behavior modification research paper
lorcar
article_5_motivation_and_psychology.pdf
Method: The databases of PubMed were searched for English-
language studies from 1960 to 2014 and search terms used were
“resting metabolic rate (RMR),” “prediction equation,” and
“predictors,” etc.
Analysis/Results: A total of 23,968 articles were found through
PubMed, but only 65 papers qualified for the review. A careful
review indicated that age, sex, weight, height, temperature (both
body and external temperature), genetics, eating patterns, and
exercising habits are related to one’s RMR. There were 5
commonly used equations for predicting RMR: the Harris-
Benedict (1919), Mifflin (1989), Owen (1985), Schofield (weight;
1985), and Schofield (weight and height; 1985) equations.
However, only several traits such as age, sex, height, and weight
were included in these prediction equations, making the prediction
equations less reliable. Future studies should examine if other traits
could improve RMR predictions.
Conclusions: Existing RMR prediction equations did not include
all potential influencing traits, thus indicating possible improve-
ment in RMR predictions. Experimental studies are needed to
examine this possibility.
MOTIVATION AND PSYCHOLOGY
Comparison of Swiss and U.S. Students’ Fitness, Motivation, and Self-Concept
Sheila K. Alicea and Rock Braithwaite, Humboldt State
University; and Vanessa Lentillon-Kaestner, University of Teacher
Education, State of Vaud (HEP-VD)
Background/Purpose: Physical activity is essential for both
health outcomes and academic learning improvement. Engagement
in physical activities among children is likely influenced by the
individual’s aerobic fitness, overall physical fitness, and motor
competence. In addition, physical self-concept and motivation are
predictors of physical activity participation throughout the life
span. The purpose of this study was to compare the physical fitness,
motivation, and self-concept of Swiss and American students in
physical education (PE).
Method: Participants included 418 students (ages 12–14 years)
from middle schools in Switzerland (n ¼ 301) and the United States (n ¼ 117). FITNESSGRAMw physical fitness measures included aerobic capacity (Progressive Aerobic Cardiorespiratory
Endurance Run [PACER] fitness test), muscular endurance (curl-
ups), muscular strength (pushups), flexibility (back-saver sit-and-
reach), and body composition (body mass index). Questionnaires
included the Motivation in Physical Activity Measure-Revised and
the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire-Short Form. Data
were collected during 2 successive school years (2012–2013,
2013–2014) in the classes of 6 Swiss student teachers and 2
American student teachers. Three 2 £ 2 (Country £ Gender) multivariate analysis of variance procedures to test statistical
differences between groups were conducted with follow-up
univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures for post-hoc
analyses that included a Bonferroni correction to adjust the alpha
level (a ¼ .01) and prevent committing Type I errors.
Analysis/Results: Results showed that there were significant main
effects for country, F(5, 681) ¼ 10.648, Wilkes’s lambda ¼ .927, p , .001, and follow-up univariate ANOVAs determined the Swiss students had significantly higher PACER scores (45.76) than those
of students in the United States (36.61); however, curl-up scores for
the U.S. students (57.69) were greater than those of Swiss students
(50.35). There were significant main effects for country, F (5,
763) ¼ 19.413, Wilkes’s lambda ¼ .887, p , .001, for the motivation variables as well. Follow-up univariate ANOVAs
determined there were significantly higher scores for U.S. students
on the Enjoyment, Competence, Fitness, and Social subscales.
Results for the self-concept variables revealed a significant main
effect for country, F(6, 732) ¼ 61.072, Wilkes’s lambda ¼ .666, p , .001. Students from the United States had significantly higher
perceptions of endurance, strength, flexibility, and physical
satisfaction as compared with the Swiss students who had higher
scores for body fat and appearance. Gender differences will also be
discussed.
Conclusions: PE teachers in Switzerland should not be too exigent
on students’ physical condition level and should increase
enjoyment and competence in sport and exercise practice. PE
teachers in the United States should help students to improve their
cardiorespiratory endurance and be vigilant on negative appear-
ance remarks.
Extrinsic Rewards, Exercise Intensity, and Motivation
Andrew Alstot, Mariah McHolland, and Gerardo Sanchez, Pacific
University
Background/Purpose: Extrinsic rewards have been shown to be
useful in physical activity (PA) settings to improve a variety of PA
behaviors. One of the skepticisms about using extrinsic rewards,
however, is related to the potential harm to participants’ intrinsic
motivation. However, there has been little research examining how
using tangible reinforcement in PA settings impacts individuals’
intrinsic motivation when reinforcement is systematically with-
drawn or faded out appropriately. Therefore, the purpose of this
study was to examine the effects of a systematically introduced and
subsequently withdrawn extrinsic rewards system on individuals’
exercise intensity as well as its impact on their intrinsic motivation
for engaging in PA.
Method:Nine participants were asked to ride a stationary bike for
several 20-min sessions. A multielement design was used that
alternated these sessions between 2 conditions: baseline and token
economy. During baseline sessions, participants rode for 20min at
a pace of their choice and received no extrinsic rewards. During
token economy sessions, participants received tokens on 1 of 2
schedules of reinforcement. Five participants were administered
tokens on an increasing duration schedule, where they were
rewarded with a token for every minute they rode at least 15%
above their baseline mean revolutions per minute (RPMs). For
each subsequent token session, the time needed to earn a token
increased by 25 s. Four participants were administered tokens on a
changing performance schedule, where they were rewarded with a
token for every minute they were above 10% of their baseline
A-22 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
mean RPMs. During each subsequent token session, the
performance criterion increased by 5%. Once participants earned
tokens, they were able to trade them in for a variety of gift cards.
Motivation was measured before, after, and 2 weeks following the
intervention.
Analysis/Results: Participants’ intrinsic motivation before and
after the intervention was assessed using the Situational
Motivational Scale. Mean RPMs for each session were graphed
and visually inspected for differences between baseline and token
sessions. Visual inspection of the graphs revealed an increase in
exercise intensity for all participants when token reinforcement
was implemented. Five participants’ motivation scores increased or
remained constant while 3 decreased slightly.
Conclusions: Based on the results, implementing a rewards system
in a PA setting can increase performance and, in some cases,
intrinsic motivation. PA practitioners can use tangible rewards with
the confidence that an improvement in performance may occur
while not contributing to the detriment of their athletes’ or
students’ intrinsic motivation.
Effects of Motivational Music on Perceived Exertion in Runners
Jamie Aweau, Brady Redus, and Trey Cone, University of Central
Oklahoma
Background/Purpose: Music can lower subjective effort ratings
during an exercise task at submaximal intensity. Music serves as a
diversion from the effort and discomfort of the exercise task.
As intensity of the exercise task increases and the attention to task
shifts inward for the individual, music may be less effective as a
means of dissociation from the effort.
The purpose of this study was to measure the effect of self-
selected motivational music on rating of perceived exertion (RPE)
in trained runners in a 1.5-mile maximal-intensity running time
trial.
Method: Participants were trained male and female runners
(N ¼ 14), aged 19 to 34 years old (M ¼ 24.86 years). Each participant self-selected and rated a motivational song to be used as
treatment in the running trial. The time trial was a 1.5-mile course
conducted on a paved running trail of an outdoor park. The study
was conducted as a repeated-measures crossover design in which
the participants were randomly assigned and ran 2 trials with and
without motivational music. RPE was measured on a scale of 0 to
10. The results from the data were analyzed using a dependent t
test. The alpha level was set at p , .05. Analysis/Results: The motivational music condition significantly
reduced the subjects’ average RPE by 0.5 points from 7.4 for the
no-music condition to 6.9 for the music condition, t(13) ¼ 2.446, p ¼ .029, r ¼ .56. Conclusions: The average RPE was lower in the motivational
music condition. The results of this study may help with the
application of music in enduring high-intensity exercise, which
is essential as the research on the relationship between high-
intensity exercise and improved health markers continues to
emerge.
Picking Teams: Motivational Effects of Team Selections in Physical Education
David Barney and Keven Prusak, Brigham Young University;
Zack Beddoes, University of Texas; and Dennis Eggett, Brigham
Young University
Background/Purpose: For many years, the practice of student
captains picking teams in front of the whole class has taken place.
Although it is considered inappropriate, it still is commonplace in
today’s gymnasiums. Using achievement goals theory, the purpose
of this study was to examine the effects of 2 methods of team
selection (ego-oriented, picking teams publically vs. task oriented,
confidential draft) on the situational motivation and the task/ego
disposition of boys in junior high school physical education (PE)
across 2 studies and 4 sport activities.
Method: Male PE students in Grades 7 through 9 (Study 1, n ¼ 117; and Study 2, n ¼ 116) participated in this study. The activities for Study 1were football and soccer, and for Study 2, theywere basketball
and volleyball. Both studies were conducted using a 2 (conditions:
methods of team selection) £ 2 (sports) £ 4 (trials) between and within quasiexperimental design. Four intact classes were randomly
assigned to 1 of the 2methods of team selection in each study. Students
completed the Perceptions of Self-Questionnaire (Roberts, Treasure,
& Balague, 1998), the Situational Intrinsic Motivation Scale for PE
(Guay & Vallerand, 2000) twice during each sport unit, and the Sport
Motivation Scale (Pelletier, Rocchi, Vallerand,Deci, &Ryan, 2013) at
preintervention and postintervention. Follow-up interviews were
conducted with a purposeful selection of 14 students and were
analyzed using traditional qualitative methodologies.
Analysis/Results: Results indicated that students were highly task-
oriented but moderately ego-oriented in (a) both methods of team
selection, (b) before team selection, (c) after team play, and (d)
across both studies. Unexpectedly, no significance between
conditions or within trials nor across-sport difference was noted
in either study. Interview data, however, revealed pertinent themes
of (a) differentiation of conception of ability, (b) empathy, (c)
primacy of play, and (d) social motives.
Conclusions: Although we do not recommend the practice of
publicly picked teams, it appears that the students’ perceptions of
its use differ from national recommendations. Perplexing as it may
seem, there were no apparent motivational ill effects. Indeed,
students were consistently and decidedly neutral. Further, students
often resented private drafts as being controlling, and they wanted
to “just play” and be with friends. Nonetheless, a minority of
students suffered adverse effects of isolation and learned
helplessness resulting from the practice.
Physical Self-Concept and Frame of Reference in Same-Sex Physical Education
Emily K. Beasley, Louisiana State University
Background/Purpose: Female physical education (PE) students
consistently report lower physical self-concepts than male PE
RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT A-23
students, and research has established that self-concept develop-
ment is related to both internal and external factors. The PE
environment provides a unique setting to examine physical self-
concept and frame of reference; therefore, the purpose of this study
was to provide in-depth descriptions of female students’ personal
interpretations of physical self-concept, frame of reference, and the
PE environment.
