was virtuous in this story.

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Still Your Turn

Response Board Question Like the Bhagavad Gita and the Qur’an, the Jātaka Tales are considered sacred texts meant to impart a message to an audience. However, the literary style of the Jātaka Tales is very different than the other two texts. Describe at least two of these differences.

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Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.7 Confucius Tells All On this page: 0 of 2 attempted (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

Confucius Tells All By Edward Slingerland

The Analects, or Lunyu (lit. “ordered sayings”), purports to be a record of the teachings of Kongzi and his disciples. Kongzi is more commonly known in the West by the latinization “Confucius,” bestowed upon him by Jesuit missionaries in the 18th century; his traditional dates are 551–479 B.C.E. The Analects has been traditionally viewed as a coherent and accurate record of the teachings of the Master, recorded during his lifetime or perhaps shortly after his death, but this view of the text began to be called into question by the philologists of the Qing Dynasty, and modern textual critics have argued convincingly that the text actually consists of different chronological strata, assembled by an editor or series of editors, probably considerably after the death of Confucius.

Not very much is known about the life of Confucius. Most of the traditional details are derived from a biography in the Record of the Historian, compiled around 100 B.C.E. by the Grand Historian Sima Qian, much of which clearly consists of legend and literary invention. Some modern scholars have attempted to construct coherent chronologies of Confucius’ life from a variety of early sources and to separate potential facts from clear fiction, but so little can be known for sure that it seems best to stick to whatever facts we might glean from the Analects itself. Confucius was clearly a native of Lu (18.2), of humble economic background (9.6), and seems to have been a member of the scholar- official (shi) class, the lowest of the three classes of public office holders.

Originally referring to an aristocratic warrior, shi had, by the time of Confucius, come to refer to a class of people who filled the middle and lower ranks of state governments, primarily in civil posts. Like Confucius, it seems that a subset of these scholar-officials were also ru. This term, which later came to mean “Confucian,” appears only once in the Analects (6.13) and referred in Confucius’ time to a class of specialists concerned with transmitting and preserving the traditional rituals and texts of the Zhou Dynasty. Mastery of the Zhou classics and traditional ritual etiquette was a valued skill in public officials and led many aspiring scholar-officials to seek out ru-like training for the sake of acquiring public office and—most importantly—the salary and public prestige that went along with it. This was only one of many contemporary phenomena that troubled

Confucius, who felt that training in traditional Zhou cultural forms should be pursued as an end in itself.

A statue of Confucius in the Confucian Temple in Beijing. Photo courtesy of David Morrow / Wikimedia Commons

Pre­Confucian Background

Traditional Chinese historiography presents the Xia Dynasty as the first of the legendary dynasties of the Golden Age, supposedly founded by the legendary sage-king Yu. Yu is also credited with taming the floods of the Yellow River, thereby making what we now think of as north-central China habitable for the Chinese people. The earliest Chinese civilization for which we have archeological and written evidence, however, is the Shang Dynasty (sometimes alternately referred to as the Yin Dynasty), the traditional dates of which are 1751–1122 B.C.E. It is from the Shang that we have the first written records from China, in the form of so-called “oracle bones.” These oracle bones are pieces of ox scapula or tortoise shells used in divination. Questions concerning the proper course of action or requests for things such a rain, directed to the spirits of the Shang ancestors, were written upon them, and heat was then applied. The answer from the ancestors— yes, this military campaign will be successful or no, rain will not be forthcoming—were revealed in the resulting pattern of cracks decoded by the diviner, who was often the Shang king himself.

Often the ancestors were asked to intercede with the being who wielded the greatest power of all over the Shang people, the ur-ancestor known as the “Lord on High” (shangdi). The Lord on High seems originally to have been a nonhuman god who gradually came to be viewed as the first human ancestor of the Shang people, and therefore—by virtue of seniority—the most powerful of the ancestor spirits. The Lord on High and the other ancestor spirits of the Shang were viewed as dwelling in a kind of netherworld somewhere above the human realm (hence the Lord “on High”), from which vantage point they continued to monitor the behavior of their descendants, receive sacrificial offerings, hear questions and requests, and control all the phenomena seen as lying beyond human control (weather, health and sickness, success or failure in battle, etc.). Establishing and maintaining a good relationship with these spirits— especially the most powerful of them, the Lord on High—was one of the primary concerns of the Shang ruler. In the oracle bones we find a special term, de, referring to the power accrued by a ruler who, through timely and appropriate sacrifices, successfully established and preserved such a relationship with the ancestors. We will translate this term as “Virtue,” with the caveat that the reader should keep in mind the original sense of the Latin virtus—the particular “power” residing in a person or thing, preserved in modern English in such expressions as, “By virtue of his great intelligence, he was able to solve the problem.” Virtue in the early Shang context refers to a kind of attractive, charismatic power residing in a ruler who had won the endorsement of the ancestral spirits. This power could be perceived by others, serving as a visible mark of the spirits’ favor, and its attractive qualities allowed the ruler to both win and retain supporters.

Sometime near the end of the second millennium B.C.E., a people known as the Zhou invaded the Shang realm and deposed the last of the Shang kings. The traditional date of the conquest is 1122 B.C.E., but this has been the subject of great dispute and the conquest may in fact have occurred over a period of time rather than in one fell swoop. In any case, what is clear is that the Zhou people were very eager to identify with the religious and political systems of their predecessors.

The religious worldview of the Zhou borrowed heavily from the dynasty that they replaced. One reflection of the Zhou eagerness to identify with the Shang was their adoption of the Shang high god, the Lord on High, who was conflated with and eventually replaced by their own tribal god, Tian. Early graphic forms of Tian seem to picture a massive, striding, anthropomorphic figure, who is from the earliest times associated with the sky. Hence “Heaven” is a fairly good rendering of Tian, as long as the reader keeps in mind that “Heaven” refers to an anthropomorphic figure—someone who can be communicated with, angered, or pleased—rather than a physical place. Heaven possessed all of the powers of the Lord on High and in addition had the ability to charge a human representative on earth with the “Mandate” (Ming) to rule. Ming

refers literally to a command issued by a political superior to an inferior or a decree issued by a ruler; in a metaphorical and religious sense, it refers to Heaven’s command to its proxy on earth, the king, to rule the human world. Just as the Lord on High sent blessings down to those of his descendants who performed the sacrifices correctly, Heaven was believed to grant the Mandate to the ruler who maintained ritual correctness. The Book of Odes and Book of Documents claim that the Shang lost the Mandate because of gross ritual improprieties and general immorality, which motivated the Lord on High/Heaven to withdraw the Mandate and give it to the Zhou. In this way, the Zhou rulers presented their motivation for conquering the Shang as merely the desire to enact Heaven’s will, rather than any selfish desire for power on their part. Similarly, since the holder of the Mandate was believed to also receive Virtue from Heaven as a sign of its favor, early texts present the conquest as relatively effortless— King Wu simply arrived on the battlefield with his troops and the awesome power of his Virtue caused most of the opposing armies to immediately submit to him. This is the origin of two themes in Chinese religious thought that were inherited by Confucius: only someone who is selfless and sincere will receive Virtue from Heaven, and political order is properly brought about only through the charismatic, non-coercive power of Virtue— the need to exert force viewed as evidence that a ruler does not truly enjoy Heaven’s favor.

