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Job Analysis and Job Design

Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

• Conduct a quality job analysis.

• Write job descriptions and job specifications that can be conducive to effective recruitment, selection, training, performance appraisals, and compensation design and implementation.

• Design jobs that can enhance employee motivation, morale, productivity, and retention.

• Link job analysis and job design to the strategic HRM process.

• Discuss emerging trends, opportunities, and challenges in job analysis and job design.

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Introduction

Introduction In Chapter 2, you had the opportunity to learn about strategic HR planning and the impor- tance of analyzing an organization’s external and internal environments. This analysis makes it possible to set and achieve HR goals and objectives that are relevant, aligned to those of the organization, and therefore conducive to its success and effectiveness. However, those plans should be translated into specific tasks to be performed before HR can implement its strategic plans through recruitment, selection, compensation, training, and performance management. These tasks can then be grouped into jobs for which people can be recruited, selected, and trained.

Job analysis and job design are critical for the success of subsequent HRM stages. In job design, HR managers identify organizational goals and objectives and translate them into relevant tasks and responsibilities, which are then grouped into roles and job positions. These job positions are subsequently integrated into departments or business units to create the orga- nizational structure, which becomes the vehicle or system through which the organization operates. This system helps the organization achieve its strategic, tactical, and operational goals and objectives.

HR managers need to establish a formal and powerful data gathering system both to collect information about different jobs and to utilize the gathered information in creating job descriptions and specifications. This system makes it possible to effectively design and struc- ture jobs, departments, business units, and the organization as a whole. These are the processes involved in job analysis, which is discussed in the next section. Figure 3.1 summa- rizes job analysis and job design as components of the strategic HRM process and provides a framework for this chapter.

Opening Case Study When and Why Should Teamwork Be Part of the Job?

Access the following links:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-iyBsaehn8

http://www.blueangels.navy.mil/team/

http://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2013/01/23 /why-and-where-is-teamwork-important/

http://www.forbes.com/sites/hbsworkingknowledge/2012/12/28 /why-leaders-need-to-rethink-teamwork/

Work teams have become the norm in many organizations. However, as you probably realized from the above resources, not everyone is cut out for teamwork, and not all jobs lend them- selves to collaboration. In order to determine whether a job is more effectively performed indi- vidually or in a team, it is necessary to perform a thorough job analysis. Jobs to be performed in teams should then be designed as such, and the employees who fill these jobs should be selected, trained, evaluated, and rewarded accordingly.

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-iyBsaehn8

http://www.blueangels.navy.mil/team/

http://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2013/01/23/why-and-where-is-teamwork-important/

http://www.forbes.com/sites/hbsworkingknowledge/2012/12/28/why-leaders-need-to-rethink-teamwork/

Job specifications

Designing job

dimensions

Data analysis

Job descriptions

Data collection

Strategic HR planning

Job analysis and job design

Attraction and recruitment of

talent

Selection and job fit

Performance appraisal/

management

Training and development

Compensation

Benefits and benefit

administration

Section 3.1 Job Analysis

3.1 Job Analysis Job analysis can be defined as the methodology through which HR collects and evaluates information pertaining to a particular job’s content and human requirements. Job analysis is considered to be at the heart of all human resource practices, thus making it critically

Figure 3.1: Job analysis and job design

Job specifications

Designing job

dimensions

Data analysis

Job descriptions

Data collection

Strategic HR planning

Job analysis and job design

Attraction and recruitment of

talent

Selection and job fit

Performance appraisal/

management

Training and development

Compensation

Benefits and benefit

administration

mor82551_03_c03_055-082.indd 57 11/19/15 12:37 PM

Section 3.1 Job Analysis

important to all management activities (Singh, 2008). Although not a law, but clearly identi- fied by the courts as a source of standards, the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures of 1978 clearly state that legal justification of any employee selection procedure should be grounded in a thorough job analysis. Toward this end, Professor of Psychology Robert J. Harvey (1991) established guidelines for conducting a job analysis that have stood the test of time. First, job analysis should have as a goal the description of observable work behaviors. Second, job analysis should involve the description of work behaviors independent of the personal characteristics or attributes of the employees who perform the job. Third, and of critical importance, job analysis data must be verifiable and replicable.

Job analysis serves many purposes. Its main purpose is to create a standard or a benchmark that can be used in various HR activities, such as:

• Job planning • Recruiting • Compensation and performance evaluation • Assessing human capabilities • Determining disciplinary decisions in case of employee misconduct (Minton-

Eversole, 2006)

Job analysis also provides a clear understanding of the duties, skills, and capabilities neces- sary to deliver the desired job outcomes. This understanding is important for matching the right people to jobs and enhancing organizational performance. Job analysis is also extremely important in making it possible to recognize job aspects related to health and safety, potential personnel injury, and other relevant physical job demands (Keyserling, Ulin, Lincoln, & Baker, 2003). Furthermore, job analysis enhances employee interaction and labor relations, which can eliminate many personnel challenges.

The passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990 elevated the importance of job analysis. ADA mandates that an individual who would be otherwise qualified except for some impediment hindering job performance cannot be excluded from employment con- sideration if the individual can perform the “essential functions of the job”, with or without reasonable accommodations. A function is considered “essential” if the position exists to per- form the function, there are a limited number of other employees available to perform the function, and the person is hired for special expertise or ability to perform the function.

As an example, in one case a deaf employee was considered qualified for a customer service job where the majority of customers were online, with only occasional instances of custom- ers calling for help. In this case, the deaf employee was considered capable of performing the essential functions of the job, which primarily involved responding to customers’ online inqui- ries. Answering customers’ phone calls was considered a marginal job function because it only occurred occasionally, there were many other customer service employees who could perform that function, and there was never a designated customer service position with this function as its primary or essential role. Shifting the workload of answering the occasional calls to other employees would not have caused any major disruption to the workflow, and this minor accom- modation would have rendered the disabled employee otherwise qualified to perform the job.

As a result of ADA, managers began writing job descriptions and job specifications that focused on delineation of essential functions in hopes of reducing the risk of being found

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Section 3.1 Job Analysis

in violation of the act. Unfortunately, the act gives little guidance regarding how to go about justifying what is defined as an essential. While the ADA does not require a job analysis to determine such essential functions, it quickly became apparent that essential functions could not be determined without conducting a job analysis (Brannick, Brannick, & Levine, 1997). Thus, evidence of a thor- ough job analysis is now recognized as a potential legal justification for hir- ing decisions that might be challenged under ADA.

Job analysis is critical to the successful completion of tasks and responsibilities and, ultimately, to the success of the entire organization. HR managers, as well as executives and line managers, must therefore actively work hand in hand to ensure that job analysis is performed successfully. In most large organizations, HR carries out the roles of job analy- sis—creating, periodically reviewing, and updating job descriptions and job specifications based on internal feedback from executives and line managers. HR also performs external benchmarking and additional research on comparable jobs in other organizations, even seek- ing expertise from specialized organizations, if necessary. Executives and line managers then review the outcomes of the job analysis process, especially the job descriptions and job spec- ifications created by HR, validating their accuracy and providing further feedback. Several iterations of the process may ensue until the most accurate job descriptions and job specifica- tions are formulated.

Types of Job Analysis There are two overarching classifications of job analysis: deductive and inductive. The deduc- tive perspective emphasizes the use of existing taxonomies of job information to arrive at rational decisions about a focal job (Peterson & Jeanneret, 1997). One or more duties per- formed by a given individual in a given position are grouped with positions that are similar in their significant duties into a job grouping. Jobs that either call for similar worker character- istics or contain parallel work tasks are grouped into a job family. Similar jobs found in differ- ent organizations at different times are grouped into occupations (Cascio & Aguinis, 2011). A deductive approach is appropriate when a large-scale employee selection or promotion system is being designed for a variety of jobs (Peterson & Jeanneret, 1997).