Method: A phenomenological approach was employed in this
study. Field observations and 1-on-1 interviews took place at an all-
girls private high school in the Southeastern United States. Field
observations (N ¼ 30) were conducted during PE classes (50min), and rich descriptions of the PE environment were recorded in
detail. Girls (N ¼ 12) were then selected to participate in interviews based on Parenting Styles and Dimensions Ques-
tionnaire–Scale scores (M ¼ 4.01, SD ¼ 1.54). Purposeful sampling took place to select a wide range of scores (1.00–5.67)
on the Global Physical Self-Concept Scale.
Analysis/Results: Field notes and interview transcriptions were
analyzed line by line. An inductive analysis approach was used to
identify categories, subthemes, and higher-order themes. Inter-
views, field notes, and member checks were then used to
triangulate the data and reduce researcher bias.
Three major themes developed from data analysis: (a) social
risk, (b) a favorable competitive environment, and (c) points of
perception. Multiple aspects of social risk in coed PE were
identified, specifically anxiety and perceived pressures regarding
physical ability and appearance. Same-sex PE was perceived to
negate these concerns and was viewed as a positive alternative for
the girls in this study. Competition was frequently discussed, and
although participants enjoyed and valued competition, they
considered it to be activity-dependent, unpleasant in certain
circumstances, and desirable only in appropriate amounts. Finally,
“firsthand accounts” and “external feedback” were discussed as
points of perception, which provided a basis for physical self-
concept development.
Conclusions: This study makes a significant contribution to
existing literature by highlighting current issues experienced by
girls in coed and same-sex PE. All participants viewed same-sex
classes as a solution to their concerns regarding physical ability,
physical appearance, and competition that they had previously
experienced in coed PE. In addition, results indicate that female PE
students use multiple sources of information to construct their
physical self-perceptions of ability and appearance. These results
have direct pedagogical implications for physical educators in both
coed and same-sex PE classes.
Relations Between Physical Activity, Mindfulness, and Mental Health Outcomes
Matthew Ryan Bice, University of Nebraska-Kearney; James
W. Ball, Colorado State University-Pueblo; and Alex T. Ramsey,
Washington University in St. Louis
Background/Purpose: Though physical activity (PA) has tra-
ditionally been linked with physical health promotion, it is
researched as a catalyst for overall functioning of the human body
and has been concluded to reduce symptoms of mental health
diseases such as anxiety and depression (Guszkowska, 2004; U.S.
Department ofHealth andHumanServices, 1996). The current study
examined relationships between PA, mindfulness, need fulfillment,
and mental health outcomes (negative affect and depressive
symptoms) to better understand and explain the relationship.
Method: A sample of 399 university students and employees from a
midsized university responded to an online survey. Data were
collected on current PA levels (International Physical Activity
Questionnaire) and personal ratings of trait mindfulness (Mindful
Attention and Awareness Scale; Brown & Ryan, 2003), negative
affect (International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short
Form; Thompson, 2007), and depressive symptoms (Center for
Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; Zhang et al., 2012). Data
were analyzed using descriptive statistics, ratings of internal
consistency, a Pearson correlationmatrix of key variables, and t tests.
Analysis/Results: Results indicated a significant negative
relationship between PA and mental health outcomes—specifi-
cally, negative affect, r(396) ¼ 2 .241, p , .001. Study partici- pants who participated in more moderate and vigorous PA had
lower-level ratings of negative affect. The current study reports a
significant association was present between total sitting time and
depression symptoms, r(395) ¼ .131, p ¼ .009. Conclusions: PA serves as a therapeutic strategy and technique
used to reduce many mental health outcomes. The current study
advocates the positive effects that PA has on individuals that can
potentially transition into the classroom. As it may seem more
appropriate to fulfill educational standards within the constraints of
the classroom, this study suggests that a lack of PA, such as sitting,
is associated with depressive symptoms. As many PA alternatives
are being limited across the country, this study suggests PA could
have a profound effect on a child’s psychological state, foster
acceptable behavior and decreased violence, and facilitate a
decrease in depressive symptoms. Along with physical benefits, PA
equally provides psychological benefits that should not be taken
lightly! This study advocates for additional PA opportunities for
students across the country based on the mental health benefits.
Examining College Student Engagement Motivation in Instructional Physical Activity Courses
Asherah Blount, Morehouse College; and Jared A. Russell, Auburn
University
Background/Purpose: College and university instructional
physical activity programs (C/UIPAPs) offer a great opportunity
for college and university students to engage and participate in
various physical activities on a regular basis. Specifically, the
courses provide vast opportunities for students to develop motor
skills and technique, sport-related skills, and habits that will
contribute to a healthy lifestyle. Student motivation to enroll and
participate in C/UIPAPs is a key component to its effectiveness.
The instructional climate, including students’ perceived autonomy
and perceived instructor autonomy support, was found to be related
to the participant motivation to participate and engage in the
instructional physical activity course content.
A-24 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
Method: Two-hundred and seventeen (n ¼ 217) undergraduate students who were enrolled in cardio and fitness courses
participated in this study by completing a demographic survey
and precourse and postcourse questionnaires, including the
Learning and Performance Orientations in Physical Education
Classes Questionnaire (LAPOPECQ) and the Learning Climates
Questionnaire (LCQ). The participants also participated in semi-
interviews and focus groups to gain further insight into their source
of motivation.
Analysis/Results: The top 3 reasons for participants’ enrollment
were: (a) improvement of health (58%), (b) interest in the activity
(26%), and (c) improvement in their grade point average (16%).
The precourse and postcourse LAPOPECQ and LCQ results
indicated that a significant number of participants perceived their
course to be beneficial to the development of their motor skills. The
results also indicated that the participants perceived the
instructional climate to be supportive of their autonomy and
competence. However, there were no significant changes in the
participants’ questionnaire responses throughout the semester. The
participant responses to the precourse and postcourse interviews,
focus groups, and questionnaires gave deeper insight into the
participants’ perceptions and motivations toward their partici-
pation and engagement in the courses.
Conclusions: The findings indicate that clarification of students’
perceptions and sources of motivations as well as an instructional
climate that promotes autonomy and perceived competence are
beneficial for instructors of C/UIPAPs in the development of fitness
goals and objectives for their students. This research provides
insight into college/university students’ motivations toward
enrollment in physical activity courses, their value of the
importance of health and fitness, and their perceptions of their
respective instructor’s approach to teaching.
Objective Evaluation of Teachers’ Need-Supportive Instructional Practices in Physical Education
Begona Chapatte-Ramos and Joseph Cole Fish, University of
Memphis; Jerry W. Loflin, Davidson County Community College;
and Sami Yli-Piipari, University of Memphis
Background/Purpose: During the past 2 decades, studies on
teachers’ instructional practices have increasingly been conducted
from the perspective of self-determination theory. Previous studies
have shown that need-supportive instructional practices that provide
autonomy, structure, and relatedness are instrumental in student
motivation and learning in various educational settings. Although it
has been shown that some physical education (PE) teachers in the
Mid-Southern United States are more vested in improving the
performance of their varsity athletic teams than in educating all
students to be physically literate, there is a lack of studies examining
PE teachers’ instructional practices using objective measures. Thus,
the aim of this study was examine urban PE teachers’ need support
during authentic PE lessons and its predictive strength on school
students’ self-determined motivation in PE.
Method: The sample was composed of 5 urban middle schools, 7
PE teachers, and 347 students (aged 11–14 years old) located in
the Mid-Southern United States. All PE teachers were experienced
(Mage ¼ 46.75 years) and tenured teachers (Mteachingexperience ¼ 17.25 years) in the local school district where their teaching was audiotaped during an 8-week unit.
Utilizing the checklist of Haerins et al. (2011), 3 researchers
individually coded 49 PE lessons for 5-min intervals to examine
teachers’ need-supportive instructional practices during 3 stages of
PE class (i.e., warm-up, activity, and cool-down). The 16
predetermined instructional practices were coded using a 4-point
frequency scale, ranging from 0 (never observed) to 1 (sometimes
observed), to 2 (often observed), and to 3 (observed all the time).
Students’ self-determined motivation was measured using a self-
report.
Analysis/Results: The study showed that teachers provided very
little autonomy support during PE classes (Mwarm-up ¼ 0.39 [0.11], Mactivity ¼ 0.51 [0.12], Mcool-down ¼ 0.86 [0.04]). However, tea- chers often facilitated relatedness (Mwarm-up ¼ 1.89 [0.30], Mactivity ¼ 1.82 [0.46], Mcooldown ¼ 2.73 [0.24]) and sometimes provided structure (Mwarm-up ¼ 1.03 [0.23],Mactivity ¼ 1.00 [0.32], Mcool-down ¼ 1.79 [0.02]). Path analyses showed objectively measured instructional practices to explain 12% to 15% of the
changes in self-determined motivation (intrinsic motivation and
identified and introjected regulation) toward PE, whereas teachers’
need support did not predict their extrinsic regulation and
amotivation.
Conclusions: The study showed that urban PE teachers facilitated
students’ need support by mainly providing structure during their
PE classes. However, teachers’ instructional practices were more
controlling instead of autonomy-supportive. The findings of the
study indicated that teachers’ need support has a role in facilitating
urban middle school students’ self-determined motivation.
Impact of Expectancy Value on Students’ Fitness Levels
Han Chen, Valdosta State University; Haichun Sun, University of
South Florida; and Xiaozan Wang, East China Normal University
Background/Purpose: Motivation is a key factor for students to
learn and engage in physical activity. Expectancy value is 1 of the
primary motivation sources. The expectancy value theory includes
expectancy belief and task values. Expectancy belief refers to the
individual’s self-perception of success for the upcoming activity.
Task values have been identified to include 3 major components
(i.e., attainment value, interest value, and utility value). The
purpose of the study was to examine how expectancy beliefs and
task values predict health-related fitness (HRF) performance of
Chinese 6th graders.
Method: Participants were 200 6th graders aged 12 years old from
1 middle school in Shanghai, China. The 10-item Expectancy
Value Questionnaire was used to measure students’ expectancy
beliefs and task values in physical education. This instrument has
been translated into Chinese by a group of bilingual researchers
from the United States. Students’ height/weight, Progressive
Aerobic Cardiorespiratory Endurance Run (PACER) fitness test,
pushups, and curl-ups were measured on Day 1 and their mile run
RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT A-25
was recorded after 7 days. Body mass index was categorized based
on age- and gender-specific percentile curves of Shanghai children.
Analysis/Results: Independent t tests were used to examine the
gender and weight differences in fitness components. Four
simultaneous multiple regression analyses were conducted to
examine the contribution of expectancy belief and task values to
the participants’ performance on the PACER, mile run, curl-ups,
and pushups, respectively. The study revealed that boys and
normal-weight participants performed significantly better on the
PACER, mile run, and curl-ups. No gender or weight differences
were found in pushup performance. The Cronbach’s alpha
reliability coefficients (r ¼ .86 for expectancy belief and r ¼ .89 for task values) indicated good internal consistency among items in
the scale. The expectancy beliefs and task values accounted for
11.7% and 12.9% of the variance in the PACER and mile run
performance, respectively. However, only expectancy beliefs
predicted PACER performance, F(4, 174) ¼ 5.76, p , .001. Expectancy beliefs and attainment value were predictors for the
mile run, F(4, 161) ¼ 5.97, p , .001. The study also found neither expectancy beliefs nor task values predicted curl-up scores. Only
attainment value predicted pushup performance.