Multiple Choice Question

In Chinese tradition and the teachings of Confucius, how is “Virtue” understood?

as a quality that attracts the attention of the ancestors as an ideal of perfection that is inevitably out of reach as a power endowed to rulers who had behaved in a proper way as a synonym for moral excellence

Confucianism

Shang ritual consisted primarily of sacrificial offerings to the spirits of the ancestors, and the main concern was that the sacrifices were performed properly—that the food and drink offered were of sufficient quality, that the proper words were intoned, etc. By Zhou times, the scope of ritual had grown significantly, encompassing not only sacrificial offerings to the spirits, but also aspects of the Zhou kings’ daily lives that we might be tempted to label as “etiquette,” the manner in which one dressed, took one’s meal, approached one’s ministers, etc. In addition, proper performance of ritual duties became more than a matter of simply observing external forms because in order for ritual practice to be acceptable to Heaven, it was necessary that the king perform it with

sincerity. We thus see in the Zhou beginnings of a concern with internal state of mind— a demand that one’s emotions and thoughts match one’s external behavior—that becomes a primary theme in the thought of Confucius.

It was not until well into the Han Dynasty, however, that Confucius was finally officially recognized as a great sage by the rulers of China, at which time the book that purports to be the record of his teachings, the Analects, became required reading for any educated Chinese person. Although Confucianism was eclipsed during the Sui and Tang Dynasties by Buddhism, it continued during this period to exert a powerful influence on the Chinese mind, and it was officially revived in the Song Dynasty by the so-called “neo-Confucian” school. During the Ming Dynasty the so-called “Four Books” assembled by Zhu Xi (1130–1200) as the core of Confucian teachings—the Analects and the Mencius, along with two chapters from the Record of Ritual called the “Great Learning” and the “Doctrine of the Mean,” all accompanied by Zhu Xi’s commentary— became the basis of China’s civil service examination, and were therefore memorized by every educated Chinese person from 1313 until the last nationwide exam in 1910. Similar national exams in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam assured the hold of the Analects on the minds of the educated classes in those nations as well. Therefore, although the Master had little influence during his own lifetime, the cultural legacy he left to East Asia is difficult to overestimate. As Simon Leys has observed, “no book in the entire history of the world has exerted, over a longer period of time, a greater influence on a larger number of people than this slim little volume” (1997: xvi).

Multiple Choice Question

What accounts for the modern importance of the Analects in Chinese culture?

China experienced a golden age while it was ruled by Confucius, so adherence to his sayings is seen as the key to creating the nation’s next golden age. Because Confucius was considered the son of God, everything he preached is considered holy. For nearly 700 years, every educated Chinese person was expected to have memorized the Analects. The 20th-century Chinese dictator Mao Zedong forced all Chinese citizens to read Confucius.

The essay above has been adapted from the introduction to Confucius Analects (Hackett Publishing, 2003).

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.8 Analects: Book 1 On this page: 0 of 2 attempted (0%) | 0 of 1 correct (0%)

Analects By Confucius

Translated by Edward Slingerland

Pages from the Analects of Confucius.

Book 1

One of the central themes of this book is that learning (xue) has more to do with actual behavior than academic theory, and that virtuous public behavior as an adult is rooted in such basic familial virtues as filial piety (xiao) and respect for elders (ti) (lit. “being a good younger brother”).

1.6 The Master said, “A young person should be filial when at home and respectful of his elders when in public. Conscientious and trustworthy, he should display a general care for the masses but feel a particular affection

for those who are Good. If he has any strength left over after manifesting these virtues in practice, let him devote it to learning the cultural arts (wen).”

There is some debate about how to understand the term wen (“writing” “culture”) here, but it most likely refers to a set of cultural practices such as those later formalized as the so-called “six arts” of ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics in which any cultured person was trained (see 7.6). Liu Baonan notes that the purpose of this passage is to emphasize that “manifesting filial piety and respect for elders in one’s behavior is the primary concern, while the study of the cultural arts is secondary”; as Yin Tun puts it, “Virtuous behavior is the root, while the cultural arts are the branches; only by exhausting both root and branches, and knowing which is primary and which secondary, can one enter into virtue.” This theme is reinforced in 1.7 below.

1.7 Zixia said, “Imagine someone who recognizes and admires worthiness and therefore changes his lustful nature, who is able to fully exhaust his strength in serving his parents and extend himself to the utmost in serving his lord, and who is trustworthy in speech when interacting with friends and associates. Even if you said of such a person, ‘Oh, but he is not learned (xue),’ I would still insist that it is precisely such qualities that make one worthy of being called ‘learned.’”

Many commentators believe the first line to be a reference to proper relations between the sexes, which makes the four qualities mentioned map nicely to the “four great human relationships”: husband-wife, child-parent, minister-lord, and friend-friend. As You Zuo explains, “During the Three Dynasties, ‘learning’' had solely to do with illuminating human relations. One able to master the four relationships (mentioned in this passage) can be said to have a deep understanding of human relations. In learning this as the Way, can anything be added to it? Zixia was famous for his culture and learning, so to have him speaking like this gives us a good sense of what the ancients meant when they spoke of ‘learning.’” Alternately, yise (rendered above as “changing one’s lustful nature”) could also be understood as “thinking lightly of sex/physical appearance.”

1.8 The Master said, “If a gentleman is not serious, he will not inspire awe, and what he learns will be grasped only superficially.

Let your actions be governed by dutifulness and trustworthiness, and do not accept as a friend one who is not your equal. If you have committed a transgression, do not be afraid to change your ways.”