The Occupational Information Network (O*NET), an online database developed by the U.S. Department of Labor, is one example of a deductive approach to job analysis. The O*NET contains meaningful and reliable job information for a vast array of jobs (Jeanneret & Strong, 2003). It focuses on job information that is applicable across occupations rather than on occupationally specific information (Sackett & Laczo, 2003). Further, O*NET also contains numerous links to information associated with the workplace (“O*NET,” 2011). Reference to the information within O*NET enables appropriate identification and classification of a focal job.

M. Eric Honeycutt/iStock/Thinkstock

Job analysis includes evaluating the criteria, including physical requirements, that are necessary to perform a job.

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Section 3.1 Job Analysis

In contrast, an inductive approach to job analysis emphasizes the collection of new and detailed information about a focal job in order to create a coherent description. Inductive approaches begin by gathering detailed information about a job in terms of what workers do and what they need to know to perform their jobs. The data are then organized into categories, and a higher order structure is inferred, thus leading to a list of job tasks and other information that constitute an inventory of the job (Williams & Crafts, 1997). This approach is most appropriate when a single job or a small set of highly similar jobs constitute the focal point (Peterson & Jeanneret, 1997).

Within the inductive perspective, there are two distinct types of job analysis. The first approach is task-based job analysis. This approach mostly focuses on the duties and responsibilities that a job includes. The second approach is competency-based job analysis. It emphasizes the qualities and requirements needed to carry out a job effectively.

The task-based job approach is used more widely. It relies on defining and clearly establish- ing all the tasks, duties, and responsibilities associated with the performance of a job. Several terms that are utilized in the task-based job approach are worth highlighting:

• A task is any particular job activity that comprises actions, motions, or movements. • A duty reflects a broader set of activities, composed of multiple tasks that an indi-

vidual carries out. • Responsibility is an individual’s commitment to execute particular tasks and duties

relevant to his or her job.

However, it is often difficult to separate tasks, duties, and responsibilities. Task-based job analyses can vary widely in their complexity and detail. For example, the California State Per- sonnel Board offers elaborate guidelines for conducting job analyses. In the first Web link below, a sample is provided for a “staff services analyst” position. As you can see, multiple approaches and data sources are utilized to yield an accurate and comprehensive perspec- tive on what the job entails. These approaches and data sources are discussed in more detail throughout this chapter.

Also critical to job analysis is the analysis of a job’s health and safety hazards. The Occupa- tional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) provides detailed guidelines for analyzing those hazards. The second link below gives you access to these guidelines, which also include examples of hazard analyses on pages 9 through 11. The appendices also include a compre- hensive list of common hazards and their descriptions, as well as hazard control measures.

Web Links California State Personnel Board:

Sample Job Analysis Report http://spb.ca.gov/content/laws/selection_manual_appendixh.pdf

Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Job Hazard Analysis Booklet

http://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3071.pdf

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http://spb.ca.gov/content/laws/selection_manual_appendixh.pdf

http://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3071.pdf

Section 3.1 Job Analysis

In contrast to task-based job analyses, a competency-based job analysis focuses on individ- ual or team capabilities in terms of required skill sets, technical expertise, and the extent of knowledge that can be applied to improve performance. HR uses competency-based job analysis for three major reasons:

1. To communicate desirable values and create a favorable, positive culture within the organization

2. To motivate employees to raise their performance levels by enhancing their competencies

3. To highlight the need for individuals to continuously strive to develop their capabili- ties and skills in ways that translate into and are aligned with giving the organization a competitive edge in the market

Two types of competencies are observed in competency-based analysis:

1. Technical competency focuses on specific technical expertise, knowledge, special- ization, and skills that an employee possesses and that differentiate him or her from others.

2. Behavioral competency includes such aspects of an individual as personality traits, interpersonal skills, and character dimensions. Some of these human aspects are the ability to work within a group, leadership and managerial capabilities, dispute resolution skills, multitasking capacity, decision-making ability, communi- cation skills, adaptability and responsiveness to change in the work environment, creativity and innovation, and the ability to identify and pursue goals in a system- atic manner.

A competency-based analysis also uses a myriad of tools that facilitate disclosing other per- sonal aspects that are critical for job performance, but not obvious, such as work attitudes.

In most cases, choosing a particular job analysis approach is directly related to the type of job being analyzed and to potential trends and variations in the job. For instance, a project-based job will require unique technical and personal skill sets if teams and tasks are constantly changing. The capacity to adapt swiftly to job changes will be more important in this situation than in a traditional job. As an example, the U.S. Office of Personnel Management adopts both task-based and competency-based job analyses. The first link below provides access to a handbook that describes the U.S. Office of Personnel Management’s elaborate job analysis process, along with numerous examples of the tasks, duties, responsibilities, and technical and behavioral competencies of a wide range of jobs. The other two links pro- vide additional information, examples, and forms that can be used to conduct high-quality job analyses.

monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock

Technical competency analysis focuses on the specific expertise and skills an employee possesses.

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Section 3.1 Job Analysis

Data Sources for Job Analysis Various sources of data can be used for the job analysis process, such as:

• Existing documentation • Observation • Interviews • Questionnaires • Computerized systems • U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) information • Critical incidents

Frequently overlooked as a source of valuable data is existing documentation. These mate- rials include existing position descriptions, training guides, self-paced instructional manuals, and broad position descriptions available from O*NET. The objective of reviewing written material is to develop an understanding of the variety of tasks involved in the job, the knowl- edge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs) that may be required to perform the variety of tasks, and how the task or KSAOs have been organized into categories or hierar- chies. It is useful to construct a preliminary task and KSAO list before proceeding with other data collection methods (Williams & Crafts, 1997).

The observation method requires observing a worker while he or she is performing the job to obtain firsthand knowledge about the job’s tasks and duties. The observation method is more beneficial for jobs that are observable, and repetitive and inappropriate for jobs that require a great deal of mental activity and concentration, or what has recently been referred to as “knowl- edge work”; nevertheless, it is always better to use a combination of different methods.

There are two types of observation:

1. Work sampling is a quick analysis that helps managers ascertain the tasks involved in a job, as well as the time spent on each of them. This statistical technique focuses on specific activities, and numerous observations are made at different times throughout an entire work cycle.

2. The employee diary or log does not require any analyst observation of the worker. Instead, employees are asked to record all job related duties they perform on the job.

Web Links U.S. Office of Personnel Management Handbook

http://www.opm.gov/hiringtoolkit/docs/jobanalysis.pdf

State of Delaware: Job Analysis Questionnaire https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=http%3A%2F%2Fwww

.delawarepersonnel.com%2Fclass%2Fforms%2Fjaq%2Fjaq_answersheet_form.doc

Department of the Navy: Overview of Job Analysis http://cmc.ihmc.us/papers/cmc2004-093.pdf

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http://www.opm.gov/hiringtoolkit/docs/jobanalysis.pdf

https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.delawarepersonnel.com%2Fclass%2Fforms%2Fjaq%2Fjaq_answersheet_form.doc

http://cmc.ihmc.us/papers/cmc2004-093.pdf

Section 3.1 Job Analysis

The drawback of this method is that an accurate log requires a great deal of time and effort, which divert workers’ efforts, and thus negatively affect their performance.

