PSY 2

PSY 3490, Industrial Organizational Psychology 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Define job analysis. 2. Differentiate between job-oriented and people-oriented approaches. 3. Compare and contrast the methods of job analysis and understand the features and limitations of

each. 4. Interpret what studies suggest regarding the reliability and validity of job analysis. 5. Evaluate the concept of performance criteria, and describe their characteristics. 6. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of the objective measures of job performance. 7. Describe subjective measures of job performance. 8. Explain the different types of error associated with subjective measures. 9. Analyze the advantages of 360-degree feedback.

Reading Assignment Chapter 3: Job Analysis Chapter 4: Performance Appraisal

Unit Lesson Assessment I/O psychologists use a variety of methods when performing their jobs, and regardless of the work setting, most use assessment methods. Assessment involves gathering information in a systematic way. For I/O psychologists working as professors, this information may be gathered in a research laboratory, through surveys, for example. For I/O psychologists working within a large corporation, this information may be gathered through observing employees at work. For I/O psychologists working for a consulting firm, this information may be collected through interviews with clients. Regardless of the setting, I/O psychologists typically apply reliable assessment techniques. Job Analysis One type of assessment that is common for consultants and others working directly in organization is called a job analysis. A job analysis involves a, “method for describing jobs and/or the human attributes necessary to perform them,” (Spector, 2012, p.54). The job analysis provides a thorough and accurate depiction of the job. It specifies the activities, tasks, and characteristics associated with the job, and it may also specify the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes that an employee would need to perform the job. Most I/O psychologists are trained to perform job analyses because these serve as the foundation for other I/O activities. They use different approaches to analyze the job, depending on the purpose of the assessment. One approach is called the job-oriented job analysis, and this focuses on what the employee does within that job. Whereas, a person-oriented job analysis focuses on the specific competencies needed to perform the job (Spector, 2012).

UNIT II STUDY GUIDE

Assessment

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Job oriented job-analysis involves analyzing different levels of the job, including the position, duties, tasks, activities, and elements of the job. The position is what people often mean when referring to “job,” and it represents the role associated with a particular set of duties that a single person performs (Spector, 2012). For example, a recent initiative to establish a new job analysis procedure for assessing jobs in the military involved asking current military personnel in that job to rate the degree of significance and time spent on various tasks. They also rated the difficulty of each task, based on their own experience. The difficulty measure actually allowed them to measure an aspect of person-oriented job analysis, because they inferred that respondents who had difficulty on the task were likely less proficient at that task (Goffin, 2006). Person- oriented job analyses focus on what a person must have in order to perform the job well. This includes knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal characteristics (Spector, 2012). Applications of Job Analysis Not only do job analyses provide thorough information about a particular job, they also serve as a foundation for employee selection, training, and performance evaluation. There are a lot of “out-of-the box” tools available for any organization to use in order to select employees, evaluate their performance, and train them. However, the requirements of a job can differ depending on many factors, such as the industry, type of organization, and the needs of those they serve. By conducting a job analysis prior to engaging in other activities related to managing human resources, you can ensure that the tools you are using are the most appropriate for employees in that particular job. Conducting a job analysis prior to a selecting a candidate for a job would provide the criteria by which to measure potential candidates. That is, what specific knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics must they have to perform the job well? Within your candidate pool, who possesses those competencies? Conducting a job analysis prior to developing a performance evaluation system allows you to determine what constitutes good performance. Knowing the essential tasks and requirements of the job allows you to observe and measure performance in the areas that are most relevant. Conducting a job analysis prior to developing workforce training programs similarly allows you to focus on the specific tasks and skills that are needed for a person to perform well in that job. Once a valid job analysis is in place, you would be able to use it for any of these activities. A job analysis should be conducted after major changes and revisited periodically to ensure accuracy. For example, in the United Kingdom, the Modernizing Medical Careers (MMC) initiative prompted many changes. Specifically, a system was designed to select doctors for various specialty training programs. Later, a large scale job analysis initiative was carried out to ensure that a valid, reliable system was in place to select doctors who were most qualified for the specialty programs. They conducted three job analyses, one for each of the specialty areas. They gathered information using direct observations, focus groups with doctors, interviews with doctors, and a review of the relevant research literatures to identify competencies that are required for each specialty, as well as common competencies. Following this, they asked experts to complete a questionnaire about their jobs. This resulted in over 900 behavioral descriptions, which were classified into 14 categories, such as communication skills, team involvement, and professional integrity and respect for others. Depending on the specialty, junior doctors required different levels of each. The implications of this job analysis are far reaching, as it could be used to make selection decisions, career counseling, and to provide doctors with a realistic preview of what each area required (Patterson, 2008). Performance Appraisal An area that receives a lot of attention in organizations and in I/O research is the performance appraisal. Performance appraisals are formal evaluations, that are conducted at least annually (Seiden & Sowa, 2011). When designing performance appraisal systems, DeNisi and Pritchard (2006) suggest involving employees in the process and choosing performance dimensions that are within the employee’s ability to control. When setting the criteria by which to assess employees, I/O psychologists establish theoretical criteria and then determine the actual criteria. Theoretical criteria refer to, “the idea of what good performance is,” (Spector, 2012, p.81). Actual criterion refers to, “the way in which the theoretical criterion is assessed,” (Spector, 2012, p.81). For example, if you were designing a performance appraisal for students in this course, the theoretical criterion may include gaining expertise in job analysis, and the actual criterion may include choosing the correct answers to test questions on the topic of job analysis. I/O psychologists refer to descriptions of the position established using job analysis, interviewing employees, observing employees at work, and other activities to set the performance criteria by which to appraise employees (Pulakos, 2004).