“Seriousness” (zhong; lit. “heaviness”) seems here to refer to a kind of genuine emotional commitment to the Confucian Way. Kong Anguo reports the opinion that “what this means is that if one is not able to be sincere and serious, one will lack a demeanor that would inspire respect in others, and will also be unable to firmly grasp the underlying ethical principles of what one is taught.” In the second half, we see again the emphasis upon improving one’s actual behavior in one’s interactions with others. The sentiment that one should not accept a friend who is not one’s equal might seem a bit puzzling (or even offensive) to someone not acquainted with the idea of “character- friendship” in the Aristotelian sense, but what Confucius means by a “friend” (you) here is a person who shares one’s moral aspirations (cf. 9.30, 16.4, 16.5). One is to compare oneself with other people in general in order to evaluate one’s moral progress (4.17, 7.22, 16.11), but the fellowship provided by a friend in virtue combines a powerful spur to further moral development with a deeply felt solidarity of purpose—an important solace during the long and arduous process of self-cultivation. As Confucius explains in 15.10, the practice of Goodness is like learning a craft, and one “sharpens one’s tools” by seeking out the company of like-minded souls. Similarly, a true friend in virtue serves as a support and comfort—the gentleman “relies upon his friends for support in becoming Good” (12.24).

1.9 Master Zeng said, “Take great care in seeing off the deceased and sedulously maintain the sacrifices to your distant ancestors, and the common people will sincerely return to Virtue.”

The target audience for this saying seems to be rulers or potential rulers, the message being that the key to ordering the state is paying attention to one’s own behavior (a theme often repeated in Books 12 and 13). As Cheng Shude observes,

By the time of the Spring and Autumn Period, education in ritual had sadly declined, and cruelty to one’s parents had become prevalent among the common people. Therefore, Master Zeng rebuked those in power by noting that if they would merely take care in seeing off their deceased and sedulously maintain the sacrifices to their distant ancestors, the common people would naturally become aware of their own meanness and be moved to return to kindness. As the Record of Ritual says, “Cultivate the ancestral temples, respectfully perform the ancestral sacrifices, and thereby teach the common people to maintain filial piety.”

1.11 The Master said, “When someone’s father is still alive, observe his intentions; after his father has passed away, observe his conduct. If for three years he does not alter the ways of his father, he may be called a filial son.”

Three years (usually understood as into the third year, or twenty five months) is the standard mourning period for a parent. As Kong Anguo explains, “When his father is still alive, the son is not able to act as he wants [because he must obey the father’s commands], so one can only observe his intentions in order to judge his character. It is only once his father has passed away that the son can learn about his character by observing his own actions. As long as the filial son is in mourning, his sorrow and longing is such that it is as if the father were still present, and this is why he does not alter the ways of his father.” Yin Tun clarifies, “If the ways of his father are in accordance with the Way, it would be perfectly acceptable to go his entire life without changing them. If they are not in accordance with the Way, though, why does he wait three years to change them? Even in the latter case, the filial son goes three years without making any changes because his heart is blocked by a certain reluctance.” In this passage, we see hints of the priority given to familial affection and loyalty over considerations of what is more abstractly “right” that is expressed more starkly in 13.18.

1.13 Master You said, “Trustworthiness comes close to rightness, in that your word can be counted upon. Reverence comes close to ritual propriety, in that it allows you to keep shame and public disgrace at a distance. Simply following these virtues, never letting them out of your sight—one cannot deny that this is worthy of respect.”

Described here are secondary virtues that allow one to live a respectable life, but that lack the flexibility and subtlety of the primary virtues. In explaining why trustworthiness (xin) is only “close” to rightness, Liu Baonan cites Mencius 4:B:11 “The great person is not always necessarily true to his word (xin), because he is concerned only with rightness,” explaining that “trustworthiness must always be practiced with an eye toward what is right” Huang Kan illustrates the potential tension between trustworthiness and rightness with the story of the legendary paragon of trustworthiness, Wei Sheng, who once promised to meet a girl under a river bridge, come hell or high water. Unfortunately there was a great storm the next day, and the high water did come: the girl stayed at home, but Wei Sheng obstinately refused to abandon the appointed meeting place and so was drowned. “This is an example of trustworthiness not according with what is appropriate to the situation (yi),where in fact it would be best if one did not keep one’s word,” Huang Kan concludes. Similarly, the feeling of reverence—although the root of ritual propriety—can in its raw form motivate actions that do not accord with the subtly-tuned dictates of ritual propriety.

1.14 The Master said, “The gentleman is not motivated by the desire for a full belly or a comfortable abode. He is simply scrupulous in behavior and careful in speech, drawing near to those who possess the Way in order to be

set straight by them. Surely this and nothing else is what it means to love learning.”

We see here the first expression of a theme that will be repeated throughout the Analects (cf. 4.16, 7.12, 8.12, 14.1, 14.24, 15.32): the true lover of the Way is not concerned with externalities such as fine, abundant food or other material comforts. The general theme of Book 1—that learning pertains to one’s actual deportment rather than to theoretical knowledge—is also reinforced. As Wang Shu comments: “The primary focus of students in ancient times was to cultivate themselves by being meticulous in speech and careful in action, rather than merely memorizing, reciting, and composing texts...Students nowadays, on the other hand, devote themselves exclusively to memorizing, reciting, and composing texts with the sole purpose of passing the civil service exams and obtaining official positions. Very few of them ever get around to paying careful attention to their actual behavior or speech. Perhaps this is why they pale in comparison to the ancients.” For the importance of being careful with regard to one’s speech, cf. 2.13, 4.22, 4.24, 12.3, 14.20, and 14.27.

Multiple Choice Question

While it might be argued that these writings are relevant to everyone, they were intended for:

people with some degree of power who were likely in government. the poor, the least-educated, and the most in need. leaders in the Confucian church. women.

Response Board Question In the section above, what types of behavior is Confucius implicitly criticizing?

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Originally published in Confucius Analects, translated by Edward Slingerland (Hackett Publishing, 2003). Reprinted with permission.

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.9 Analects: Books 4 and 6 On this page: 0 of 3 attempted (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

Book 4

Many of the passages in this book concern the supreme virtue of Goodness. Those who are truly Good love the Confucian Way and embody it in a wu­wei fashion— completely unselfconsciously and effortlessly—as opposed to those who pursue the Way because of ulterior motives. Such true gentlemen require nothing from the world but the genuine joy and satisfaction they derive from virtue, as opposed to “petty people” who are motivated by considerations of profit or other external goods. This book also contains a series of statements (4.19–4.21) on filial piety that flesh out the treatment in Book 1.