Conclusions: Gender and weight differences found in cardiovas-
cular endurance and abdominal strength/endurance tests were
consistent with previous studies conducted in other countries.
Physical educators need to foster students’ competence in physical
education and emphasize the personal importance of doing well in
physical education to improve students’ HRF levels.
Examining Perceptual Differences
Li Chen, Delaware State University; Ran Li, Springfield College;
and Xiaofen Keating, University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: There has been a discussion of whether
electronic sporting (cyber sport) could become a sporting form
along with other competitions (Ermi et al., 2005). While marketing
and technology were essential in the framework of developing
cyber sport games, culture differences and perceptions of people
toward cyber sports must be considered. There is a dearth of studies
that have explored perceptual differences affected by culture and
ethnic backgrounds of people in existing literature. The purpose of
this study was to examine whether ethnicity would be an important
variable in influencing people’s perceptions toward cyber sports.
Method: A survey was administered to differentiate perceptions of
cyber sports among students in the United States. The participants
(N ¼ 336) were college students from the East coast of the United States who voluntarily took part in the study. The Inventory of
Perception for E-Sports with acceptable validities and reliabilities
was used as the instrument that contains 19 perceptual questions
clustered into the 5 factors (attraction, economics, recognition,
socialization, and technique). Multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) was utilized to examine if there would be a significant
difference in the mean vectors across the ethnicity groups followed
by analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and post-hoc Scheff tests.
Analysis/Results: A significant difference (L ¼ .85, F ¼ 3.00, p , .01) was found by MANOVA in the mean vectors among the 3
ethnic groups. Follow-up ANOVAs indicated significant differ-
ences in the factor of economics (F ¼ 4.38, p , .05), recognition (F ¼ 9.15, p , .01), and technique (F ¼ 4.23, p , .01). Post-hoc Scheff tests further revealed that the Asian group scored
significantly higher than the Caucasian group (M ¼ 4.35 vs. M ¼ 3.61) on the factor of economics. The Asian group rated significantly higher than both the Caucasian group (M ¼ 4.18 vs. M ¼ 3.04) and African America group (M ¼ 4.18 vs. M ¼ 3.52) on the factor of recognition. In addition, the Asian group scored
significantly higher than the African American group (M ¼ 4.60 vs. M ¼ 3.87) on the factor of technique. Conclusions: Asian students demonstrated more positive percep-
tions than other ethnic students toward cyber sports regarding
characteristics of play, economic impact by the cyber sports, and
technical competence required for advanced online competition. The
researchers of this study provided quantitative evidence to support
the conceptual framework of human perception that could be
affected by diverse culture and ethnic backgrounds of individuals.
Exercise Motivational Factors and College Students
Dongwook Cho and Emily Phillips, Oklahoma State University
Background/Purpose: The benefits of exercise are well
documented as it can help control weight, keep muscle strong,
and mange health problems. Although the benefits of exercise for
college students are well identified, only half of them regularly
participate in exercise (Schoenhoen, Adams, & Peregoy, 2013).
The purpose of this study is to determine the primary motivational
factors for participating in exercise among college students.
Furthermore, research was conducted to determine if these
motivational factors are different based on demographics such as
sex and classification.
Method: A convenience sample was taken from a university in the
Southwestern United States. A total of 110 college students aged
18 to 27 years old participated in the survey (48 men and 62
women). Participants completed a survey comprising the Exercise
Motivation Inventory-2 and were asked to identify sex and
classification. Fifty-one exercise motivation questions were
measured on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ not at all true for me to 6 ¼ very true for me). These questions were integrated to 14 exercise motivational factors as means to determine which exercise
motivational factors college students thought were the strongest
factors to participate in exercise (Markland, 1997).
Analysis/Results: Mean scores indicated that the 2 strongest
factors were “positive health” (4.95) and “strength and endurance”
(4.84), while the 2 weakest factors were “health pressures” (2.97)
and “affiliation” (3.29) among 14 exercise motivational factors.
Analysis of variance was performed for data analysis to examine
the effects of age and classification on exercise motivational
factors. The results revealed statistically significant differences
between “competitions,” F(1, 107) ¼ 4.95, p ¼ .028, “ill-health avoidance,” F(1, 107) ¼ 4.17, p ¼ .044, and “weight manage- ment,” F(1, 107) ¼ 14.02, p ¼ .000 (p , .05) among the exercise motivational factors and sex of participants. Female students
scored higher in 11 exercise motivational factors compared with
A-26 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
male students, while male students had higher score factors in 3
categories (competition, affiliation, and social recognition). Only
“affiliation,” F(4, 105) ¼ 3.24, p ¼ .015, was statistically signifi- cant with classification of college students.
Conclusions: The findings from this study suggest that college
students may have more incentive to participate in exercise
activities if an appropriate exercise program is provided.
Additionally, female participants seem to be more motivated by
appearance and general wellness, while male participants might be
more socially motivated. The findings of this research are
significant to practitioners for enabling college students to have
more enjoyable exercise activities throughout more sufficient
programs.
The Role of Maturity in Predicting Physical Self-Worth
Anne E. Cox, Washington State University; and Kelly R. Laurson,
Illinois State University
Background/Purpose: Research has demonstrated a negative
relationship between physical maturity and physical self-worth
(PSW) in girls. However, this relationship is not particularly strong
and may depend on how maturity interacts with key psychological
predictors including perceived competence, conditioning, strength,
and body attractiveness. The purpose of this study was to test the
moderating role of physical self-perceptions in the relationship
between maturity status and PSW separately for girls and boys
during early adolescence.
Method: Students in Grades 5 through 8 (N ¼ 241; 57% females; 70% White, 10% Black, 4% Hispanic; Mage ¼ 12.3 years) completed a questionnaire assessing physical self-perceptions
(i.e., perceived competence, conditioning, strength, and body
attractiveness), PSW, and maturity status. Hierarchical multiple
regression was used to test the interactions between maturity status
and each physical self-perception predicting PSW separately for
boys and girls.
Analysis/Results: In girls, the results of Step 1 of the regression
analysis were significant, F(5, 131) ¼ 79.90, p , .001, R 2 ¼ .75, and the interactions explained significant additional variance in
Step 2 (DF ¼ 3.49, p ¼ .01, DR 2 ¼ .02). Perceived competence and conditioning were positive predictors of PSW ( p , .01), and perceived attractiveness interacted with maturity status to predict
PSW ( p , .01). The interaction showed that maturity was
positively related to PSW only for girls with higher body
attractiveness. Results were also significant for boys, F(5,
98) ¼ 46.66, p , .001, R 2 ¼ .70, and the interactions explained significant additional variance (DF ¼ 2.5, p ¼ .05, DR 2 ¼ .03). Perceived conditioning and attractiveness were positive predictors
of PSW ( p , .05), and an interaction between perceived strength
and maturity (p ¼ .01) indicated that maturity related positively to PSW but only for boys with higher perceived strength.
Conclusions: Results showed that the predictors of PSW differ
between girls and boys and depend partly on maturity status.
Supporting previous research, when girls felt more competent at
physical activities and in better physical condition, they
experienced higher PSW. Maturity status in girls, however, was a
positive predictor of PSWonly when perceived body attractiveness
was higher. Parallel results emerged for boys except with respect to
perceived strength. These findings are consistent with greater
societal value placed on muscular development in boys and
physical appearance more generally in girls. Because PSW is a key
predictor of physical activity behavior, it is important to understand
the interplay between maturation and physical self-perceptions.
21st-Century Sport: Micro or Macro System?
Dean Culpepper, Eastern New Mexico University; and
Lorraine Killion, Texas A&M University-Kingsville
Background/Purpose: We do not live in a single-value world,
rather in multiple-value worlds that collide and overlap, thus
sending multiple messages, some in agreement and some
conflicting. Developmental psychologist Uri Bronfenbrenner
(1979, 1992, 2005) developed a language of ecologies to describe
how particular contexts and their processes overlap, influence, and
are influenced by individual members. This is apparent in the world
in which young adults live today with the influence of sport.
According to Bronfenbrenner, an individual lives within multiple
microsystems, each of which has proximal processes (language,
interactions, and practices) by which members interact and learn
the lessons of the ecology (i.e., play, love, math, reading, care,
competition, or teamwork). Each microsystem is influenced by its
macrosystem of overarching patterns of several microsystems.
Thus, football is a microsystem in the macrosystem of National
Collegiate Athletic Association athletics. Yet sport, with the rise of
24-hr ESPN, may be more than a microsystem. Sport and the
structure of sport have taken on a new character with self-
perpetuating motivations and thus may no longer be set apart
(Tenenbaum, 2007) for individuals live in sport all the time. This is
certainly true with athletes who have shown lower scores on moral
reasoning tests. If sport is becoming a macrosystem, then similar
scores should appear in other microsystems. The purpose of this
study was to examine whether sport has taken on the characteristics
of a macrosystem by examining moral reasoning across groups and
settings.
Method: Three hundred and fifteen participants completed a
demographic form and the Hepatitis B Virus Core Inventory.
Qualitative follow-up interviews were then conducted among
groups to determine themes.
Analysis/Results: A multivariate analysis of variance (Wilks’s
lambda ¼ .430, p , .005) was conducted with Scheffé post-hoc tests to determine differences. Athletes scored lowest ( p , .001).
After controlling for athletics, sport science majors scored
equivalently ( p , .001) to athletes in terms of lower moral reasoning scores. Qualitative interviews revealed that athletes and
sport science majors spent similar amounts of time thinking,
watching, reading, exercising, and discussing sports.
Conclusions: These findings may suggest that those involved in
sports (whether participating or studying) are operating in a milieu
differently from those who are not. They are functioning in an all-
pervasive structure or meaning-making system that does shape and
has shaped how they reason morally. Future studies should look at
RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT A-27
sport as a macrosystem and how it influences other microsystems
such as sport consumption, aggression, sexism, and gender roles.
Exploring the Effectiveness of a Resilience Curriculum Implemented in Sport
Policarpio DeCano, University of Washington; Sharon Varela,
Brisbane ACT Centre; and Clayton Cook, University of
Washington
Background/Purpose: A troubling number of school-aged
children experience mental health problems that negatively impact
well-being and performance across social, emotional, and
academic domains (Cook, Burns, Browning-Wright, & Gresham,
2010). Research has shown that roughly 1 in 5 children aged 6 to 20
years old experience a diagnosable mental health issue (Costello,
Mustillo, Erkanali, Keeler, & Angold, 2003). To combat mental
health problems, children must exercise effective coping skills,
such as resilience, a form of social-emotional skills. These skills do
not develop automatically and require explicit teaching.