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Performance Dimensions Performance appraisal typically involves establishing a set of performance dimensions. Some may be objective criteria, easy to assess through existing human resources records, such as the number of absences. Others may be subjective criteria, in which another, typically a supervisor, evaluates the performance of the employee (Spector, 2012). A performance appraisal typically includes between five and ten dimensions that are established. These are observable behaviors, such as employee answers phone using five-point protocol when providing customer service, (Pulakos, 2004). Often employees are evaluated by others, particularly their supervisor, along these dimensions. However, organizations are increasingly using 360-degree feedback, which involves gathering the ratings of the employee, co-workers, customers or clients, supervisors, and others (Silverman, Pogson, & Cober, 2005). Rater Error With subjective measures of job performance, errors can occur because the accuracy of the ratings relies upon the objectivity of the rater. Studies show that training raters can help to improve the accuracy of their ratings. This is important because the integrity of the measure rests on its accuracy, and because employees will not take the results of the evaluation seriously if they feel that they have been treated unfairly (Wilson & Jones, 2008). Supervisors can also ask for the input of employees, asking them to list their achievements throughout the year. This will help employees to reflect back and supervisors to have a more accurate depiction of employee performance (Pulakos, 2004). Feedback After conducting the evaluation, supervisors typically provide feedback to employees about their performance. They will use this as an opportunity to reflect and to set goals for improving the future. These sessions are focused on development, and discussions of pay, promotions, or other consequences should take place in a separate meeting in order to establish a focus and trust in the meeting. In general, performance appraisal is a valuable tool to help organizations to document important administrative decisions and to engage in employee development activities (Pulakos, 2005). In summary, I/O psychologists use various assessment techniques to perform activities related to selecting, evaluating, and training employees. Using systematic, research-based approaches helps to ensure these activities are effective and perceived as fair by employees. Job analysis and performance appraisal are just two assessment areas, and you will learn about additional assessment techniques in future units.

References DeNisi, A. S., & Pritchard, R. D. (2006). Performance appraisal, performance management and improving

individual performance: A motivational framework. Management & Organization Review, 2(2), 253- 277.

Patterson, F. (2008). Using job analysis to identify core and specific competencies: implications for selection

and recruitment. Medical Education, 42(12), 1195-1204. Pulakos, E. (2004). Performance management: A roadmap for developing, implementing and evaluating

performance management systems. Alexandria, VA: SHRM Foundation. Seiden, S., & Sowa, J. E. (2011). Performance management and appraisal in human service organizations:

Management and staff perspectives. Public Personnel Management, 40(3), 251-264. Silverman, S. B., Pogson, C. E., & Cober, A. B. (2005). When employees at work don't get it: A model for

enhancing individual employee change in response to performance feedback. Academy of Management Executive, 19(2), 135-147.

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational behavior: Research and practice (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Wilson, K. Y., & Jones, R. G. (2008). Reducing job-irrelevant bias in performance appraisals: compliance and

beyond. Journal of General Management, 34(2), 57-70.

Suggested Reading Pulakos, E. (2004). Performance Management: A roadmap for developing, implementing and evaluating

performance management systems. Society for Human Resource Management. Note that this is not accessible through the Waldorf Online Library, but is freely available through the Society for Human Resource Management website: http://www.shrm.org/about/foundation/research/documents/1104pulakos.pdf