The interview method gathers information by interviewing workers, and sometimes their supervisors. Interviews are an excellent source of information since they provide a firsthand account of the job from its incumbents or their managers. Nevertheless, the downside of the interview method is that interviews also require a great deal of time, especially if the jobs being analyzed are managerial or professional, and therefore quite complex.

Interviews can also be conducted for groups of participants called subject matter experts (SMEs), who have extensive knowledge of a job. Examples of SMEs include previous job holders, private consultants, and customers/clients (Heneman III & Judge, 2009). SMEs can provide beneficial input for job analysis, especially for highly technical jobs. Group interviews, however, tend to be even more time consuming. If not carefully designed and managed, group interviews can also result in inaccurate information if some SMEs are allowed to dominate the conversation while others are unable to adequately share their expertise regarding the job in question.

The questionnaire method is another technique to analyze jobs. Analysts obtain information by preparing sur- veys with questions on such areas as the physical aspects of the jobs; its required characteristics; the types of duties per- formed and time spent on each; the degree of supervision, whether given or received; job responsibilities; decision making; equipment used; and types of people dealt with on the job.

The questionnaire method has strengths and limitations. It does not require the time and resources other methods do; however, for it to yield accurate results, employees must be able to analyze and convey precise information about the job. Many employees lack these abilities. People’s perceptions and their analytical, communi- cation, and writing skills vary widely. This variation can yield significant discrepancies in the quality of the information employees provide in response to a questionnaire.

There are two kinds of questionnaires:

• The position analysis questionnaire (PAQ) records details about a certain posi- tion. It tends to be oriented more toward workers by emphasizing the behavioral characteristics a given position requires.

• In contrast, managerial job analysis questionnaires are specialized for manage- rial positions and focus on such areas as decision making and leadership.

With the help of technology, it is now possible to have computerized job analysis systems. These computerized systems are similar to paper questionnaires, except for their electronic,

shironosov/iStock/Thinkstock

Analysts may use the questionnaire method to obtain information about jobs through the use of surveys.

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Section 3.1 Job Analysis

paperless nature. Each of the documents contains a set of generalized duty statements so that it can apply to a variety of jobs. The documents’ data is then stored in a job analysis database for the purpose of studying, analyzing, and conveying significant information regarding jobs. Needless to say, technology has made the process of job analysis and writing job descriptions easier and more efficient. However, as is the case with any computerized system, the value of computerized job analysis systems depends on the accuracy and timeliness of the data entered into them, as well as the effective utilization of that data to create meaningful infor- mation to facilitate decision making.

The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) is another useful source for job analysis. Functional job analysis (FJA) is a tool available from the DOL and can be seen as a methodology for gathering information about jobs. The FJA was mainly developed for the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), another tool to classify jobs. The FJA portrays what is done in a job through three scales: data, people, and things. The DOL also developed the database O*Net OnLine, which replaced the DOT. It provides detailed descriptions of jobs. O*Net also contains numerous links to information associated with the workplace (“O*NET,” 2011).

The critical incident approach involves the collection of a series of anecdotes of job behav- ior by asking SMEs to recall examples of particularly effective or ineffective job behavior they have observed. A critical incident analysis is composed of three parts:

• a description of the setting in which the behavior occurred (i.e., what led up to the incident and the context in which it occurred),

• a description of the behavior itself (i.e., exactly what the individual did), and • a description of the positive or negative consequences that occurred as a result of

the behavior (i.e., the perceived consequences) (Harvey, 1991), and whether or not such consequences were actually within the control of the individual (Cascio & Aguinis, 2011). These incidents are then categorized according to the dimensions of the job they represent, providing a composite picture of the behavioral requirements of the job.

As we can see, there are different methods for job analysis, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. It is therefore better and more effective to use a combination of methods rather than just one. However, for any method it is very important that each step be docu- mented thoroughly to provide continuity, inform future job analysis cycles, and avoid legal problems. The most important tangible “products” of the job analysis cycles are job descrip- tions and job specifications.

Job Descriptions A job description identifies characteristics of the job to be performed in terms of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities to be fulfilled. Job descriptions serve as a standard or a bench- mark for many HR matters such as compensation, performance evaluations, training needs assessments, and promotions. HR must provide each newly hired employee within the orga- nization with a job description to highlight and stress the organization’s expectations for him or her. In return, employees are expected to fully abide by and satisfy all the job requirements stated in the job description, and sometimes even exceed them.

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Section 3.1 Job Analysis

It is essential that an organization’s job descriptions be created and maintained using a con- sistent and systematic approach. This approach can facilitate valid, reliable, and consistent decisions pertaining to HR matters. It is also critical that job descriptions undergo periodic evaluation and careful revisions to ensure that they are up to date and truly reflect the nature of the job, especially in light of today’s continuously changing business environment.

A job description has three main parts:

1. The identification section gives various introductory pieces of information, including job title, job department, chain of command and reporting, job location, job number, job grade, and the employee’s exempt or nonexempt status. It is also important that this section state any information that may assist HR in tracking employees and jobs through an HR database system.

2. The second main part of a job description is the general summary. This section pro- vides a clear, concise statement that summarizes the particular job and differentiates it from others. It is highly recommended that this section be created after the suc- cessful completion of all other sections of the job description so that it can establish a broader view of the job.

3. A detailed list should also be included of all important and influential functions, tasks, duties, assignments, commitments, and responsibilities associated with the job. Because this section requires a great amount of detail, HR often spends the major- ity of the job analysis process on this section. In addition, poorly described jobs can result in potential legal implications.

It is common for the last item on this detailed list to be “other duties as required” or “additional tasks as assigned by direct supervisor.” These open-ended statements recognize the volatility of the business environment, and they communicate the need for flexibility and adaptability in the employee’s being willing to do whatever it takes to get the job done. These statements also protect the organization from potential legal action should additional tasks become nec- essary to fulfill a role beyond the tasks yielded during job analysis, until job descriptions can be updated at a subsequent cycle to reflect those additional tasks. Figure 3.2 shows a sample job description for a grocery store manager.

Job Specifications The terms job descriptions and job specifications are often used to refer to the same thing— probably because, as shown in Figure 3.2, they are often combined into one document. How- ever, job descriptions and job specifications are different. A job description refers to the details of the roles, duties, and responsibilities associated with a certain job. In contrast, a job specification describes the ideal person for the job. It is more oriented towards the type and level of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to perform the job or relevant to its performance:

• Knowledge refers to an individual’s familiarity and experience with the proce- dural details of the job; this is a key element in performing the job tasks and responsibilities.

• Skill highlights, reflects, and ranks the individual’s degree or ability to success- fully perform the job. In other words, skill is a combination of knowledge and

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Groceries for Less Job Description

Job Identification

Job title: Job Grade: Status: Department: Reports to: Supervises::

Job Summary

Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling all store staff, resources, and operations to ensure efficiency, safety, and quality customer service

Tasks, Duties, and Responsibilities

• Supervises shift supervisors, customer service managers and representatives, cashiers, cleaning crew, and other personnel

• Performs inventory controls, including working closely with suppliers and stocking staff to ensure timely restocking and replacement of perishables, and maintaining physical controls to minimize spoilage and shrinkage

• Designs, coordinates, and communicates schedules on a weekly basis to ensure adequate staffing of all shifts

• Works with head office personnel to plan and implement marketing strategies, advertising campaigns, weekly sales, seasonal specials, and other store functions

• Leads the process of staffing and training all store personnel

• Conducts annual performance reviews for all store personnel, and makes salary and promotion recommendations

• Investigates and resolves customer complaints brought to his or her attention

• Enforces sanitary practices for food handling and general store cleanliness

• Complies with all health and safety regulations

• Reports accurate and timely store-level financial statements

• Performs other duties as assigned by management

Job Specification Minimum Qualifications

• Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration or related field

• Three years of managerial experience, preferably in retail

• Excellent communication, organization, leadership, time- and conflict management skills

• Ability to multitask, work independently, and operate under pressure

Store Manager 5 Exempt Operations Operations Manager Grades 6–8

Section 3.1 Job Analysis

experience that an individual acquires over time through performing one job or a similar job.