An effective approach to teach children resilience skills is through
a universal prevention intervention (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki,
Taylor, & Shelling, 2011; Pahl & Barrett, 2010). To ensure access
to such interventions, researchers have recommended implement-
ing universal interventions in contexts where children already exist
(Cobham, 2012; Hudson & Dodd, 2012; Kazdin, 2008; Kazdin &
Blase, 2011). One such context is that of sport. Upward of 30
million school-age youth (ages 6–19 years) participate in
organized youth sport in and out of school settings. Additionally,
sport includes a necessary ingredient for cultivating resilience
skills: adversity (Pahl & Barrett, 2010). This study examined the
effectiveness of implementing a resilience curriculum in the sport
context.
Method: Participants included 41 female and 37 male rowers aged
13 to 18 years old (Mage ¼ 15.88). Researchers implemented a pre–post experimental design using quantitative methods (Cres-
well, 2007). The measures to determine the effectiveness of the
Resilience in Sport curriculum were: (a) the Perceived Stress Scale
(Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983), (b) a modified General
Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995), and (c) the
Satisfaction With Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larson, & Griffin,
1985).
Analysis/Results: Participants reported increases in perceived
self-efficacy in sport (p ¼ .015) and perceived life satisfaction ( p ¼ .014) and decreases in perceived stress ( p ¼ .015) that were statistically significant.
Conclusions: Findings from the present study are promising and
lend initial support for using the sport context as a forum for
universal prevention interventions. Leveraging sport to foster
resilience skills and combat the personal and societal harm of
mental illness is imperative. Any way in which researchers can
identify ways to help youth thrive in the face of adversity should be
considered and sport has shown itself to be a powerful context
within which resilience skills can grow. Ultimately, these are skills
that can help young people succeed on the field of play and for the
rest of their lives.
A Conditional Process Analysis of Children’s Enjoyment of Physical Activity
AlexC.Garn,LouisianaStateUniversity; andErinE.Centeio,BoShen,
Jeffrey Martin, and Nathan McCaughtry, Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: Enjoyment is a powerful motivator for
children’s participation in physical activity (PA). Within Eccles’s
expectancy-value theory of motivation, socializing agents such as
parents and friends precipitate PA outcomes such as enjoyment. Ability
beliefs and subjective task value are considered key mediators in the
relationship between social agents andPAoutcomes. Few researchers to
date, however, have examined the conditional nature of this mediation
process. We hypothesized that PA ability beliefs and subjective task
value mediate the relationship between friends’ PA social support and
PAenjoyment (Hypothesis 1 [H1]).Westipulated, however, that indirect
relationships (i.e., social support and ability beliefs; social support and
subjective taskvalue) aremoderated (i.e., conditional) by children’s self-
efficacy to seek out PA support (Hypothesis 2 [H2]).
Method: A total of 330 children (Mage ¼ 9.39 years, SD¼ 0.44) completed questionnaires related to PA social support from friends, PA
ability beliefs and subjective task value, PA support-seeking self-efficacy,
andPAenjoyment.Analysissupportedthefactorstructureandreliabilityof
thesemeasures.H1was testedwith a parallelmediation regressionmodel.
H2wastestedinthesamefashionwith theadditionofsupport-seekingself-
efficacy as a moderator of indirect relationships. Bootstrap confidence
intervals (95%CI)wereused todeterminemediation (H1)andmoderation
(H2). CIs not straddling 0 were considered significant (p, .05). Analysis/Results: The relationship between friends’ social support
and enjoyment (R 2 ¼ .18) was mediated by ability beliefs (95% CI [.07, .31]; R 2 ¼ .29) and subjective task value (95% CI [0.12, 0.33]; R 2 ¼ .22). Further investigation revealed that the relationship between social support from friends and PA ability beliefs was conditional on
children having average (M) to high (þ1 SD) levels of support-seeking self-efficacy for PA. Children with low self-efficacy (21 SD) to seek support for PAwere not able to capitalize on the association between
friends’ social support and ability beliefs. The mediated relationship
between social support and enjoyment via subjective task valuewas not
conditional on support-seeking self-efficacy.
Conclusions: Findings of the conditional process analysis (i.e.,
moderated mediation) supported the unconditional mediating role of
subjective task value as proposed in expectancy-value theory. However,
the mediating role of ability beliefs was conditional on support-seeking
self-efficacy. Support-seeking self-efficacy appears to be an important
mechanism in the relationship between socializing agents and
motivational outcomes as operationalized in expectancy-value theory.
This study suggests that motivational processes highlighted in
expectancy-value theorymaybemore complex thanoriginally theorized.
Exercise Mind Sets: An Initial Validation Study
Joseph Otundo and Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University
Background/Purpose: Dweck has recently changed terminology
in her highly productive self-theories framework to “mind sets.”
A-28 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
A growth mind set represents individuals who believe that personal
characteristics and abilities can be fostered through effort. A fixed
mind set represents individuals who believe personal character-
istics and abilities are stable and innate. Individuals with growth
mind sets are more likely to create an individual/mastery
framework of success, whereas individuals with a fixed mind set
are more likely to validate ability through successful social
comparisons. The purpose of this study was to develop a valid and
reliable measure of mind sets specific to the exercise domain.
Method: A group of undergraduate students (N ¼ 205) enrolled in exercise classes completed a total of 10 items (5 growth items, e.g.,
“When I’m faced with a difficult exercise situation, I’m likely to
view it as an opportunity to learn and grow”; 5 fixed items, e.g.,
“My approach to exercise situations is to prove my basic self-
worth, competence, and likeability”) related to exercise mind sets
on 2 occasions approximately 1 month apart. Students also
completed surveys related to mastery-oriented competence,
physical self-concept, and contingent self-esteem.
Analysis/Results: An exploratory factor analysis revealed 2 distinct
mind-set constructs accounting for 56.82% of the variance
(fixed ¼ 36.83%; growth ¼ 19.99%). Items loaded on their intended factor (fixed ¼ .59–.86; growth ¼ .60–.76) without double loading, and communalities ranged from .36 to .75 (M ¼ 0.50, SD ¼ 0.12). The internal consistencies for growth and fixed mind sets were .77
and .83, respectively. Reliability was also supported by a 1-month
test–retest using intraclass correlations (fixed ICC ¼ .76, 95% CI [0.69, 0.82]; growth ICC ¼ .71, 95% CI [0.62, 0.78]). Both convergent and divergent validity were supported for the growth
exercisemind set (r ¼ .51mastery competence; r ¼ 2.19 contingent self-esteem) while convergent validity was supported with the fixed
exercise mind set (r ¼ .23 contingent self-esteem). Conclusions: Growth mind sets are integral to cultivating adaptive
psychological and behavioral outcomes, whereas fixed mind sets
breed stagnation. Because exercise participation often challenges
individuals both mentally and physically and gratification is
typically delayed, promoting a growth mind set may not always be
an easy task. This measure can assist exercise leaders in evaluating
exercise mind sets to capitalize on growth mind sets already
present or to remediate fixed mind sets.
Scoring the Toughness of High School Student-Athletes
Matthew A. Grant, Valdosta State University; and J. Tobin Grant,
Southern Illinois University-Carbondale
Background/Purpose: The Reduced Mental, Emotional, and
Bodily Toughness Inventory for Adolescents (Reduced MeBT–
Ad) was developed to measure toughness of youth athletes (Grant
& Grant, 2014). Developed specifically to accommodate the
reading level and instrument length conducive for younger
participants, this survey also permitted valid comparisons across
gender, which was a weakness of its parent survey, the Mental,
Emotional, and Bodily Toughness Inventory (Gao, Mach, Ragan,
& Ragan, 2012; Grant & Grant, 2014). The next stage of
development for the Reduced MeBT–Ad was to find the normative
scores so that practitioners could use this instrument when
evaluating the toughness of adolescent athletes. Therefore, the
purpose of this study was to find the norm-based scores for mental,
emotional, and bodily toughness of high school student-athletes.
Method: Researchers surveyed a sample of high school athletes
(n ¼ 372) in the Southeastern United States. All athletes were contacted via their high school coaches. After proper consent was
given, student-athletes completed the 9 Likert scale items of the
Reduced MeBT–Ad via the Qualtrics online program. Data
collection was conducted within 2 weeks of the midpoint of the
particular season in which the athlete was participating. All data
were then analyzed to find the valid and reliable mean scores, or
norm-based scores, of high school student-athletes.
Analysis/Results: Researchers scored the Reduced MeBT–Ad
surveys and converted them to a 100-point scale. Results showed a
negatively skewed distribution of the mean score for the total
sample (M ¼ 72.02, SD ¼ 18.6) as well as based on sex (male M ¼ 74.77, SE ¼ 1.1; femaleM ¼ 67.41, SE ¼ 1.7). Independent- sample t tests and analysis of variance revealed no significant
differences between or within groups based on gender, age, grade,
or sport as well as types of sport (i.e., individual vs. team).
Cronbach’s alphas (a ¼ .805) indicated good internal consistency for measuring toughness. Normative scores were considered valid
and reliable for high school student-athletes.
Conclusions: The current study supplied norm-based scores of the
mental, emotional, and bodily toughness of high school athletes
using the Reduced MeBT–Ad instrument. Results provided
practitioners with evaluation standards for assessing the toughness
of young athletes. Future research could expand this study by
investigating the toughness of middle school student-athletes as
well as adolescent athletes outside of school (i.e., club teams).
Climb to Freedom: Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in Rock Climbing
L. Kent Griffin and Karen S. Meaney, Texas State University; and
Leslie Podlog, University of Utah
Background/Purpose: Deci and Ryan (2008) suggested that the
components of autonomy, relatedness, and competence are key
factors when examining the degree of motivation in an individual.
What is lacking in the research literature is the examination of how
particular activities influence one’s self-determined beliefs. Rock
climbing is a sport that involves risk and adventure (autonomy) and
is almost always done with others (relatedness). In addition, the
sport depends on a high degree of skill (competence) to participate.
The purpose of this investigation is to explore and describe the
components of self-determination of those participating in rock
climbing.
Method: Participants for this study were college-age students
(N ¼ 18; 10 men and 8 women with a mean age of 21 years old). The sample was drawn from those who actively participated in the
sport of rock climbing and were solicited from a university setting.
The Psychological Need Satisfaction (PNS) instrument was used to
describe the sample. The questionnaire was adapted to the activity
of rock climbing. In addition, semistructured interviews were
RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT A-29
conducted with 8 of the participants (4 men and 4 women) to
further investigate motivation from a self-determination
perspective.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed descriptively using means
and standard deviations. In addition to quantitative data, interview
data were analyzed using a thematic network process (Attride-
Sterling, 2001). Data from the PNS instrument suggest that those
participants engaging in the sport of rock climbing scored high on
measures of autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Additionally,
themes that emerged from the interviews support the quantitative
data. Participants expressed a sense of control (autonomy),
connectedness (relatedness), and skillfulness (competence) while
participating in rock climbing.