4.4 The Master said, “Merely set your heart sincerely upon Goodness and you will be free of bad intentions.”

4.9 The Master said, “A scholar­official who has set his heart upon the Way, but who is still ashamed of having shabby clothing or meager rations, is not worth engaging in discussion.”

4.14 The Master said, “Do not be concerned that you lack an official position, but rather concern yourself with the means by which you might become established. Do not be concerned that no one has heard of you, but rather strive to become a person worthy of being known.”

Again we see a distaste for self-assertion, self-aggrandizement, and contention for external goods. The gentleman focuses solely upon achieving the internal goods of the Confucian Way. External recognition should and may follow, but is subject to the vagaries of fate and is not inevitable (especially in a disordered or corrupt age), and in any case is not a worthy object of concern. Cf. 1.16, 12.20, 14.30, 15.19.

4.16 The Master said, “The gentleman understands rightness, whereas the petty person understands profit.”

4.17 The Master said, “When you see someone who is worthy, concentrate upon becoming their equal; when you see someone who is unworthy, use this as an opportunity to look within yourself.”

4.19 The Master said, “While your parents are alive, you should not travel far, and when you do travel you must keep to a fixed itinerary.”

Going on an extended journey would entail neglecting one’s filial duties. As for the issue of itinerary, Huang Kan comments:

The “Summary of Ritual Propriety” [chapter of the Record of Ritual] says, “The ritual propriety proper to a son dictates that when he goes out, he must inform his parents, and that when he returns, he must report to them personally, and that in all of his travels he must keep to a fixed itinerary...If one travels and does not have a fixed itinerary, this will cause one’s parents undue worry.”

4.23 The Master said, “Very few go astray who comport themselves with restraint.”

4.24 The Master said, “The gentleman wishes to be slow to speak, but quick to act.”

4.25 The Master said, “Virtue is never solitary; it always has neighbors.”

Book 6

Much of the book is dedicated to discussions of the various virtues that characterize the perfected Confucian gentleman, and it is therefore no surprise that most of the passages consist of descriptions of the behavior of historical or contemporary individuals, usually coupled with moral judgments delivered by Confucius. This sort of teaching by means of moral models is a crucial component of any virtue ethic: positive exemplars teach one about the virtues and provide behavioral models for the student to emulate, while negative examples teach one about vice and serve as cautionary tales.

6.11 The Master said, “What a worthy man was Yan Hui! Living in a narrow alley, subsisting on a basket of grain and gourd full of water—other people could not have born such hardship, yet it never spoiled Hui’s joy. What a worthy man was Hui!”

Here again we see the idea that the true gentleman, sustained by the internal goods of the Confucian Way, is indifferent to externalities (cf. 1.14, 4.2, 4.5, 4.9, 7.12, 7.16, 15.32). Zhou Dunyi comments, “Master Yan simply focused upon what was important and forgot what was trivial. When you focus upon what is important, your heart is at peace; when your heart is at peace, you will find satisfaction in all things.” This idea of focusing on the important rather than the trivial links 6.11 with its partner passage 6.12.

6.19 The Master said, “A person survives by being upright. If you try leading a crooked life, only blind luck will allow you to get by.”

This seems to be a partner passage to the exasperated 6.16: despite the depravity of the current age, moral rectitude will see one through. As Ma Rong comments, “The point is that rectitude and uprightness are what allow one to live in the world and come to a natural end.” Liu Baonan elaborates, “A crooked person expends all of his energy deceiving himself in order to deceive other people. This is what it means to turn yourself into a monster, to make your life unlivable. If you are not punished by your superiors, you will surely suffer some natural misfortune—only sheer luck would allow you to escape this fate.”

Multiple Choice Question

The Master teaches that the key to governing a peaceful and prosperous community is which of the following?

a ruler whose internal life is well ordered and moral a thriving economy swift punishment for bad behavior a democratic system with checks and balances

6.20 The Master said, “One who knows it is not the equal of one who loves it, and one who loves it is not the equal of one who takes joy in it.”

The “it” referred to is most likely the Confucian Way. There are several slightly different ways to take this passage, but what is being referred to is the increasing level of unselfconsciousness and ease that characterizes the true Confucian gentleman. Bao Xian takes the “it” in the more narrow sense of learning: “One who knows about learning lacks the sincerity of one who loves learning, and one who loves learning lacks the depth of one who takes joy in it.” Zhang Shi invokes an analogy to food:

It is like the five cultivated grains. “One who knows it” knows that they are edible. “One who loves it” has eaten them and found them delicious. “One who takes joy in it” has found them delicious and has moreover eaten his fill. If you know it but are not able to love it, this means that your knowledge is not yet complete, and if you love it but are not able to take joy in it, this means that your love has not yet been consummated. Is not [joy in the Way] what strengthened the resolve of the ancients and allowed them to go forward without rest?

6.30 Zigong said, “If there were one able to broadly extend his benevolence to the common people and bring succor to the multitudes, what would you

make of him? Could such a person be called Good?”

The Master said, “Why stop at Good? Such a person should surely be called a sage! Even someone like Yao or Shun would find such a task daunting. Desiring to take his stand, one who is Good helps others to take their stand; wanting to realize himself, he helps others to realize themselves. Being able to take what is near at hand as an analogy could perhaps be called the method of Goodness.”

Multiple Choice Question

Which of the following does the Master consistently teach?

Free will is a beautiful thing. Your actions define who you are, whatever your internal state. Proper behavior is dependent on life circumstances. Proper attitude leads to proper actions which leads to a good reputation; thus, attitude is the most important aspect of a person’s life.

Response Board Question Select any one of the above Analects NOT accompanied by a commentary and explain it in your own words.

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Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.10 Analects: Books 7 and 12 On this page: 0 of 4 attempted (0%) | 0 of 3 correct (0%)

Book 7

A discernible common theme in this book is the importance of a properly directed and sufficiently intense will or intention, which requires a focus upon the goods internal to Confucian practice. Such a focus leads to a sense of joy that renders one immune to the allure of externalities.

7.11 The Master remarked to Yan Hui, “It is said, ‘When he is employed, he moves forward; when he is removed from office, he holds himself in reserve.’ Surely this applies only to you and me?”

Zilu interposed, “If you, Master, were to lead the three armies into battle, who would you want by your side?”

The Master replied, “I would not want by my side the kind of person who would attack a tiger barehanded or attempt to swim the Yellow River, because he was willing to ‘die without regret.’ Surely I would want someone who approached such undertakings with a proper sense of trepidation, and who came to a decision only after having thoroughly considered the matter.”