• Ability is more general than skill. It refers to an individual’s general aptitudes and com- petencies, rather than job-specific skills.

• Adding Other personal characteristics allows a broader range of attributes to be included in the picture of the job that emerges from the job analysis (Sackett & Laczo, 2003). Such attributes might include motivation, personal satisfaction, persistence, and the ability to maintain focus on targets and goals.

Figure 3.2: Sample job description and job specification

Groceries for Less Job Description

Job Identification

Job title: Job Grade: Status: Department: Reports to: Supervises::

Job Summary

Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling all store staff, resources, and operations to ensure efficiency, safety, and quality customer service

Tasks, Duties, and Responsibilities

• Supervises shift supervisors, customer service managers and representatives, cashiers, cleaning crew, and other personnel

• Designs, coordinates, and communicates schedules on a weekly basis to ensure adequate staffing of all shifts

• Works with head office personnel to plan and implement marketing strategies, advertising campaigns, weekly sales, seasonal specials, and other store functions

• Leads the process of staffing and training all store personnel

• Conducts annual performance reviews for all store personnel, and makes salary and promotion recommendations

• Investigates and resolves customer complaints brought to his or her attention

• Enforces sanitary practices for food handling and general store cleanliness

• Complies with all health and safety regulations

• Reports accurate and timely store-level financial statements

• Performs other duties as assigned by management

Job Specification Minimum Qualifications

• Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration or related field

• Three years of managerial experience, preferably in retail

• Excellent communication, organization, leadership, time- and conflict management skills

• Ability to multitask, work independently, and operate under pressure

Store Manager 5 Exempt Operations Operations Manager Grades 6–8

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Section 3.2 Job Design

It is vital to carefully examine and con- sider all aspects of KSAOs in formulating job specifications. The required KSAOs can be determined from individuals per- forming the job, employees managing the job or planning to execute the job, or on-the-job trainers and mentors.

Managers involved in selecting an indi- vidual for a particular job should pay close attention to all elements of the job specification to precisely determine whether the characteristics of selected individuals satisfy the job specification. Just as with job descriptions, managers must conduct regular updates and revi- sions for job specifications to ensure their ongoing validity and relevance to the job.

3.2 Job Design Job analysis and job design are not the same processes. Job analysis involves the identifica- tion of a job’s duties and the skills a worker needs to carry them out effectively. In contrast, job design focuses on structuring jobs in a way that attracts talent and enhances satisfac- tion, both of which factors improve organizational efficiency and effectiveness (Liu, Shah, & Schroeder, 2006). Accordingly, the process of job design is broadly concerned with organiza- tional needs, but it considers employees’ needs at the same time. Job design addresses four main areas:

• The efficiency of the job • Organizational reasons for the job • Human capabilities • Behavioral considerations (Garg & Rastogi, 2006)

The following sections address several approaches to job design.

Hackman & Oldham’s Job Characteristics Model The Hackman & Oldham (1976) job characteristics model highlights the core dimensions of a job that have a concurrent effect on both organizational efficiency and employees’ job sat- isfaction. Three psychological states must be in place to enhance and improve a worker’s performance, motivation and inspiration, and job satisfaction:

• Meaningfulness of work • Responsibility for outcomes • Knowledge of results

Image Source/Image Source/Superstock

Job specifications help HR managers find just the right person for a job.

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Section 3.2 Job Design

Hackman and Oldham also identified five job characteristics that they believed to have a role in driving those three essential psychological states. These five job characteristics are:

• Skill variety • Task identity • Task significance • Autonomy • Feedback

Skill variety is the degree to which the job incumbent uses a range of skills and talents. Task identity is the degree to which the job allows the incumbent to complete an identifiable work product and see clearly tangible or perceivable outcomes. Task significance refers to the extent to which the effect and contribution of work can be seen. Autonomy is the level of freedom and independence a worker is given regarding work schedules and the procedures used to complete the job. Last but not least is feedback, or the extent to which a worker is informed about his or her performance (De Varo, Li, & Brookshire, 2007; Hackman & Oldham, 1976).

According to Hackman and Oldham’s model, the more prominently these five job character- istics figure in a particular job, the more motivating and satisfying the job will be, since it will create and nurture the three desired psychological states. In particular, the first three job char- acteristics in Hackman and Oldham’s model (variety, identity, and significance) cumulatively influence the first psychological state (meaningfulness of work). This influence allows these three job characteristics to substitute for one another. For example, a highly specialized job can still be motivating and satisfying if it features high identity and significance. On the other hand, the fourth characteristic (autonomy) influences the second psychological state (responsibility for outcomes), while the fifth characteristic (feedback) influences the third psychological state (knowledge of results). Thus, lack of autonomy or feedback is detrimental to a job.

Furthermore, the effect of the three psychological states is multiplicative: deficiencies in one state can be detrimental for the motivational potential of the whole job because these states cannot substitute for one another. For example, a highly meaningful job is not motivating if it provides no feedback to allow for knowledge of results, or if it provides no autonomy to facilitate perceptions of responsibility for outcomes. Hackman and Oldham’s model can be summarized in the following equation:

motivational potential score of a job

= (skill variety + task identity + task significance) ÷ 3

× autonomy

× feedback

Job Enlargement, Enrichment, and Rotation In order to capture top talent, organizations must be able to offer inspiring and satisfying jobs. Job enlargement, enrichment, and rotation are some of the applications that follow the Hackman & Oldham model.

Job enlargement is the broadening of the types of tasks and responsibilities performed on the job; its purpose is to make a job more interesting and less monotonous. One way to enlarge

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Section 3.2 Job Design

jobs is through job rotation, or assigning employees to different jobs to increase the variety of activities performed. This rotation is intended to decrease the amount of boredom and make a job more interesting. Job enrichment differs from job enlargement in increasing the number of activities while also offering challenges of varying difficulty levels— empowering workers and making jobs more meaningful. Enrichment goes hand in hand with Frederic Herzberg’s two-factor theory that intrinsic factors, such as recognition and responsibility, directly influence employees’ job satisfaction (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1993). Job enrichment seems to have the most impact on flexible workers who have the ability to adapt to change (Bond, Flaxman, & Bunce, 2008).

Flexible Work Schedules HR can motivate and satisfy employ- ees through multiple other approaches to job design—retaining employees within the organization and increasing their productivity, performance, and efficiency. Flexible work schedules are a prominent example of these design approaches. Flexible work schedules can be implemented through three methods:

1. Flextime is a scheduling system that requires employees to work during certain hours of the day. The system leaves employees free to choose their own activi- ties during the remaining hours of the day. This system gives employees the freedom to fulfill personal duties and responsibilities and pursue other personal or family interests, which can reduce stress and work-life conflict and increase employee satisfaction.

2. Job sharing, as the name implies, allows two or more employees to perform the same job, with all its associated duties and responsibilities, on a part-time basis. This system allows the organization to retain valuable employees who have other personal obligations outside of work that prevent them from working full time. This system is highly dependent on the personalities, attitudes, skills, and work eth- ics of the part-time employees. It requires proper cooperation and coordination to ensure that all the tasks, duties, and responsibilities are fully covered and seamlessly integrated. This system also requires excellent communication skills between the employees who share the job.