Conclusions: Results from this investigation may be useful to
practitioners who are involved in recreational programming at the
university level. In a broader way, this information may also be
useful to those who work with individuals participating in outdoor/
adventure activities. Also, physical education specialists in high
schools may draw indirect implications from these findings. While
the sample in this study was taken from university students,
perhaps the motivation of high school students would be enhanced
if rock climbing was a part of the physical education curriculum.
Further investigations need to be conducted to take into account
different age groups.
Empowerment-Related Constructs as Predictors of Student Leadership Qualities
Lila Murphy Gutuskey, Erin E. Centeio, and Nathan McCaughtry,
Wayne State University; Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University;
and Cheryl Somers, Jeffrey Martin, Noel L. Kulik, and Bo Shen,
Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: Regular participation in physical activity
(PA) is linked to a reduced risk for obesity and positive cognitive
and emotional benefits. Most school PA initiatives are led by
outside programmers or teachers who rarely incorporate students in
the decision-making and implementation processes. Youth
empowerment theory posits that including student leaders in
health interventions could produce positive outcomes including
improved leadership capabilities. Previous research on youth
empowerment programs has primarily targeted adolescents, but
little is known about the impact of elementary empowerment
programs. Some outcomes, based on adolescent programs, may
relate to situation-specific self-confidence, perceived control,
problem solving, decision making, and community engagement.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how changes
in empowerment-related constructs predict student leadership
qualities during the course of a school health initiative.
Method: Twenty Midwestern elementary schools formed student-
led teams focused on improving the school health environment and
student health behaviors. Teams identified potential school health
improvements in the fall and implemented initiatives throughout
the year. Students completed questionnaires at the beginning and
end of the year (n ¼ 130, 41% male) with validated scales assessing global self-concept, school attachment, and PA-related
social responsibility. An additional scale measuring student
leadership qualities was also included.
Analysis/Results: Data were screened for missing values, outliers,
and normality. Change scores were calculated. Using a hierarchical
multiple regression, change scores for school attachment, PA social
responsibility, and global self-concept were used to predict
postscores in student leadership, while controlling for age, gender,
ethnicity, and pre-student leadership scores. The model was
statistically significant, F(7, 122) ¼ 14.703, p , .001, and accounted for approximately 42.6% of the variance. Student
leadership prescores (b ¼ .56, p , .001, D Adj. R 2 ¼ .25) were significant, while changes in school attachment (b ¼ .29, p , .001) and PA social responsibility (b ¼ .17, p , .05) were the strongest predictors of post-student leadership scores, with an
additional D Adj. R 2 ¼ .19. Conclusions: Guided by youth empowerment theory, this study
adds understanding to predictors of student leadership qualities for
elementary students involved in a school health initiative.
Providing students with empowering opportunities that increase
connections to schools and enhance social responsibility appears to
maximize student leadership qualities. Future research should
further identify psychological and behavioral outcomes experi-
enced by elementary students who are given opportunities to lead,
as well as types of health initiatives that are developed and
implemented by students.
Mastery Motivational Climate: Influencing Vocational Students’ Enjoyment of Physical Activity
Laura C. Hohengasser and Pamela J. Russell, Bridgewater State
University
Background/Purpose: Physical activity in children declines by
more than a third from 9 to 15 years of age (Nader et al., 2008).
Consequently, drug abuse and smoking have taken a backseat to
obesity as the top health concern for parents in the United States
because of their link to disease (American Heart Association
[AHA], 2010). Children of particular concern are vocational high
school students, because their career lifestyle may be linked to poor
health habits, such as low physical activity (AHA, 2010; Pampel
et al., 2010). Exposing these students to a mastery motivational
climate classroom (e.g., Duda, 1996; Grasten et al., 2012;
Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999) may increase physical activity
enjoyment and thus physical activity during adolescence and
perhaps lifelong physical activity habits. The purpose of this study
was to investigate the effects of a mastery motivational physical
education classroom climate on vocational students’ physical
activity enjoyment.
Method: Eight-four (male, n ¼ 53, female, n ¼ 31) 1st-year students who attended a New England vocational school were
randomly selected as participants. Institutional review board
approval was obtained from Bridgewater State University prior to
conducting research. A hybrid of the sport education model (SEM)
and teaching-games-for-understanding (TGFU) model was used to
create a mastery motivational climate. Premeasures and post-
measures of the participants’ perceptions of motivational climate
A-30 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
and physical activity enjoyment were assessed using the Perceived
Motivational in Sport Questionnaire (Newton, Duda, & Yin, 2000)
and the 5-question Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (Raedeke &
Amorose, 2013). A series of paired-samples t tests with appropriate
Bonferroni corrections determined significant postintervention
changes.
Analysis/Results: Findings suggested that students perceived a
significantly greater mastery motivational climate
(post ¼ 3.72 ^ 1.03; pre ¼ 3.44 ^ 1.08; p ¼ .032) and a signifi- cantly higher level of physical activity enjoyment
(post ¼ 4.98 ^ 1.68; pre ¼ 4.28 ^ 1.98; p # .001) compared with the pretests. Female students (4.25 ^ 0.94) perceived a
significantly greater (p ¼ .008) mastery motivational climate than did male students (3.69 ^ 1.05); both had significantly higher
(female, p ¼ .008; male, p ¼ .001) physical activity enjoyment levels (female, 4.99 ^ 1.67; male, 5.01 ^ 1.67).
Conclusions: Mastery motivational climate created through the
hybrid SEM/TGFU models effectively increased vocational
students’ physical activity enjoyment levels, especially for female
students. Future vocational student health may benefit from
exposure to a mastery motivational climate in physical education
as it could influence the development of lifelong physical activity
habits.
Validation of the IPMS for Korea Archery
Sae-Hyung Kim, Chungbuk National University; Han-Byul Kim,
Korea National Sport University; Tae-Gyu Kim, Taeneung
National Training Center of the Korean Olympic Committee; and
Chang-Hwan Choi, Min-Su Jeon, and Minsoo Jeon, Korea
National Sport University
Background/Purpose: The purposes of this study were to develop
and calibrate the Importance of Performance Measurement Scale
(IPMS) for Korea archery using the Rasch model and to validate
the scale through a known-group difference approach. If the
Experience of Archery (EOA) score is more than 10, independent
coaching is generally possible (Korea Archery Association, 2012).
Method: Based on the literature review and consultation of content
and measurement experts, the 27-item IPMS was generated. The
scale was administered to 463 Korean elite archeries in Seoul
universities. The Rasch measurement computer program WIN-
STEPS (Linacre, 2009) was used to analyze the data. Model data fit
was determined by infit and outfit statistics ($ 0.70 and # 1.30). The unidimensionality of the scale was determined by infit and
outfit (mean square) using chi-square fit statistics. If the values of
the infit and outfit are 1.00, the observed score perfectly fit the
expected model. One-way analysis of variance was used to
establish the known-group difference validity evidence of the IPMS
through the Statistical Package of the Social Sciences Version 21.0
statistical software. Alpha level was set at .05. A statistically
significant mean difference in the archeries’ importance of
performance between EOA score level (, 10, $ 10) would
provide known-group difference validity evidence for the IPMS.
Analysis/Results: Twenty-two items of the 27 items had good
model data fit with acceptable fit statistics. The remaining 5 items
were eliminated from the final estimation (the 5 items’ infit and
outfit statistics indexes were greater than 1.30). Overall, a
unidimensional model fit the data well and the 7 rating categories
functioned well; threshold advanced with category. The item
separation index (2.57) and separation reliability statistic (0.98)
provided evidence that the items had good variability with a high
degree of confidence in replicating placement of the items from
another sample. There was a statistically significant mean
difference in the person’s logits score between the categorized
EOA group (, 10,$ 10), F(1, 461) ¼ 7.609, p, .006. This result supports the known-group difference validity evidence of the IPMS.
Conclusions: Results provided support for using the IPMS. The
scale can be used to assess the importance of performance of
individuals and provide information to Korea archeries. The newly
developed IPMS for archeries in Korea should be validated in
another sample to increase external validity.
Exploring Perceived Motivations of AXIS Dancers
Boni Boswell and Bomna Ko, East Carolina University;
Seok Yoon, Chowan University; Jihoun An, East Carolina
University; and Yun Soo Lee, Middle Tennessee State University
Background/Purpose: Although the inclusion of dancers with
disabilities in professional dance companies has expanded in the
past decade, there is a lack of research concerning the impact of
social-environmental factors on participation in integrated dance
companies. Findings of studies involving only typical dancers
(Quested & Duda, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013) have provided support
for the use of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000)
to gain understanding of the social-environmental dance climate.
Yet literature concerning integrated dance companies consists
primarily of essays and testimonies. This qualitative study explored
the perceptions of motivations, challenges, and rewards of dancers
participating in the AXIS Dance Company, a physically integrated
dance company with international acclaim. SDT served as the
foundational framework. Research questions were: (a) What
social-environmental factors were most relevant to these dancers
and impacted their motivations to dance with the AXIS Dance
Company? (b) Did the dancers’ perceptions of their participation
correspond to a key tenet of the basic needs mini theory of SDT,
specifically, the 3 areas of need (autonomy, relatedness, and
competence)? (c) In what ways did the challenges and rewards
voiced by these dancers impact their participation with AXIS?
Method: This study employed a phenomenological study design to
“describe the meaning for several individuals of their lived
experiences of” (Creswell, 2007, p. 57) involvement in the
integrated AXIS Dance Company performance. In-depth semi-
structured face-to-face interviews with 10 dancers (6 female, 4
male) were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Among those, 3
were dancers with disabilities.
Analysis/Results: Content analysis was used to analyze the data.
Several strategies were utilized to ensure and maintain credibility
and trustworthiness of the findings in this study including
triangulation between investigators, peer review and debrief, and
member checking between investigators and participants. Four
RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT A-31
themes emerged that significantly impacted the dancers’ partici-
pation with AXIS: (a) passion for dance, (b) commitment to
inclusion, (c) dedication to innovation, and (d) sense of belonging.
Conclusions: Two themes voiced by these dancers, dedication to
innovation and sense of belonging, clearly support the tenets of
SDT, specifically the mini theory of basic needs. These results
highlighted the importance of creating an integrated dance
environment that values and fosters discovery of unique
movements, individual decision making, and a sense of belonging.
Middle School Students’ Perceptions of Caring and Attitudes Toward PE
Weidong Li, The Ohio State University
Background/Purpose: According to Noddings (1992), the ethic of
caring can occur when a connection is made between the “one
caring” and the “cared-for,” and “Caring is the very bedrock of all
successful education” (p. 27). Teachers are effective when they care
for student learning. Qualitative studies have shown that teachers’
caring behaviors are associated with students’ attitudes toward
physical education (PE) and engagement (e.g., Cothran et al., 2003;
Ennis et al., 1997; Larson, 2006).However, limited research has been
conducted to quantitatively investigate how students’ perceptions of
caring are linked to their motivation in PE. Students’ attitudes toward
PE strongly predict their engagement and learning. Therefore, the
purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between
students’ perceptions of caring and their attitudes toward PE.