The first remark refers to the virtue of timeliness ( shi): responding flexibly and appropriately to the situation with which one is confronted. As Kong Anguo puts it, it is the ability to “advance when it is appropriate to advance, and remain still when it is appropriate to remain still.” Such sensitivity to context and effortless grace is the hallmark of an accomplished gentleman. Most likely Confucius’ comment was intended not only to praise Yan Hui, but also to indicate to Zilu the areas in which he might best develop himself morally. Zilu misses the point, though; presumably jealous of this praise for Yan Hui, he tries to win approval from the Master for his own characteristic reckless courage (cf. 5.7). Of course, it is precisely Zilu’s recklessness that the Master was trying to rein in with his initial statement, and so the Master is forced to explicitly reprimand him.

7.16 The Master said, “Eating plain food and drinking water, having only your bent arm as a pillow—certainly there is joy to be found in this! Wealth

and eminence attained improperly concern me no more than the floating clouds.”

7.17 The Master said, “If I were granted many more years, and could devote fifty of them to learning, surely I would be able to be free of major faults.”

7.20 The Master said, “I am not someone who was born with knowledge. I simply love antiquity, and diligently look there for knowledge.”

7.21 The Master did not discuss prodigies, feats of strength, disorderly conduct, or the supernatural.

Confucius’ sole object of concern was self-cultivation—he did not waste time on irrelevant frivolities. As Wang Bi explains,

“Prodigies” refers to strange or unusual events; “feats of strength” refer to things like Ao’s ability to handle warships or Wu Huo being able to lift a thousand pounds; “disorderly conduct” refers to a minister killing his lord, or a son killing his father; and “the supernatural” refers to the service of the ghosts and spirits. These things either have nothing contribute to one’s moral education, or are simply things the Master found distasteful to talk about.

For another comment on Ao, see 14.5; Wu Huo was a famous strong man (cf. Mencius 6:B:2). For more on topics that the master did not deign to discuss, cf. 5.13.

7.28 The Master said, “No doubt there are those who try to innovate without acquiring knowledge, but this is a fault that I do not possess. I listen widely, and then pick out that which is excellent in order to follow it; I see many things, and then remember them. This constitutes a second­best sort of knowledge.”

7.36 The Master said, “Extravagance leads to presumption, while frugality leads to shabbiness. Compared to presumption, though, shabbiness is to be preferred.”

7.37 The Master said, “The gentleman is self­possessed and relaxed, while the petty man is perpetually full of worry.”

Artist Zhang Huan stands looking at his sculpture, Q Confucius No. 2, at the Rockbund Art Museum in Shanghai, China. Silicone, steel, carbon fiber, and acrylic, 2011.

Photo courtesy of Zhang Huan

Book 12

As Legge observes, this book conveys “lessons on perfect virtue [ren], government, and other questions of morality, addressed in conversation by Confucius chiefly to his disciples. The different answers, given about the same subject to different questioners, show well how the sage suited his instruction to the characters and capacities of the parties with whom he had to do” (1991a: 250). A prominent theme is the contrast between Confucian rule by Virtue and personal example as opposed to rule by force or coercive laws.

12.1 Yan Hui asked about Goodness.

The Master said, “Restraining yourself and returning to the rites (keji fuli) constitutes Goodness. If for one day you managed to restrain yourself and return to the rites, in this way you could lead the entire world back to Goodness. The key to achieving Goodness lies within yourself—how could it come from others?”

Yan Hui asked, “May I inquire as to the specifics?”

The Master said, “Do not look unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not listen unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not speak unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not move unless it is in accordance with ritual.”

Yan Hui replied, “Although I am not quick to understand, I ask permission to devote myself to this teaching.”

Liu Baonan’s commentary on the second half of 12.1 is very helpful:

Looking, listening, speaking, and moving are all things that come from oneself, not from others, which is why the key to achieving Goodness lies within oneself and does not come from others...If only I am able to restrain myself and return to ritual, whenever I am confronted with something that is not in accordance with ritual, I will have within myself the means to restrain my eyes and not look at it, restrain my ears and not listen to it, restrain my mouth and not speak of it, and restrain my heart and not put it into action. This is all that is meant by “restraining oneself and returning to ritual.”

As Brooks and Brooks observe, “the four ‘details’ (trivialized in the Three Monkeys of later art) make two pairs: do not promote impropriety either passively (by seeing or hearing it) or actively (by saying or doing it)” (1998: 89).

12.2 Zhonggong asked about Goodness.

The Master said, “When in public, comport yourself as if you were receiving an important guest, and in your management of the common people, behave as if you were overseeing a great sacrifice. Do not impose upon others what you yourself do not desire. In this way, you will encounter no resentment in your public or private life.”

Zhonggong replied, “Although I am not quick to understand, I ask permission to devote myself to this teaching.”

12.6 Zizhang asked about perceptiveness.

The Master replied, “He who does not base his actions upon slanders that try to seep into one’s mind, or accusations that accumulate like dirt on one’s skin, may be called ‘perceptive.’ Indeed, such a person could even be called ‘far­sighted.’”

12.7 Zigong asked about governing.

The Master said, “Simply make sure there is sufficient food, sufficient armaments, and that you have the confidence of the common people.”

Zigong said, “If sacrificing one of these three things became unavoidable, which would you sacrifice first?”

The Master replied, “I would sacrifice the armaments.”

Zigong said, “If sacrificing one of the two remaining things became unavoidable, which would you sacrifice next?”

The Master replied, “I would sacrifice the food. Death has always been with us, but a state cannot stand once it has lost the confidence of the people.”

12.9 Duke Ai said to Master You, “The harvest was poor and I cannot satisfy my needs. What should I do?”

Master You said, “Why do you not try taxing the people one part in ten?”

“I am currently taxing them two parts in ten, and even so I cannot satisfy my needs. How could reducing the tax to one part in ten help?”

Master You answered, “If the common people’s needs are satisfied, how could their lord be lacking? If the common people’s needs are not satisfied, how can their lord be content?”