3. Telecommuting, also referred to as telework, allows employees to work from home or a location of their choice, rather than in a designated office space. This system offers great advantages for many types of employees such as disabled employees with special needs, employees responsible for elderly family members, or employees with children. In addition, telecommuting cuts commuting time, which boosts employees’ productivity and efficiency as a direct result of mini- mizing wasted time. Telecommuting also decreases overhead costs such as office expenses (Lister & Harnish, 2010). Most importantly, it gives employees signifi- cant amounts of independence and autonomy, which can be motivating. However, telecommuting can also have some disadvantages. For the organization and the

Caia Images/Caia Images/Superstock

Telecommuting is a good option for employees with young children at home.

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Section 3.2 Job Design

supervisor, telecommuting makes it difficult to control what, when, and how the employee does the work. These difficulties can compromise quality unless the employee is well trained or has an excellent work ethic, or unless other quality control mechanisms are in place. For the employee, telecommuting can signifi- cantly reduce the frequency of social, professional, and even personal interactions, which can compromise the telecommuter’s psychological well-being. Telecommut- ing can also hinder communication, collaboration, and teamwork. These draw- backs may have motivated Yahoo CEO Marissa Mayer to ban telecommuting, which was a long-time, highly coveted benefit of working at Yahoo, especially for working mothers.

Team-Based Approaches to Job Design The idea behind team-based approaches to job design is to increase synergy—the collabora- tion of two or more entities (individuals, groups, or organizations)—resulting in bigger or better outcomes than the combination of the entities’ independent efforts would yield. Team- based approaches to job design can result in synergy due to complementary skills among group members. These approaches can also improve employee dedication to and alignment with organizational goals and objectives by promoting cooperation in the workplace. In addi- tion, employees become more accepting of decisions in team settings (DuBrin, 2007). Fur- thermore, teamwork provides three of the five job characteristics identified by Hackman and Oldham: task identity, autonomy, and skill variety. These facts suggest that teamwork has a significant effect on employee motivation and satisfaction, as well as on organizational effi- ciency and success. On the other hand, the quality of teamwork also depends on the levels of commitment, maturity, and work ethics of the team members; the degree of complementarity of their skills and abilities; and the nature of the tasks at hand. Several team-based job design approaches are now becoming common in the workplace:

• In self-managing work teams, members handle some of the management issues such as hiring members, making decisions, and scheduling work. This process can affect their productivity and job satisfaction through their involvement in and direct control over a variety of important roles. Therefore, it is very important for organi- zations to provide team members with the necessary training that will help them perform their duties in self-managing teams.

• In a virtual team, members communicate in a virtual environment. Technology makes it possible for geographically dispersed people to work together toward a common goal. Virtual teams and telecommuting are often used in conjunction, and they share some of the same advantages and disadvantages. For example, virtual teamwork gives employees added flexibility and autonomy. However, team perfor- mance and morale may be compromised if some team members are not knowledge- able, committed, and mature, or if no adequate performance assessment and control mechanisms are in place. Virtual interactions can also lack some of the richness of face-to-face interaction. Global virtual teams face some unique challenges, such as language and cultural barriers and time differences.

• In an employee involvement group (EI), employees meet to discuss how to resolve job-related problems. They also discuss ongoing job issues such as improving quality and production effectiveness (Ayers, 2007). These suggestions are then presented to management, which decides which suggestions and proposals will be implemented based on merit, cost, practicality, success potential, and other strategic

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Section 3.2 Job Design

criteria. Through EI groups, employees get the opportunity to be recognized for their con- tributions towards achieving organizational goals. However, for employees to contribute effectively, it is necessary that they receive comprehensive training in the areas of prob- lem identification and analysis, decision-making techniques, and critical thinking. They must also be technically knowledge- able or well trained in their areas of technical expertise.

A Moment in the Life of an HR Manager This Is Not Part of My Job Description

Thorough job analyses and carefully designed jobs are extremely important for optimal efficiency and effectiveness, yet these formal and structured methods are rarely the ultimate factors that dictate what a job entails. The business environment changes rapidly, causing many jobs to evolve faster than can be captured by the job analysis process. Moreover, managers ultimately determine what, how, when, and by whom jobs get done. Employees’ strengths, weaknesses, and prefer- ences can also have an impact on the allocation of tasks and responsibilities within an organiza- tion or a department—even across employees with the same job title. The same facts apply to teams. Roles often shift based on abilities, preferences, time availability, organizational politics, and who wants to work (or not work) with whom. Even job specifications may not be useful, because ultimately who gets hired for a job can be determined through organizational politics, the applicant’s presentation skills and ability to make a positive impression, the pool of available applicants, and the financial resources available to hire and compensate the person who will take the job. Therefore, since we live in an imperfect business world, why should HR managers spend time on job descriptions, job specifications, and all those time-consuming job analysis and job design activities? Consider the following three articles for humorous but insightful perspectives.

Web Links This Is Not in My Job Description (Lewis, 2009):

http://workawesome.com/career/ this-is-not-in-my-job-description/

That’s NOT in My Job Description (Gerdes, 2011):

http://blogs.wsj.com/juggle/2011/ 05/09/thats-not-in-my-job-description/

When ‘It’s Not My Job’ Isn’t the Answer (Dacri, 2005):

http://www.dacri.com/Dacri_not_my_job_PPH.pdf

(continued)

Jupiterimages/Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Self-managing work teams take on some management issues such as making decisions and scheduling work.

mor82551_03_c03_055-082.indd 71 11/19/15 12:37 PM

http://workawesome.com/career/this-is-not-in-my-job-description/

http://blogs.wsj.com/juggle/2011/ 05/09/thats-not-in-my-job-description/

http://www.dacri.com/Dacri_not_my_job_PPH.pdf

Section 3.3 Linking Job Analysis and Job Design to the HRM Process

3.3 Linking Job Analysis and Job Design to the HRM Process

As you know by now, strategic HRM emphasizes enhancing organizational productivity and helping organizations gain and sustain human-based competitive advantages. These advan- tages are realized by formulating steps toward the acquisition and effective deployment of human capital to achieve organizational goals. In Chapter 2, you learned about HR planning, which ensures that an organization has an adequate supply of qualified labor to implement its goals and plans. In this chapter, job analysis and job design are the processes through which HR planning is fleshed out into the specific tasks and responsibilities necessary for individuals and groups to contribute toward an organization’s planned goals. Thus, job analysis and design are crucial to organizational success, and the way these activities are carried out is very important.

Through job analysis, organizations become better able to match the right people to the right jobs through developing a clearer understanding of what jobs entail as well as what skills and talents employees must have to perform their duties effectively. Job analysis also facilitates other HRM processes, such as training and development, compensation, and performance evaluation. For example, the cycle of updating job descriptions and job specifications can be used as a foun- dation for training needs assessment. This assessment can trigger training initiatives to better equip current employees with new KSAOs that may have become necessary to perform their roles more effectively. Job specifications also provide the means for direct comparisons across jobs, in terms of the KSAOs required for compensation purposes, so that the right talent can be attracted and retained. Job descriptions also serve as the basis for performance appraisals: they communicate up front the expectations the employee will be accountable for.

As discussed earlier, job design is critical for employee satisfaction and motivation. Offering attractive jobs that meet employees’ needs can help organizations attract and retain top

A Moment in the Life of an HR Manager This Is Not Part of My Job Description (continued)

Discussion Questions 1. Do you think that employers should require their employees to go beyond their job

descriptions? Why? Why not? 2. Regardless of your answer to Question 1, why do you think employers now expect

their employees to go above and beyond their immediate job tasks, duties, and responsibilities?