Method: One hundred and seventy-nine 6th through 8th graders
enrolled in PE in a U.S. Mid-West region volunteered to participate
in the study. PE teachers at the selected 2 suburban schools were
experienced and committed to teaching. Participants completed a
package of surveys including 42 items on perceptions of caring
with a 7-point Likert scale (Li & Kim, 2014), demographic
information (gender, ethnicity, grade, and age), attitudes toward PE
(Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007), and other surveys for research
purposes during their scheduled PE time. Instructions were
provided to participants. It took participants about 30 min to
complete the survey package.
Analysis/Results: The construct validity of perceptions of caring
was validated in a Li and Kim (2014) study. Participants with
missing data for perceptions of caring and attitudes toward PE were
excluded from data analysis. The internal Cronbach’s alphas for
the Caring subscale, the Enjoyment subscale, and the Usefulness
subscale were .98, .94, and .94, respectively. Two multiple
regressions with either enjoyment or usefulness as a dependent
variable were conducted to examine the relationship between
perceptions of caring and attitudes toward PE by accounting for
gender, ethnicity, and grade effects. The independent variables
included perceptions of caring, gender, grade, and ethnicity. The
normality assumptions were met after deleting 1 outlier, which had
no impact on the results. Participants reported that their PE
teachers cared for them (M ¼ 5.23, SD ¼ 1.27). Students’ perceptions of caring significantly predicted their attitudes toward
PE: usefulness, F(1, 141) ¼ 135.39, p , .0001, R-square ¼ .58, and enjoyment, F(1, 141) ¼ 146.55, p , .0001, R-square ¼ .59.
Conclusions: Students who perceived that teachers cared for them
had better attitudes toward PE. It is suggested that PE teachers should
employ effective strategies to foster caring learning environments.
These strategies include making task adaptations, building
interpersonal rapport, and creating a positive, motivating climate.
Achievement Goals and Motivational Regulations in a Summer Sports Camp
Jiling Liu, Ping Xiang, Ron E. McBride, Xiaoxia Su,
Melissa Scarmardo, and Maiya Otsuka, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: School physical education programs face
serious challenges in promoting students’ physical activity due to
the reallocation of time and resources to core academic subjects
(Public Health Institute, 2010). Afterschool physical activity
programs provide supplementary opportunities for students to
participate in physical activity in and out of school (e.g., Garn
et al., 2014). Recent research revealed children’s motivation and
participation in physical activity are influenced by achievement
goal orientations (e.g., Xiang, Liu, McBride, & Bruene, 2011).
This study examined the predictability of achievement goals on at-
risk boys’ motivational regulations in a summer sports camp.
Method: One hundred and two at-risk boys, aged 11 to 15 years
old (M ¼ 12.93 years, SD ¼ 1.22), volunteered as participants. All were enrolled in a 3-week summer sports camp in Southwest
Texas. The Achievement Goal Questionnaire-Physical Education
(Guan, McBride, & Xiang, 2007) assessed mastery-approach,
mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-
avoidance goals, and the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise
Questionnaire (Markland & Tobin, 2004) assessed 5 types of
motivational regulations: amotivation, external regulation, intro-
jected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation.
Both instruments have demonstrated acceptable reliability and
validity in physical activity/physical education settings.
Analysis/Results: A path analysis modeling the relationships
between achievement goals and motivational regulations was
performed with Mplus 7.0 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012). The
initial proposed model yielded a marginal fit (x2/df ¼ 1.740, p ¼ .0744; root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] ¼ .086, standard root mean square residual [SRMR] ¼ .050, compara- tive fit index [CFI] ¼ .963). With 1 path added, the modified model generated a good fit (x2/df ¼ .838, p ¼ .569; RMSEA ¼ .000, SRMR ¼ .041,CFI ¼ 1.000).Tobetter demonstrate the predictability of achievement goals to motivational regulations, a parsimonious
model was finalized with good model fit (x2/df ¼ .256, p ¼ .905; RMSEA ¼ .000, SRMR ¼ .041, CFI ¼ 1.000). Conclusions: Consistent with previous research (Gao et al., 2012;
Su et al., in press), the mastery-approach goal positively predicted
identified regulation and intrinsic regulation and negatively
predicted amotivation. In line with Gao et al.’s (2012) but different
from Su et al.’s (in press) findings, the performance-approach goal
positively predicted intrinsic motivation. The mastery-avoidance
goal negatively predicted intrinsic regulation. These results
indicated that physical activity instructors can focus on helping
students set mastery-approach goals to increase intrinsic
A-32 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
motivation and reduce amotivation. Further research can increase
the generalizability by increasing the sample size, including all
socioeconomic backgrounds and both sexes.
Effect of Fitness Classes on Beliefs of Physical Activity Participation
Jingwen Liu and Rulan Shangguan, University of Texas at Austin;
Langston Clark, University of Texas at San Antonio;
Xiaofen Keating, University of Texas at Austin; Ke Zhou, Henan
University; and Louis Harrison, University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: Recent research has shown that more than
70% of college students gained weight during the 4-year period
(Gropper, Simmons, Connell, & Ulrich, 2012). This demonstrates a
need for immediate attention to an intervention for college students’
physical activity (PA). An effective means of promoting PA is to
provide positive experiences in PA that lead to beliefs of positive
consequences for participation. Because few studies have addressed
this topic, this studywas designed to explore the effect of a fitness class
on college students’ beliefs about consequences of participating in PA.
Method: College students (N ¼ 54) were recruited from a 4-year university in the United States. All participants were enrolled in a
fitness class, in which they were introduced to knowledge of goal
setting, fitness, and nutrition, in addition to a weekly 45-min PA
session designed to provide positive PA experiences in various
activities such as basketball, soccer, aquatic games, aerobic dance,
yoga, and jump rope. A prevalidated questionnaire, the Beliefs About
the Consequences of Participating in Physical Activity Survey, was
completed by participants at the beginning and end of the semester.
Analysis/Results: Using a paired-samples t test, a significant
increase in beliefs about the consequences of participating in PAwas
found, t(53) ¼ 2.28, p ¼ .03. Mixed-design analysis of variance was performed to test gender and ethnicity differences between pretests
and posttests, with gender and ethnicity as between-subject variables.
No significant difference in pretest-to-posttest change in beliefs
about the consequences of taking part in PAwas found betweenmale
and female students or among students of different ethnicities.
Conclusions: The 1-semester fitness class enabled college students
to experience positive consequences that camewith participating in
PA, such as gaining muscle, enjoyment, and friendship. It was
unexpected that no gender and ethnicity differences were found.
Future research is needed to identify the specific elements in the
fitness class that are associated with positive beliefs about
participating in regular PA.
Self-Efficacy Scale Toward Teaching Lifetime Physical Activities: Development and Validation
Kason O’Neil, East Tennessee State University
Background/Purpose: Due to the emphasis that numerous
national, state, and local organizations have placed on the
promotion of lifetime physical activity in our school physical
education programs, it is imperative that researchers continue to
examine how lifetime physical activity is being taught in schools
and what teachers specifically think about their confidence toward
instruction of these activities. As a result, a valid measure is needed
to assess how teachers perceive their abilities to teach lifetime
physical activities. To address the gap in the research, a new scale
with strong evidence for validity and reliability is needed.
The purpose of this study was to develop and begin the
validation process for an instrument that measures efficacy
perceptions of physical educators toward teaching lifetime
physical activities. This instrument, the Physical Educator Efficacy
Scale for Teaching Lifetime Physical Activities (PEES–LPA), was
constructed and developed through expert review, pilot procedures,
and exploratory factor analysis.
Method: This study was conducted in 4 different phases. The 1st
phase was a literature review that involved both inductive and
deductive item generation. The 2nd phase was the prepilot review,
which consisted of focus-group (N ¼ 6) and expert-review (N ¼ 6) feedback. The 3rd phase was the full validation study, which
solicited 182 in-service secondary physical educators to complete
the 63-item survey (PEES–LPA) using online survey software
distributed through state-level Alliance for Health, Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance e-mail listservs. Finally, the
4th phase was the assessment of reliability and construct validity.
Analysis/Results: Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 6-factor
model that accounted for 67.8% of the total observed score
variance (Principal Axis Factoring extraction/Varimax rotation).
Additionally, results demonstrated: (a) Resulting factors showed
simple structure that aligns with literature supporting the
classification of lifetime physical activities; (b) high factor scores
on each factor (. .40) had no double loadings; (c) efficacy items relating to net/wall activities and target activities loaded together;
and (d) internal consistency appaeared to be very high for both the
full model (.95) and each individual factor (.92–.95). Results also
showed moderately high correlations between self-efficacy items
relating to feedback and assessment, as well as identifying and
presenting critical skill elements
Conclusions: The PEES–LPA appears to be an appropriate
instrument for measuring self-efficacy perceptions of physical
educators and demonstrates evidence for both reliability and
validity, though further revisions should be explored to help
remove redundant items that may influence multicollinearity.
Motivation Mediates the Relationship Between Determinants of and Actual Physical Activity
Steve Palmer, Dierdra Bycura, Meghan Warren, Erica Pratt, and
Jay Sutliffe, Northern Arizona University
Background/Purpose: Autonomous motivation predicts outside-
of-school physical activity (PA) and future engagement in PA
among youth. Grounded in self-determination theory, Physical
Education Dedicated to Activity for Life (PEDAL) aims to
improve self-determined motivation for PA through student
learning objectives and instructional tasks that target correlates
RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT A-33
and determinants of PA. The purpose of this study was to explore
how autonomous motivation (Relative Autonomy Index [RAI])
mediates the relationship between 5 determinants of PA (barriers to
efficacy, perceived environmental safety, perceived environmental
access, sport ability beliefs, and perceived sport competence)
and PA.
Method: Seventh-grade youth (n ¼ 318) completed a 6-page survey made up of the following: Perceived Physical Environment
Inventory, a measure of perceived self-efficacy for overcoming
barriers, Physical Self-Perception Profile, Conceptions of the
Nature of Athletic Ability Questionnaire Version 2, the Behavioral
Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire Version 2, and the Weekly
Activity Checklist.
Analysis/Results: The independent association of neighborhood
safety, equipment accessibility, barriers to efficacy, sport
competence, and sport ability beliefs with RAI and PA were
analyzed with linear regression. The influence of RAI on the
relationship between each independent variable and PA was
calculated using linear regression. In reviewing relationships
between the 5 independent variables with PA, only barriers to
efficacy resulted in explaining significant variance (R 2 ¼ 5.3%, p , .0001). Barriers to efficacy (R 2 ¼ 25%), sport ability beliefs (R 2 ¼ 10.9%), neighborhood safety (R 2 ¼ 6.0%), and equipment accessibility (R 2 ¼ 3.9%) were significantly associated with RAI. After adjusting for RAI, all measures were significantly associated
with PA ( p , .001) and R 2 was greater for each (sport ability beliefs, 0.2%–4.7%; sport competence, 1.0%–4.8%; barriers to
efficacy, 5.3%–6.2%; neighborhood safety, 0.4%–4.1%; equip-
ment accessibility, 1.4%–4.6%).