According to the Annals, the traditional ten percent tithe on agricultural production was doubled by Duke Xuan of Lu in 593 B.C.E., and then continued as standard practice. It is possible that this exchange between Duke Ai and Master You took place during the Lu famine of 484 B.C.E. (Year 14 of Duke Ai’s reign), which occurred after back-to-back plagues of locusts in 484 and 483 B.C.E. Master You is thus suggesting a return to a taxation rate over one hundred years old—quite a radical cutback. Probably the best commentary on this passage is a story from the Garden of Persuasions:

Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius about governing. Confucius replied, “The purpose of the government is to make the common people rich.” Duke Ai asked, “What do you mean by that?” Confucius said, “Lighten the burden of levies and taxes, and this will make the common people rich.” The Duke replied, “If I did that, then I myself would become poor.” Confucius responded, “An ode says, ‘All happiness to our gentleman-ruler/Father and mother of his people’ [Ode 251]. I have never seen a situation where the children were rich and the parents poor.” (844)

The point, of course, is that if the Duke comported himself as the parent of his people, as he properly should, his sole concern would be for their welfare, not his own financial needs.

12.16 The Master said, “A gentleman helps others to realize their good qualities, rather than their bad. A petty person does the opposite.”

12.18 Ji Kangzi was concerned about the prevalence of robbers in Lu and asked Confucius about how to deal with this problem.

Confucius said, “If you could just get rid of your own excessive desires, the people would not steal even if you rewarded them for it.”

Multiple Choice Question

The Analects is one of various works throughout history said to have articulated a version of “the golden rule.” Which of the following sayings of Confucius on this page BEST encapsulates the message of the golden rule?

“Extravagance leads to presumption, while frugality leads to shabbiness.” “A gentleman helps others to realize their good qualities, rather than their bad. A petty person does the opposite.” “Do not impose upon others what you yourself do not desire.” “The wise are not confused, the Good do not worry, and the courageous do not fear.”

Multiple Choice Question

How has Confucius been depicted by the writer(s) who collected and assembled these sayings? Choose the BEST answer.

as an exceptionally wise man as a government official giving a typical bureaucratic outlook as a divine figure sharing wisdom from God as a humble religious leader

Multiple Choice Question

Which of the following is a recurring focus and concern of Confucius throughout the Analects? Choose the BEST answer.

irrelevant frivolities self-discipline

craftsmen spiritual matters

Response Board Question What behaviors promoted by Confucius are considered virtuous in your own culture, and which are actually NOT seen as virtuous? Provide at least one example of each.

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Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.11 Blessed Are the Cheesemakers On this page: 0 of 2 attempted (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

Blessed Are the Cheesemakers By Grace Labatt

The Sermon on the Mount has been a core—maybe the core—text of Christian ethics ever since it was recorded sometime in the first century CE. In this critical passage from the New Testament, Jesus announces to his disciples the tenets of Christian life, starting with a series of eight Beatitudes (sayings that begin with “Blessed are…”). These are followed by several of the principle texts of Christianity, including the Lord’s Prayer, the Golden Rule, and the culmination of Matthew 5: “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.”

The Sermon appears in chapters 5 through 7 of the Gospel of Matthew, the first book of the New Testament. It is Jesus’s first sermon to appear in the Bible, and it materializes early in the Gospel, after a recounting of Jesus’s birth, baptism, and early preaching years. It’s unclear who wrote the Book of Matthew, but according to the text Matthew was a tax collector-turned-disciple of Jesus from the town of Capernaum, on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The actual author of Matthew may have been an unknown scribe who based his writings on oral and written traditions.1

Depiction of St. Matthew writing, from the Lindisfarne Gospels (ca. 710-721). The unidentified figure behind the curtain is commonly understood to represent a closing of the Old Testament and its teachings, as the book in his hand is shut, while the open book in St. Matthew’s lap symbolizes a literal and figurative “opening” of the New Testament to the world. Scholars speculate that the juxtaposition is meant to represent the changing of belief and the fulfillment of the Hebrew Bible prophecy about the coming of the Messiah.

Image courtesy of the British Library / Flickr Creative Commons

Over the past two millennia, the Sermon on the Mount has been central to Biblical Studies, with its ambiguities inviting deep scrutiny. Bible scholar Hans Dieter Betz wrote, with perhaps a trace of chagrin, “Despite centuries of serious scholarship, this text has so far remained a pièce de résistance, and the key to its proper interpretation has yet to be found.”2 Interpretations have ranged from St. Augustine’s in the fourth century CE—in which the sayings of the Sermon are declared to “perfectly guide the life of those who may be willing to live according to them”3—to Betz’s more tempered view. Having evaluated the Sermon for its literary genre and tradition, Betz reached the conclusion that it falls in the category of “diatribe literature”: works founded on principles of training and practice rather than on immutable law.4

Multiple Choice Question

Why is the Sermon on the Mount considered such an important Christian text? Choose the BEST answer.

because it offers the key to salvation because it is Jesus’s only sermon in the Bible because it contains so many of Christianity’s most important teachings because it is contained within the first Gospel of Matthew

After all, as Robert Guelich, a former professor at the Fuller Theological Seminary in California, asked, “Can one today love the enemy and live with anger, evil thoughts, the guarantee of one’s word, the recourse to legal justice, or even divorce?”5 That is, are the teachings of the Sermon realistically practicable? Can we really “be perfect”?

Some clues to what, exactly, Jesus was prescribing may be found by looking at the Sermon’s context, and in particular its relationship to the Old Testament. Much of what Jesus says during the Sermon refers directly to the Jewish Bible, in a manner that honors the earlier laws while moving beyond them. “[Jesus] grants the old text its sanctity and its perpetual force, but he always assumes that in an important sense it is not complete itself,” literary critic Frank Kermode noted.6 There are a number of seeming contradictions between the Old Testament laws and Jesus’s preaching. For instance, Jesus instructs his listeners, “If anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also,” a considerably different directive than the “eye for an eye” mandate of Exodus 21:24.

That relationship between the Old Testament laws and Jesus’s Sermon—which is one of transformation and expansion, and of honor, reflection, and response—suggests the subjective, personalized relationship with Jesus that is fundamental to Christianity. “The SM is not ‘law’ to be obeyed,” Betz wrote, “but theology to be intellectually appropriated and internalized, in order then to be creatively developed and implemented in concrete situations of life.”7 The perfection Jesus counsels, then, is far from an enfeebling, impossible goal. It is instead something to aspire to in everyday situations. Its role in Jesus’s venerated sermon affirms the challenging, interpretive nature of his words, which in turn makes clear why it is that the Sermon has had such a central role in Christianity.

Multiple Choice Question

Which of the following BEST sums up scholarly views on the Sermon on the Mount’s meaning?

Scholars almost unanimously insist that the Sermon on the Mount is about cultivating perfection. Scholars remain divided on the Sermon’s meaning, and, accordingly, consider it open to interpretation. Scholars generally defer to St. Augustine’s interpretation of the Sermon.