3. Based on these new expectations, what are some critical KSAOs and competencies that employees should now have in the workplace in order to become more successful?

4. What are some ways that you can intentionally develop the requisite KSAOs and com- petencies that can enable you to meet these new expectations and build a competitive edge as an employee?

5. Optional: Share with the class the strangest or least expected thing your manager ever asked you to do. How did you handle the situation? What was the outcome? What did you learn? Also give feedback and insights to your classmates on how you would have taken a different approach to the situations they faced.

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Section 3.3 Linking Job Analysis and Job Design to the HRM Process

talent. When aligned with organizational goals through careful HR planning and job analysis, job design can be leveraged to satisfy organizational needs as well as employees’ needs. For example, highly knowledgeable and mature employees can be motivated through added autonomy and leadership responsibilities, which can satisfy their needs for growth and self- actualization. On the other hand, less experienced employees can be offered more task variety while they are trained, developed, and mentored by more experienced employees.

Eye on the Goal The Strategic Value of Designing Engaging Jobs

Research by Gallup, a well-known polling and business consulting organization, shows that it is extremely important to design jobs that are motivating, satisfying, and engaging to employ- ees, and that can yield significant positive organizational outcomes. For example, a meta- analytical study of 7,939 business units in 36 companies examined the relationship between employee satisfaction and engagement at the business unit level and the organizational out- comes of customer satisfaction, productivity, profit, employee turnover, and accidents. The study found those relationships to be statistically significant and of substantial business and practical value (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002).

Gallup’s definition of employee engagement is unique. It is based on 12 factors that can be incorporated in the design of the various jobs and roles in the organization, as well as the selection process of the right individuals to fill these jobs and roles. Engaged employees:

• Know what is expected of them • Have the materials and equipment they need to do their jobs right • Have the opportunity to do what they do best every day • Receive recognition or praise for doing good work on a regular basis • Feel that their supervisors or someone at work cares about them personally • Have someone at work who encourages their development • Believe that their opinions count • Feel that their job is important based on the mission or purpose of their organization • View their associates or fellow employees as committed to doing quality work • Have a best friend at work • Remember that someone at work talked to them about their progress in the last six

months • Had opportunities at work to learn and grow in the last year (Wagner & Harter, 2006)

Engagement can be developed in the workplace by ensuring that jobs are designed to be rich in these 12 factors. Gallup also uses a strengths-based approach to selection and placement. Employees are matched to jobs based on a combination of their top five strengths as mea- sured by the Gallup StrengthsFinder, a test that applicants must take and that is now avail- able online through a passcode provided in most Gallup publications. This test measures 34 strengths that Gallup has found to be stable, or “hard-wired,” personality traits or talents. Developing employees in their areas of strengths has been found more effective than trying to fix their weaknesses or teach them new strengths. Therefore, when Gallup is hired to help an organization select the best talent, the available jobs are analyzed based on the talents and strengths needed to excel in each job. Current star performers in each job are assessed using the StrengthsFinder tool, and their combinations of strengths become Gallup’s “gold standard” against which applicants are compared. Selection is then based on that strengths- based approach to job analysis. When those employees are matched with highly engaging jobs, the outcomes are positive for both the organization and the employees (Rath, 2007).

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Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Job Design

3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Job Design

Job analysis and job design can be challenging. Legal, health, and safety aspects have to be considered, as well as the changing demographics of the workforce and other pertinent char- acteristics of the competitive landscape. However, when conducted strategically and imple- mented effectively, job analysis and job design can lead to a unique source of human-based competitive advantage for the organization.

Legal Aspects of Job Analysis and Job Design: Essential Job Functions, ADA, and FLSA One of the most important legal uses of job analysis and job design is to ensure that general HR decisions are based on business necessity and that qualified individuals are not excluded for discriminatory reasons. A case in point is the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. ADA applies to employers with 15 or more employees; in hiring practices, testing, firing, promotion, job training, or wages, the act prohibits discrimination against a qualified individual with a disability. ADA requires employers to provide a reasonable accommodation if a person with a disability needs this accommodation to apply for or perform a job.

As discussed earlier, ADA classifies job functions into two categories:

• Essential job functions are all basic, recurring job duties and responsibilities. • Marginal job functions are duties that are only supplementary or supportive

to the job.

HR managers must identify, segregate, and clearly explain the differences between these two functions in job descriptions and job specifications.

Classification of essential and marginal job functions is based on three considerations:

• The amount of time required to perform the task • The task’s frequency • The task’s significance, compared to other tasks

For instance, a task that is performed more often than others on a job obviously carries more weight and is deemed more essential than those other tasks. Similarly, a task that is performed on a continuous or daily basis is more essential than another task carried out on a monthly or occasional basis, or a task that is only a support function rather than a core function of the job. Finally, a task may be easily transferred, taught, or performed by more than one person. This task is then considered a marginal job function when it is compared to a unique task that can only be accomplished by a limited number of employees who have specific experiences or tal- ents. Careful job analysis and job design can yield accurate and fair HRM processes by helping HR managers and other managers differentiate essential from marginal job functions. This differentiation can become the basis for subsequent selection, compensation, performance evaluation, and training decisions.

The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) should also be considered in job analysis and job design. FLSA distinguishes between exempt and nonexempt employees based on the nature of their work. For instance, FLSA states that in order to be exempt from overtime pay, an employee’s

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Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Job Design

primary duties must be geared towards executive and administrative tasks rather than manual or routine activities. Thus, job analysis and job design have a direct bearing on employees’ proper classifica- tion and compensation.

ADA, FLSA, and several other equal employment opportunity laws discussed in this textbook have made HR more aware of the necessity of attaching job require- ments to particular job factors. This prac- tice enables organizations to defend their actions as being business necessities rather than discriminatory practices. HR has the responsibility to determine and analyze all the tasks, duties, and respon- sibilities associated with each job, and to properly document all the steps and procedures pertaining to it. Diligently conducting job anal- yses, maintaining revised and updated job descriptions and job specifications, and effectively designing compliant jobs can protect an organization from legal action and maintain its reputa- tion as a fair employer.

Health and Safety Concerns and the Implications of Job Design Workplace health and safety provide another example of the legal implications of job analysis and job design. Legal compliance with health and safety regulations can be more effectively achieved if relevant regulations are identified when job descriptions and specifications are formulated and when jobs and work environments are designed.

People are an organization’s most valuable asset. Their health, safety, and well-being are vital to organizational success, which goes beyond legal compliance. Ergonomics is the entire branch of science dedicated to physical well-being. The purpose of ergonomics is to design jobs and work conditions that match the capabilities of the working population— avoiding or reducing physical fatigue, injury risks, and health complaints (Sonnentag & Zijlstra, 2006).

However, not all complaints are physical; mental and psychological well-being are also impor- tant. To reduce errors and accidents at work, it is equally important to design jobs that take mental capabilities and limitations into account. This consideration is vital and particularly beneficial in jobs that are exceptionally challenging, or where there is a serious cost of error. For example, employee burnout can be prevented and employee well-being can be enhanced when the demands of the job are balanced with the resources, autonomy, and control an employee is given (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006).

Emotional well-being is another health concern. The business world today is oriented toward service. Many groups of employees, such as those in customer service, entertainment, and others, are required to express emotions that they do not necessarily feel. For example, telemarketers are often required to use a memorized script to talk to customers instead of freely expressing their emotions. Customer service representatives are expected to be

Jupiterimages/Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Adjusting workspace to allow for a wheelchair is an example of a reasonable accommodation an employer may provide.