Conclusions: Motivation measured by the RAI effectively
mediates the relationship between PA and the 5 PA determinants
tested. Results support prior recommendations that motivation may
be an appropriate target for PA intervention among 7th-grade
youth.
Service Learning and Volunteer Self-Efficacy: Working With People With Disabilities
Jill Katherine Pawlowski, Ryan T. Willoughby, Shelby L. Porter,
Jennifer Beamer, and Joonkoo Yun, Oregon State University
Background/Purpose: Current practice in many health and
physical activity disciplines incorporates service learning as a way
to prepare health professionals for their future positions. Service-
learning experiences are incorporated based on the belief that
practical experience will enhance an individual’s ability to be
successful. One way that service learning could influence future
success is by increasing the individual’s self-efficacy for
completing tasks within their field. This increase in self-efficacy
could be accomplished by providing a positive experience for
individuals during which they are provided the opportunity to have
mastery experiences, learn through vicarious experiences, and have
positive interactions with current professionals. Through the
incorporation of constructs of self-efficacy, a positive service-
learning experience may increase an individual’s self-efficacy.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of
an adapted physical activity-based service-learning experience that
incorporated self-efficacy constructs on participants’ self-efficacy
of working with people with disabilities as well as examined the
factors that influence changes in self-efficacy.
Method: Fifty-eight college students were recruited to complete
weekly surveys throughout their 8-week service-learning experi-
ence to promote physical activity for individuals with disabilities.
A baseline survey was administered after the 1st day of their
service learning that included demographic information and a self-
efficacy questionnaire. Seven weekly surveys were completed
measuring the 4 constructs of self-efficacy (vicarious experience,
mastery experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological
response) with an additional self-efficacy questionnaire completed
after the last day of their service learning. All survey responses
remained anonymous through a coding system.
Analysis/Results: A paired t test showed that there was a
significant increase in self-efficacy scores from baseline to post-
service-learning experience, t(57) ¼ 3.24, p , .01. A multiple linear regression was used to examine factors affecting changes in
self-efficacy scores. The results indicated that the model explained
10% of the variance and revealed that the participants’ attitude
toward working with disabilities significantly predicted changes is
self-efficacy (beta ¼ 1.06, p, .05), but none of the 4 constructs of self-efficacy significantly influenced changes in self-efficacy
scores.
Conclusions: The results of this study support the idea that a
service-learning experience can increase an individual’s self-
efficacy for working within their chosen field. However, the lack
of findings establishing relationships between the self-efficacy
constructs and changes in self-efficacy scores leaves room for
future research to tease out aspects of a service-learning
experience that increase self-efficacy to inform better practice in
the future.
Exercise Experiences, Flow, Anxiety, Comfort and Motivation Among Women
Caitlyn R. Pecinovsky and Christy Greenleaf, University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Background/Purpose: The objectification of women’s bodies
often results in a number of negative psychological and behavioral
outcomes, including poor body image and avoidance of physical
activity (Vartanian & Shaprow, 2007). Moreover, women’s
physical self-perceptions are associated with exercise experiences,
often influencing the degree to which a woman experiences flow,
anxiety, comfort, and motivation (Frederick son & Roberts, 1997;
Strelan, Mehaffey, & Tiggeman, 2003). Although these psycho-
social variables impact the exercise experience independently,
there is a gap in the literature regarding the associations between
the flow experience, anxiety, comfort, and motivation during
exercise. This study examined the relationships between flow,
anxiety, comfort, and exercise motivation among recreationally
active women.
Method: Participants included 278 women (Mage ¼ 26.75 years, SD ¼ 9.05) who completed the following measures via an online
A-34 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
survey: Flow State Scale (Jackson & Eklund, 2002), Social
Physique Anxiety Scale (Hart et al., 1989), and Exercise
Avoidance Motivation Scale (Vartanian & Shaprow, 2007).
Additionally, participants answered a single item on exercise
apparel comfort.
Analysis/Results: Flow was negatively associated with social
physique anxiety (SPA) and exercise avoidance motivation (EAM).
Correlations between flow subscales and SPA ranged from –.42 to
–.27, ps , .001. Associations between flow subscales and EAM ranged from –.46 to –.37, ps , .001. Flow was positively related
to participants’ exercise apparel comfort. Flow subscales and
comfort had correlations ranging from .12 to .18, ps , .05. There were also significant relationships between PSA and EAM
(r ¼ .49, p , .001), SPA and comfort (r ¼ –.37, p , .001), and EAM and comfort (r ¼ –.23, p , .001). Conclusions: Better understanding the role of flow in the exercise
experiences of women may be a useful approach to creating and
promoting healthy exercise environments for women. As a 1st step,
the results of this study indicate that women with less frequent flow
experiences have higher levels of SPA and EAM. Exercise
environments that reduce body objectification may influence the
formation of intrinsic motivation and allow for improved self-
perceptions and valuing of physical activity. Future research
should explore the impact of enhancing the flow experience to
decrease anxiety and increase comfort and motivation in a fitness
setting.
Second-Order Latent Variables of the Sport Motivation Scale-Physical Education
Keven Prusak and William Christensen, Brigham Young
University
Background/Purpose: Traditionally, amotivation has been placed
on the self-determination theory continuum on the opposite end of
intrinsic motivation and adjacent to the lowest form of extrinsic
motivation (external regulation) giving the impression that the
locus of its regulatory mechanisms lies externally. This
assumption was explored in this study that examined both the
1st-order latent variables and then the validity of the means for
calculating the self-determination index (SDI) score using the
traditional, albeit arbitrary, weighting system first proposed by
Blais et al. (1990). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to use
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine both 1st- and 2nd-
order latent variable effects via the modified Sport Motivation
Scale for Physical Education (SMS-PE) in secondary physical
education (PE) students in the United States and the United
Kingdom.
Method: Data from 1,438 U.S. and British secondary PE students
were gathered using the 28-item, 7-factor SMS-PE. CFA was
conducted to assess and compare the goodness of fit of the original
scale to several alternative versions of the SMS. CFA was again
used to test the validity of the traditional SDI score calculations by
examining the 2nd-order latent variables. CFA and the graphic
depiction of the resulting model were generated by AMOS-
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (2011).
Analysis/Results: Results show that the SDI score was not 1-
dimensional as originally supposed but was more fully represented
by 2 2nd-order latent variables (internal and external).
As expected, external regulation was increasingly evident in
lower levels of extrinsic motivation and internal regulation was
increasingly associated with identified regulation and intrinsic
motivation. However, amotivation was entirely associated with
internal (behaving more like the antithesis of intrinsic motivation)
rather than external as has been formerly postulated.
Conclusions: This study provides support for the notion that
amotivation is not simply a lower form or the lowest form of
externally regulated behaviors. Results suggest that the regulatory
mechanisms for amotivation may actually reside internally but that
they are manifest in a negative rather than a positive direction (as
with intrinsic motivation). In other words, amotivated behavior is
personally owned but negatively manifested by persons who
choose to disengage for a variety of reasons rather than be forced
out by externally driven motives.
Teaching Elementary Physical Education Self-Efficacy Scale: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Keven Prusak and William Christensen, Brigham Young
University
Background/Purpose: Self-efficacy is situationally or contex-
tually specific, and thus, there are no all-purpose models.
Elementary physical education (EPE) is demanding in its
curriculum and methodologies. Physical education teacher
education (PETE) students often feel overwhelmed at the prospect
of learning to teach EPE. However, no self-efficacy scale exists to
measure student confidence toward teaching EPE. Therefore, the
purpose of this study was to develop and test the psychometric
properties (via traditional scale development techniques and
confirmatory factor analysis [CFA]) of the Teaching EPE Self-
Efficacy Scale to measure teacher confidence in the ability to teach
EPE.
Method: The scale development consisted of 2 phases: (a) item
development and (b) CFA. First, 5 PETE professors created 34
statements intended to assess student confidence in 6 areas of
instruction and management specific to EPE. Seven additional
PETE professors familiar with EPE were asked to assess each item
for content and construct validity. Then, 120 former EPE students
categorized the items into 1 of each of the 6 categories. CFA
reduced the scale to 32 items demonstrating adequate fit indexes.
Next, factor scores for each self-efficacy factor were calculated
using the parameter estimates from the factor analysis model.
In contrast to simply averaging the item scores within each
category, this approach facilitates an optimal quantification of each
underlying factor.
Analysis/Results: Item development results show accurate
categorization for the majority of the items. Problematic items
were identified and reexamined for further consideration. CFA
results on the remaining 32-item, 6-factor scale indicate an
adequate fit (comparative fit index ¼ .840, root mean square error of approximation ¼ .091). Factor loadings indicate strong
RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT A-35
relationships to proposed factors. Figures depict scale structure and
tables list factor loadings and item means.
Conclusions: Researchers and PETE programs can benefit from an
instrument that will assess the confidence with which students
enter and exit preparation courses for EPE. This scale will provide
the means to assess student self-efficacy toward key factors.
Informed decisions about course content to optimize student self-
efficacy can be made. This instrument can also be used for in-
service teachers.
College Student Texting and Driving: Testing the Theory of Planned Behavior
Michael E. Sandlin and Judy R. Sandlin, Texas A&M University;
and Rosanne S. Keathley, Sam Houston State University
Background/Purpose: Texting while driving occurs in drivers of
all ages; however, the greatest at-risk population is young drivers.
Eighty percent of college students have reported texting while
driving within the previous week. This study tested the theory of
planned behavior (TPB) and examined college student drivers’ use
of cell phones to send and read text messages while driving.
Method: Participants (n ¼ 777) completed a 24-item instrument using a 7-point Likert scale where 1 ¼ strongly disagree and 7 ¼ strongly agree. The survey measured phone use while driving during the previous and upcoming week. Questions examined
frequency of use, intent/likelihood to use a cell phone, how the
participants and others feel about their cell use, and their
perceptions of peers’ cell use.
Analysis/Results: Participants revealed that sending texts was
“bad” (M ¼ 5.73), “unwise” (M ¼ 5.89), “valuable” (M ¼ 2.81), and “positive” (M ¼ 2.42). They disclosed an awareness that reading texts was “bad” (M ¼ 5.40), “unwise” (M ¼ 5.57), “valuable” (M ¼ 2.99), and “positive” (M ¼ 2.65). Statistically significant correlations were observed between plans/intent to
send/read texts and the feelings and approval of important people
in students’ lives for sending/reading texts; Pearson r ranged from
r ¼ .19 to r ¼ .27. Negative correlations were observed between plans/intent to send/read texts and feelings of guilt and going
against individual principles. All correlations were significant and
ranged from r ¼ –.22 to r ¼ –.32. However, one third (35.5%) of the participants reported they
planned to send a text while driving during the next week, while
48.8% planned to read a text. A total of 46.2% of participants
reported they were likely to send texts with 61.0% stating they
would likely read a text. Plans for and the likelihood of sending and
receiving texts were highly correlated with previous actions for
these behaviors (as indicated by rates of sending and reading texts).