Scholars have found the Sermon on the Mount too impenetrable to form a meaningful opinion about.

1 Dennis C. Duling, “The Gospel of Matthew,” in The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2010), 296.

2 Hans Dieter Betz, “The Sermon on the Mount: A Foundation for Understanding” (book review), Journal of Biblical Literature vol. 103, no. 3 (Sept. 1984), pp. 47-48.

3 St. Augustine of Hippo, “On the Sermon of the Mount, Book I.” New Advent.org. Revised and edited by Kevin Knight, from Nicene and Post­Nicene Fathers, First Series vol. 6, ed. Philip Schaff and trans. William Findlay (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1888). http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/16011.htm.

4 Hans Dieter Betz, “The Sermon on the Mount: Its Literary Genre and Function,” The Journal of Religion vol. 59, no. 3 (July 1979), pp. 285-297.

5 Robert A. Guelich, “Sermon on the Mount,” The Oxford Companion to the Bible , ed. Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 687-689.

6 Frank Kermode, in R. Alter and F. Kermode, eds. The Literary Guide to the Bible (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1990), p. 388.

7 Betz, “The Sermon on the Mount: Its Literary Genre and Function.”

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.12 Christian Bible: Matthew 5 On this page: 0 of 2 attempted (0%) | 0 of 1 correct (0%)

The Christian Bible

A man reads the Bible on an iPad mini. Max Rossi / Reuters

Matthew 5

The Beatitudes

When Jesus saw the crowds, he went up the mountain; and after he sat down, his disciples came to him. 2Then he began to speak, and taught them, saying:

3 “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 4 “Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted. 5 “Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth. 6 “Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled.

7 “Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy. 8 “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God. 9 “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God. 10 “Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 11 “Blessed are you when people revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. 12Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you.

Multiple Choice Question

Starting with verse 3, there are a series of sayings that begin with the phrase, “Blessed are...” These sayings are known as the Beatitudes. Who is meant to be blessed in this passage?

those who would seem to be unlucky or vulnerable those who are the most religious those who are angry those who are the most successful and powerful in society

Salt and Light

13 “You are the salt of the earth; but if salt has lost its taste, how can its saltiness be restored? It is no longer good for anything, but is thrown out and trampled under foot.

14 “You are the light of the world. A city built on a hill cannot be hid. 15No one after lighting a lamp puts it under the bushel basket, but on the lampstand, and it gives light to all in the house. 16In the same way, let your light shine before others, so that they may see your good works and give glory to your Father in heaven.

The Law and the Prophets

17 “Do not think that I have come to abolish the law or the prophets; I have come not to abolish but to fulfill. 18For truly I tell you, until heaven and earth pass away, not one letter, not one stroke of a letter, will pass from the law until all is accomplished. 19Therefore, whoever breaks one of the least of these commandments, and teaches others to do the same, will be called least in the kingdom of heaven; but whoever does them and teaches them will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. 20For I tell you,

unless your righteousness exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven.

Concerning Anger

21 “You have heard that it was said to those of ancient times, ‘You shall not murder’; and ‘whoever murders shall be liable to judgment.’ 22But I say to you that if you are angry with a brother or sister, you will be liable to judgment; and if you insult a brother or sister, you will be liable to the council; and if you say, ‘You fool,’ you will be liable to the hell of fire. 23So when you are offering your gift at the altar, if you remember that your brother or sister has something against you, 24leave your gift there before the altar and go; first be reconciled to your brother or sister, and then come and offer your gift. 25Come to terms quickly with your accuser while you are on the way to court with him, or your accuser may hand you over to the judge, and the judge to the guard, and you will be thrown into prison. 26Truly I tell you, you will never get out until you have paid the last penny.

Concerning Adultery

27 “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall not commit adultery.’ 28But I say to you that everyone who looks at a woman with lust has already committed adultery with her in his heart. 29If your right eye causes you to sin, tear it out and throw it away; it is better for you to lose one of your members than for your whole body to be thrown into hell. 30And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away; it is better for you to lose one of your members than for your whole body to go into hell.

Concerning Divorce

31 “It was also said, ‘Whoever divorces his wife, let him give her a certificate of divorce.’ 32But I say to you that anyone who divorces his wife, except on the ground of unchastity, causes her to commit adultery; and whoever marries a divorced woman commits adultery.

Concerning Oaths

33 “Again, you have heard that it was said to those of ancient times, ‘You shall not swear falsely, but carry out the vows you have made to the Lord.’ 34But I say to you, Do not swear at all, either by heaven, for it is the throne of God, 35or by the earth, for it is his

footstool, or by Jerusalem, for it is the city of the great King. 36And do not swear by your head, for you cannot make one hair white or black. 37Let your word be ‘Yes, Yes’ or ‘No, No’; anything more than this comes from the evil one .

Concerning Retaliation

38 “You have heard that it was said, ‘An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.’ 39But I say to you, Do not resist an evildoer. But if anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also; 40and if anyone wants to sue you and take your coat, give your cloak as well; 41and if anyone forces you to go one mile, go also the second mile. 42Give to everyone who begs from you, and do not refuse anyone who wants to borrow from you.

Love for Enemies

43 “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ 44But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, 45so that you may be children of your Father in heaven; for he makes his sun rise on the evil and on the good, and sends rain on the righteous and on the unrighteous. 46For if you love those who love you, what reward do you have? Do not even the tax collectors do the same? 47And if you greet only your brothers and sisters, what more are you doing than others? Do not even the Gentiles do the same? 48Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.

Response Board Question Beginning at verse 21, a number of sayings start with the phrase, “You have heard it said that...” Why does Jesus use this phrasing to make his point?

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Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.13 Christian Bible: Matthew 6 On this page: 0 of 3 attempted (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

Matthew 6

Concerning Almsgiving

“Beware of practicing your piety before others in order to be seen by them; for then you have no reward from your Father in heaven.

2 “So whenever you give alms, do not sound a trumpet before you, as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets, so that they may be praised by others. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward. 3But when you give alms, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, 4so that your alms may be done in secret; and your Father who sees in secret will reward you.

Concerning Prayer

5 “And whenever you pray, do not be like the hypocrites; for they love to stand and pray in the synagogues and at the street corners, so that they may be seen by others. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward. 6But whenever you pray, go into your room and shut the door and pray to your Father who is in secret; and your Father who sees in secret will reward you.