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Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Job Design

pleasant—even to rude customers. Collections agents are expected to be assertive with non- paying customers who might be facing serious financial difficulties that warrant compassion and understanding. Similarly, doctors and nurses are expected to remain dispassionate and objective, even under the emotional strain of the death or terminal illnesses of their patients and the grief of family members. These expectations are of emotional expression that do not match how an employee truly feels, and they can take a toll on employee health and well- being, and ultimately on the well-being of the organization (Morris & Feldman, 1996, 1997).

Designing jobs that meet high physical, mental, psychological, and emotional standards can contribute to enhanced employee productivity and job satisfaction. This design can also ulti- mately enhance organizational success and competitiveness as organizations strive to achieve their goals by leveraging healthy employees and safe practices.

Implications of Demographics, Diversity, and Globalization for Job Design Globalization makes it easy for organizations to transport jobs to other countries. This raises an important question, however, about how jobs are designed in developing countries and transitional economies (Fay & Frese, 2000). Moreover, job design represents a challenge for multinational organizations due to a myriad of factors—including the differences in working hours, holidays, religious practices, and management styles. These factors greatly affect how jobs are designed. A variety of negative consequences can follow a disregard of cultural differ- ences, social expectations, and other needs for local adaptation of job design and other HRM processes. These consequences include job dissatisfaction, low motivation, inadequate work quality, social dissent, and compromising the organization’s reputation in foreign markets and even in the United States. For example, consider the video in the following Web link.

Web Link Sweatshops

http://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=20+20+sweatshops&FORM=VIRE1#view=detail& mid=889BC8FA28E854879467889BC8FA28E854879467

Discussion Questions 1. What are some of the differences between job design in the developed economies and

the developing or transitional economies? 2. Are the protesters’ concerns valid? Why? Why not? 3. If you were making outsourcing and job design decisions abroad in a multinational

organization, how would you have handled the processes differently? 4. Make a list of the job characteristics and HRM processes that you would keep the same

across global operations. Explain your rationale. 5. Make a list of the job characteristics and HRM processes that you would adapt to local

economic, political, and sociocultural conditions. Explain your rationale for adaptation, and suggest some specific changes you would implement to ensure a better fit with local conditions.

mor82551_03_c03_055-082.indd 76 11/19/15 12:38 PM

http://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=20+20+sweatshops&FORM=VIRE1#view=detail&mid=889BC8FA28E854879467889BC8FA28E854879467

Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Job Design

Both nationally and internationally, job design can be directly influenced by demographic, social, and cultural trends. Newer generations have made strides in areas such as networking and communication, which caused their job expectations to escalate as well. Moreover, work- ers’ attitudes toward work have changed. However, to benefit from diversity, organizations need to consider employees’ needs and meet their expectations so that there can be mutual exchange and alignment between organizational and employee goals.

Alternative Work Arrangements Alternative work arrangements are another recent development that HR managers can use to retain their employees and keep them motivated and productive. HR managers can choose from many alternative work arrangement techniques. As discussed earlier, alternative work methods include flextime, job sharing, and telecommuting.

Compressed workweeks are also becoming increas- ingly popular. In the compressed workweek system, an employee may work more hours than usual for one day so long as he or she stays within the total number of working hours allowed over the entire week. This arrangement allows employees to receive an extra day off every week or every other week, depending on the extra daily hours worked. This system is favored by many employees because it gives them the flexibility to attend to personal matters, take longer weekends, or simply avoid another day of commuting. It also helps organizations mitigate some of the problems caused by unscheduled or short-notice absenteeism as employees fulfill personal needs and obligations. Federal laws associated with overtime, such as FLSA, represent the primary challenge that this system poses for HR managers. Extended working hours also increase levels of stress and fatigue for managers and employees, posing additional challenges (Breaugh & Frye, 2007; Gurchiek, 2006).

Organizational Change, Job Redesign, and the Psychological Contract Change, advancement, and growth can be exciting, yet organizational change can have an adverse impact on employees. For this reason, HR should assume the critical roles of facilitating and communicating the transition to employees, ensur- ing that the organization passes through a successful and healthy transition, while valuable employees remain satisfied and motivated.

Mergers, acquisitions, and downsizing are some examples of organizational changes associ- ated with the current volatility in the business environment and the new psychological con- tract. These actions often result in organizational restructuring. The usual, dreaded effects of

David Sacks/Photodisc/Thinkstock

Compressed workweeks and other flexible scheduling options offer employees greater autonomy to attend to matters at home.

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Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Job Design

such organizational changes are possible layoffs or increased workloads for surviving employ- ees, which can negatively impact employee satisfaction and motivation (Freeman & Cameron, 1993). Effective job analysis and job design can help mitigate some of these challenges.

Job redesign is the process through which organizations reconstruct and reconfigure the currently existing design of a particular job’s roles, duties, and responsibilities. Job redesign can become necessary for a variety of reasons, including business growth, mergers, acqui- sitions, downsizing, restructuring, or business process reengineering. However, sometimes the primary purpose of job redesign is to enhance the motivational potential of the job. The redesign can make the job more appealing, exciting, and inspiring for employees—thereby promoting employee satisfaction, performance, and retention.

The job redesign process can involve the following deliberate steps if they are deemed neces- sary or desirable:

1. Revise the current job content to highlight any mismatches between the employee’s profile and the job activities

2. Thoroughly analyze job-related information to determine the main factors that hin- der or discourage the employee from performing as anticipated

3. Implement or execute the job change by eliminating or adding job duties and responsibilities that would ultimately enhance employee satisfaction

4. Revise the job description to reflect the actual duties and responsibilities that the employee is expected to perform

5. Add other factors to the redesigned job that further improve employee satisfaction— e.g., job rotation, enrichment, and enlargement

Job redesign has many advantages, including increasing employee satisfaction, employee performance, and the productivity index. Job redesign also promotes a sense of belonging within the organizational culture, which urges employees to continue working for the organi- zation, which in turn supports employee retention. Finally, job redesign brings out the best in employees through successfully matching them with their jobs.

Organizations design and implement many programs and initiatives for redesigning in order to improve cost, quality, and processes involved in producing a product or providing a ser- vice. One purpose of redesigning is business process reengineering, which is the analy- sis and redesign of workflows and business processes within an organization; its purpose is to achieve spectacular improvements in critical areas. The importance of strategic HRM to business process reengineering cannot be stressed enough; the integration of both will help organizations achieve continuous improvement, thereby achieving a competitive edge (James, 2002).

The psychological contract, introduced in Chapter 2, also has a direct bearing on job analysis and job design. This contract is a set of unwritten commitments and promises that are estab- lished between employers and their employees—mostly highlighting mutual duties, responsibilities, and expectations. The contract has been changing over time, and new sets of expectations have emerged. Employees’ expectations from their organizations are now mostly related to meaningful jobs; a fair pay system; adequate benefits; flexibility and autonomy; and opportunities for learning, development, and growth. Job analysis and job design can directly cater to those needs and expectations. On the other hand, employers’ new expectations of

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Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Job Design

their employees are flexibility, adaptability to change, the ability to work independently and in self-managed teams, superior communication skills, and willingness to build new KSAOs and competencies on a regular basis.

The HR Manager’s Bookshelf The New HR Analytics, by Jac Fitz-enz

http://www.amazon.com/The-New-Analytics-Predicting-Investments/dp/0814416438

Jac Fitz-enz is a worldwide expert in the analysis and measurement of human resources and their influence on the organization’s “bottom line” (profitability and competitive advantage). He has authored many excellent books on these topics. This book focuses on predicting the financial value of HR investments through the use of scientifically based analytics. The book covers many HR topics beyond job analysis and design, which makes it worth reading and adding to your bookshelf. However, it is also one of the few books that explicitly address job analysis and design from a quantitative perspective, and integrates them with other HR func- tions to offer a strategic and evidence-based perspective of HRM.