7 “When you are praying, do not heap up empty phrases as the Gentiles do; for they think that they will be heard because of their many words. 8Do not be like them, for your Father knows what you need before you ask him.

9 “Pray then in this way: Our Father in heaven,

hallowed be your name. 10 Your kingdom come.

Your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven.

11 Give us this day our daily bread. 12 And forgive us our debts,

as we also have forgiven our debtors. 13 And do not bring us to the time of trial,

but rescue us from the evil one. 14For if you forgive others their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive you; 15but if you do not forgive others, neither will your Father forgive your trespasses.

Orthodox Christians read Bibles as they pray in front of one of 11 monolithic rock-cut churches ahead of Orthodox Easter in Lalibela, Ethiopia.

Goran Tomasevic / Reuters

Concerning Fasting

16 “And whenever you fast, do not look dismal, like the hypocrites, for they disfigure their faces so as to show others that they are fasting. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward. 17But when you fast, put oil on your head and wash your face, 18so that your fasting may be seen not by others but by your Father who is in secret; and your Father who sees in secret will reward you.

Concerning Treasures

19 “Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust consume and where thieves break in and steal; 20but store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust consumes and where thieves do not break in and steal. 21For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also.

The Sound Eye

22 “The eye is the lamp of the body. So, if your eye is healthy, your whole body will be full of light; 23but if your eye is unhealthy, your whole body will be full of darkness. If then the light in you is darkness, how great is the darkness!

Serving Two Masters

24 “No one can serve two masters; for a slave will either hate the one and love the other, or be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and wealth.

Do Not Worry

25 “Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or what you will drink, or about your body, what you will wear. Is not life more than food, and the body more than clothing? 26Look at the birds of the air; they neither sow nor reap nor gather into barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not of more value than they? 27And can any of you by worrying add a single hour to your span of life? 28And why do you worry about clothing? Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they neither toil nor spin, 29yet I tell you, even Solomon in all his glory was not clothed like one of these. 30But if God so clothes the grass of the field, which is alive today and tomorrow is thrown into the oven, will he not much more clothe you—you of little faith? 31Therefore do not worry, saying, ‘What will we eat?’ or ‘What will we drink?’ or ‘What will we wear?’ 32For it is the Gentiles who strive for all these things; and indeed your heavenly Father knows that you need all these things. 33But strive first for the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well.

34 “So do not worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow will bring worries of its own. Today’s trouble is enough for today.

Multiple Choice Question

This chapter is full of admonitions to be like “this” and not be like “that.” Which of the following behaviors are people most consistently warned to reject? Choose the BEST answer.

working to seem good in order to impress others false prophets harming other people not going to church

Multiple Choice Question

In this chapter, which of the following actions is presented as more important than the others?

exposing people who are not doing the things God expects them to do trusting God to take care of you and reward you for the good things you do doing good things in ways that will cause others to want to change following the examples of the apostles

Response Board Question Identify one virtue offered in this chapter that is at odds with the norms of your own culture, and explain why there is a disparity.

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Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.14 Christian Bible: Matthew 7 On this page: 0 of 3 attempted (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

Matthew 7

Judging Others

“Do not judge, so that you may not be judged. 2For with the judgment you make you will be judged, and the measure you give will be the measure you get. 3Why do you see the speck in your neighbor’s eye, but do not notice the log in your own eye? 4Or how can you say to your neighbor, ‘Let me take the speck out of your eye,’ while the log is in your own eye? 5You hypocrite, first take the log out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to take the speck out of your neighbor’s eye.

Profaning the Holy

6 “Do not give what is holy to dogs; and do not throw your pearls before swine, or they will trample them under foot and turn and maul you.

Ask, Search, Knock

7 “Ask, and it will be given you; search, and you will find; knock, and the door will be opened for you. 8For everyone who asks receives, and everyone who searches finds, and for everyone who knocks, the door will be opened. 9Is there anyone among you who, if your child asks for bread, will give a stone? 10Or if the child asks for a fish, will give a snake? 11If you then, who are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your Father in heaven give good things to those who ask him!

The Golden Rule

12 “In everything do to others as you would have them do to you; for this is the law and the prophets.

The Narrow Gate

13 “Enter through the narrow gate; for the gate is wide and the road is easy that leads to destruction, and there are many who take it. 14For the gate is narrow and the road is hard that leads to life, and there are few who find it.

An archway and a narrow gate in the Ga’aton Ruins, Western Galilee, Israel. Photo courtesy of Yoss Stybel / Wikimedia Commons

A Tree and Its Fruit

15 “Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing but inwardly are ravenous wolves. 16You will know them by their fruits. Are grapes gathered from thorns, or figs from thistles? 17In the same way, every good tree bears good fruit, but the bad tree bears bad fruit. 18A good tree cannot bear bad fruit, nor can a bad tree bear good fruit. 19Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire. 20Thus you will know them by their fruits.

Concerning Self­Deception

21 “Not everyone who says to me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ will enter the kingdom of heaven, but only the one who does the will of my Father in heaven. 22On that day many will say to me, ‘Lord, Lord, did we not prophesy in your name, and cast out demons in your name,

and do many deeds of power in your name?’ 23Then I will declare to them, ‘I never knew you; go away from me, you evildoers.’

Hearers and Doers

24 “Everyone then who hears these words of mine and acts on them will be like a wise man who built his house on rock. 25The rain fell, the floods came, and the winds blew and beat on that house, but it did not fall, because it had been founded on rock. 26And everyone who hears these words of mine and does not act on them will be like a foolish man who built his house on sand. 27The rain fell, and the floods came, and the winds blew and beat against that house, and it fell—and great was its fall!”

28 Now when Jesus had finished saying these things, the crowds were astounded at his teaching, 29for he taught them as one having authority, and not as their scribes.

Multiple Choice Question

According to the text, what is a sign that someone is genuinely following God?

They can quickly recite the words of Jesus. They are excellent judges of what others are doing wrong. They are people whose lives bear “good fruit.” They are able to prophesy and cast out demons.

Multiple Choice Question

Which of the following statements BEST summarizes virtue as taught in the Sermon on the Mount?

Putting the words of Jesus into practice and trusting that God will care for you is the height of virtue. Recognizing how guilty you should feel for forsaking Jesus and resolving to do better is the height of virtue. It is more virtuous to help others before attempting to perfect yourself. Persuading others to follow Jesus is the most virtuous thing a Christian can do.

Response Board Question Aside from virtue, what common theme (or themes) carries across the works in this chapter? Explain your answer with evidence from at least two texts.

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