Best Companies to Work For #7: Wegmans Food Markets

http://fortune.com/best-companies/wegmans-food-markets-7/

http://us.greatrated.com/wegmans-food-markets-inc

Wegmans stores across the nation are recognized for their family-oriented culture. Respect and caring for fellow employees and associates are established norms of behavior, and have become expected as part of any job at Wegmans. Wegmans employees take pride in working for this organization, which motivates them to stay and refer their friends and relatives, even across generations. This is unusual for a high-turnover industry such as grocery retail.

Flexibility and responsiveness to employee needs are critical components of job design at Wegmans. Flexible work arrangements abound, including job sharing, compressed work weeks, and flexible scheduling in general, to accommodate employees’ hectic life demands.

Attentiveness to employees’ need for work-life balance, along with a culture of respect, caring, and teamwork, creates a unique perspective to job design that adds meaningfulness, even to what would ordinarily be considered mundane or dead-end jobs. At Wegmans, they are not, because most promotions occur from within the organization, and even without a promotion, the sense of belonging is considered priceless for many employees. Indeed, this culture has been viewed as Wegmans’ primary competitive edge in a merciless and impersonal industry where low wages, poor working conditions, and price wars prevail.

mor82551_03_c03_055-082.indd 79 11/19/15 12:38 PM

http://www.amazon.com/The-New-Analytics-Predicting-Investments/dp/0814416438

http://fortune.com/best-companies/wegmans-food-markets-7/

http://us.greatrated.com/wegmans-food-markets-inc

Summary & Resources

Key Points

• Job analysis and job design are critical processes in HRM. They provide the founda- tion for effective recruitment, selection, training, performance management, and compensation.

• Job analysis information can be gathered through observation, interviews, question- naires, computerized systems, and government resources.

• Job analysis yields job descriptions, which identify the tasks, duties, and responsi- bilities to be fulfilled. Job analysis also yields job specifications, which describe the ideal person for the job in terms of the type and level of knowledge, skills, and abili- ties (KSAOs) that are required, necessary, or relevant to perform the job.

• Quality job analysis and job design can yield meaningful, motivating, and satisfying jobs. They can also yield efficient and effective job performance at the individual, team, and organizational levels.

• Organizations are in a better position to realize a human-based competitive advantage when they base their job analysis and job design on high-quality strategic HR plans. Organizations also see this advantage when they ensure that their job analysis and job design are utilized to leverage the rest of the strategic HRM process.

Key Terms

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) A federal law that requires employers of 15 or more employees to provide reasonable accommodations for persons with disabilities and that prohibits discrimination against a qualified individual with a disability in hiring practices, testing, firing, promotion, job train- ing, or regarding wages.

autonomy The level of freedom and inde- pendence a worker is given regarding work schedules and the procedures used to com- plete the job.

behavioral competency Personality traits, interpersonal skills, and character dimen- sions that an employee possesses and that differentiate him or her from others.

businesses process reengineering The analysis and redesign of workflows and business processes within an organization to reduce costs, enhance quality, or improve other aspects of the processes involved in producing a product or providing a service.

competency-based job analysis An approach that identifies the individual or team capabilities, qualities, skill sets, tech- nical expertise, and knowledge needed to effectively carry out a job.

computerized job analysis systems A job analysis method similar to the paper question- naire method, except that its surveys are in the form of computer scannable documents.

critical incident approach The collection of a series of anecdotes of job behavior by asking subject matter experts (SMEs) to recall examples of particularly effective or ineffective job behavior they have observed.

essential job functions Basic, recurring job duties and responsibilities.

existing documentation Materials includ- ing existing position descriptions, training guides, self-paced instructional manuals, and broad position descriptions available from O*NET.

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Summary & Resources

Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA): A law that distinguishes between exempt and nonexempt employees based on the nature of their work.

feedback The extent to which a worker is informed about his or her performance.

flextime A work scheduling system that requires employees to work during certain predefined hours of the day, leaving the remaining hours of the day more or less open for employees to fill as they please, provided that they work the full day.

functional job analysis (FJA): A methodol- ogy designed by the DOL to gather information about jobs and create the Dictionary of Occupa- tional Titles (DOT) job classification system.

interview method A job analysis method that gathers information about a job through interviews with workers, supervisors, and subject matter experts.

job analysis The methodology or approach through which HR collects and evaluates infor- mation pertaining to the content and human requirements related to a particular job.

job description A document that identifies characteristics of the job to be performed in terms of the tasks, duties, and responsibili- ties an employee must fulfill.

job design Structuring jobs in a way that attracts talent, enhances satisfaction, and meets the needs of the employee and the organization.

job enlargement Broadening the scope of a job through widening the types of tasks and responsibilities performed in it, for the purpose of making the job more interesting and less monotonous.

job enrichment Assigning employees more challenging work to empower them and make jobs more meaningful.

job redesign The process through which organizations reconstruct and reconfigure the currently existing design of a particular job’s roles, duties, and responsibilities.

job rotation Assigning employees to differ- ent jobs to increase the variety of activities performed.

job sharing A work system that allows two or more employees to perform the same job, with all its associated duties and responsi- bilities, on a part-time basis.

job specification A document that describes the ideal person for the job in terms of the type and level of knowl- edge, skills, and abilities (KSAOs) that are required, necessary, or relevant to the job performance.

managerial job analysis questionnaire A specialized questionnaire for managerial positions that focuses on such areas as decision-making and leadership.

marginal job functions Job duties that are only supplementary or supportive to the job.

position analysis questionnaire A ques- tionnaire used to record details about a certain position. These questionnaires tend to be oriented more toward workers by emphasizing the behavioral characteristics a given position requires.

observation method A job analysis method that requires observing a worker while he or she is performing the job; the method’s purpose is to obtain first-hand knowledge of the tasks and duties performed.

questionnaire method A job analysis method that gathers information through surveys that include questions about various aspects of a job.

skill variety The degree to which the job incumbent uses a range of skills and talents.

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Summary & Resources

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of focusing on behavioral competency-based job analysis?

2. Look at some job descriptions on O*Net. What would be the advantages and dis- advantages of an organizations relying on O*Net exclusively when creating its job descriptions?

3. Do you agree with the Hackman and Oldham motivational potential score equation? For example, if a job offers no autonomy or feedback, is the motivation it imparts automatically zero? If you disagree with the equation, what type of equation would you create?

4. A self-managed work team can provide a solution to many managerial issues, but also brings about a host of its own problems. What are the positives and negatives you see with utilizing self-managed work teams?

5. In Gallup’s twelve factors, how many of them cost an organization little or noth- ing? Why do you think many of these twelve factors aren’t practiced by many organizations/managers?

6. Conduct a job analysis for a job that you currently have or that you have had in the past. Then, based on what you have learned about job design, redesign the job to make it more motivating. Which aspects of this chapter have you found most helpful for this exercise?

task identity The degree to which the job allows the incumbent to complete an identi- fiable work product and see clearly tangible or perceivable outcomes.

task significance The extent to which the effect and contribution of work can be seen.

task-based job analysis An approach that identifies the tasks, duties, and responsibili- ties associated with performing a job.

technical competency Specific techni- cal expertise, knowledge, specialization, or skills that an employee possesses and that differentiate him or her from others.

telecommuting A work system that allows employees to work from home or a location of their choice, rather than in a designated office space.

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