Pearson r correlations ranged from r ¼ .66 to r ¼ .86 for these behaviors.Lastly, participants indicated high levels of self-control
over whether they send/read a text while driving (M ¼ 6.19 and M ¼ 6.1, respectively). They also indicated that they believed a high number of their friends/peers would send/read texts while
driving (M ¼ 5.33 and M ¼ 5.66, respectively). Conclusions: These findings validate previous outcomes that
beliefs and attitudes regarding texting, behavioral intentions, and
perceived controls fail to result in positive behavior change.
Further, the normative beliefs and subjective norms identified in
TPB were not indicative of positive behavior change among
participants. Texting may need to be managed by prevention
through regulation, which can result in fines, imprisonment, and
suspension of one’s driver’s license.
Lesson Context, Situational Interest, and In-Class Physical Activity
Lauren C. Scott, Alanna Price, and Bo Shen, Wayne State
University
Background/Purpose: Situational interest is a powerful motivator
for elementary school students and its construct has been
articulated as multidimensional including attention demand,
challenge, exploration opportunity, instant enjoyment, and novelty.
Situationally interesting learning tasks can attract students to
increase engagement time and enhance achievement. Situational
interest is sensitive to the learning environment defined by the
content, instructional strategies, and learners. Under different
lesson environments, it is argued that the role of situational interest
in physical education may vary. Using the multidimensionality of
situational interest, we designed this study to examine the
moderate effect of lesson context on the relationship between
situational interest dimensions and in-class physical engagement.
Method: Participants were 125 4th and 5th graders (63 girls; age
range ¼ 9–12 years, Mage ¼ 10.40 years) in an urban elementary school. Data collection took place during 3 selected instructional
lessons (Lesson 1, fitness-oriented; Lesson 2, skill-oriented; and
Lesson 3, game-oriented). In each lesson, the Situational Interest
Scale and Yamax SW-200 Digi-walker pedometers were
administered to assess students’ situational interest dimensions
and quantify their in-class physical engagement (steps), respect-
ively. The System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT)
was conducted to code each lesson context (i.e., management,
knowledge, fitness activity, skill practice, and game play). Three
multiple regression analyses (1 for each lesson) were conducted
with steps as the dependent variable and situational interest
dimensions as predictors.
Analysis/Results: SOFIT coding was consistent with the
instructional design. The greatest proportion of class time was
devoted to fitness activity (62%) in Lesson 1, skill practice (44%)
in Lesson 2, and game play in Lesson 3 (48%). The overall
percentage of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity ranged from
44% to 56% in the 3 lessons. Regression analyses revealed that the
predictive role of the situational interest dimensions varied in terms
of lesson context. In Lesson 1, the significant predictors of steps
were attention demand (b ¼ .33, p , .01) and novelty (b ¼ .27, p , .01); in Lesson 2, they were challenge (b ¼ .30, p , .01) and novelty (b ¼ .20, p , .05); and in Lesson 3, they were enjoyment (b ¼ .28, p , .01) and novelty (b ¼ .27, p , .01). Conclusions: Results support that lesson context in physical
education can moderate the function of situational interest and its
dimensions on student behaviors. There is a strong independent
effect of the dimensional sources in different lesson contexts.
A-36 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
Physical educators should incorporate situationally interesting
learning experiences and consider lesson environment and content
specificity when designing effective strategies to enhance students’
learning and physical engagement.
Motivation in Sport Education and Traditional University Weight-Training Classes
Benjamin A. Sibley, Shawn M. Bergman, and Rachel V. Cheek,
Appalachian State University
Background/Purpose: According to self-determination theory,
motivation is driven by 3 basic psychological needs: competence,
autonomy, and relatedness. The extent to which these 3 needs are
satisfied will determine how people are motivated in a given
setting. Motivation can be intrinsic, extrinsic, or nonexistent. It has
been consistently found that intrinsic motivation and more
internalized forms of extrinsic motivation will lead to more well-
adapted exercise behaviors. The purpose of this research was to
examine relationships between basic psychological need satisfac-
tion, self-determined motivations, and student attitudes and
exercise intentions in university weight-training classes and to
examine differences in these constructs between classes that use a
traditional teaching model and the sport education model.
Method: University students enrolled in traditional weight-
training classes (n ¼ 166) and sport education weight-training classes (n ¼ 59) completed the Basic Psychological Needs in Physical Education Scale, the Self-Regulation Questionnaire-
Physical Education, items from the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory
to assess enjoyment, and 3 items that measured future intentions to
exercise.
Analysis/Results: Correlations between need satisfaction, exer-
cise motivations, enjoyment, and future intentions were calculated
for both the traditional model and sport education classes. Ttests
were conducted to examine mean differences between the 2
conditions. Results indicated that psychological need satisfaction
had weak significant correlations with introjected regulation
(r ¼ .23 to .29) and amotivation (r ¼ –.21 to –.27), moderate correlations with identified regulation (r ¼ .37 to .49) and future intentions to exercise (r ¼ .29 to .36), and strong correlations with intrinsic regulation (r ¼ .42 to .53) and enjoyment (r ¼ .49 to .59). Correlations with identified regulation, intrinsic regulation,
enjoyment, and future intentions were of a much larger magnitude
in the sport education condition. Intrinsic and identified
regulations were strongly correlated with enjoyment (r ¼ .62, .53) and moderately correlated with future intentions (r ¼ .40, .36), and amotivation was strongly negatively related to
enjoyment (r ¼ –.50). Correlations of intrinsic and identified regulation with future intentions to exercise were of a much larger
magnitude in the sport education condition. No significant mean
differences were found for any of the variables between the 2
conditions.
Conclusions: Consistent with the tenets of self-determination
theory, this study confirmed that for students enrolled in university
weight-training classes, satisfaction of basic psychological needs
plays an important role in motivation, enjoyment, and intentions to
engage in future exercise. Psychological need satisfaction played a
much more salient role in sport education classes than in
traditionally taught classes.
Elementary Teachers’ Autonomy Support for Children’s Recess Physical Activity Motivation
Megan Babkes Stellino, University of Northern Colorado; and
Michelle L. Thornton and Heather Erwin, University of Kentucky
Background/Purpose: Physical activity opportunities during
recess may contribute 5% to 40% toward daily physical activity
recommendations (Ridgers, Sratton, Clark, Fairclough, &
Richardson, 2006). Recess provides valuable amounts of
physical activity for children, as they are active, on average,
for 63% to 78% of recess time (Beighle et al., 2006). The
amount of recess physical activity (RPA) in which children
engage is both theoretically and practically impacted by school-
based social influences, such as classroom (CR) and physical
education (PE) teachers. According to self-determination theory
(SDT), perceptions of how autonomy-supportive versus control-
ling significant others (e.g., teachers) are with regard to the
climate surrounding the pursuit of activity in a particular context
will predict the levels of intrinsic motivation experienced by
individuals in pursuit of that activity in that context (Deci &
Ryan, 1985, 1991). Perceptions of greater autonomy support,
versus control, from key social influences in the form of positive
feedback, support, and encouragement are factors that can
ultimately predict how intrinsically motivated children are to be
physically active during discretionary-time periods such as
elementary school recess. The purpose of this study was to
examine the relationships between children’s perceptions of and
teachers’ self-reported autonomy support for RPA and children’s
RPA motivation.
Method: Children (N ¼ 272; 3rd–5th grade, 140 girls) from 3 elementary schools in the Southeastern United States completed
surveys of their RPA motivation and perceived autonomy
support versus control for RPA from their CR teacher and PE
teacher. Elementary teachers from each school (N ¼ 24 CR; N ¼ 3 PE) self-reported autonomy support versus control for children’s
RPA.
Analysis/Results: T tests indicated children’s perceived PE and
CR teachers’ autonomy support for RPA was significantly lower
than both PE and CR teachers’ self-reported levels of autonomy
support for RPA. CR teachers, both perceived and self-reported,
were significantly less autonomy-supportive of children’s RPA as
compared with PE teachers. Regression analyses revealed that
children’s perceptions of PE teachers’ and CR teachers’ autonomy
support for RPA significantly, and positively, accounted for 20.1%
of the variance of children’s intrinsic motivation for RPA. PE
teachers’ self-reported autonomy support for RPA significantly,
and negatively, predicted 8% of children’s externally regulated
RPA.
Conclusions: These findings provide important evidence of the
impact teachers have on children’s motivation for school-based
physical activity during discretionary times such as recess.
RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT A-37
These results also establish further support for the use of SDT
in examination of the social psychological processes
associated with promotion of children’s school-based physical
activity.
Girls on the Run: Positive Youth Development Outcomes
Sarah Ullrich-French, Amy Cole, Anne E. Cox, and Eunsaem Kim,
Washington State University
Background/Purpose: Girls on the Run (GOTR) is a physical
activity-based positive youth development program for girls in 3rd
through 5th grade. The program is implemented over 12 weeks
with a 24-lesson curriculum combining training for a 5K running
event with activities designed to enhance girls’ social, psychologi-
cal, and physical competencies to successfully navigate life
experiences. However, little evidence documents the effectiveness
of this program for developmental outcomes aligned with the
curriculum. Through curriculum review and focus groups with
coaches, parents, and past participants in GOTR–Puget Sound
(PS), we identified emotional self-efficacy, perceived physical
competence, and physical self-worth as relevant to the program
curriculum to represent program outcomes. Autonomy support
from coaches and running buddies, based on self-determination
theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), was also considered relevant as a
potential mechanism to explain change in the 3 outcome variables.
The purpose of this study was to test for change in the 3
psychological outcome variables and to examine the relationship
between perceived autonomy support and change in these
outcomes across the program.
Method: This study was conducted with GOTR–PS participants
(N ¼ 249) in the fall of 2014. Participants in GOTR–PS completed a survey assessing the 3 program outcomes at the 2nd session of the
fall season and the same survey with the addition of the autonomy
support measure after completing the 5K run during the final
session.
Analysis/Results: Multivariate analysis of variance results
demonstrated a significant multivariate effect across time, F(3,
197) ¼ 7.07, p , .01, Wilk’s L ¼ .903, partial h2 ¼ .097. Univariate follow-ups showed a significant effect for physical
self-worth, F(1, 199) ¼ 20.22, p , .01, partial h2 ¼ .092. Results for emotional self-efficacy and perceived physical competence
were nonsignificant (p . .05). Participants’ perceived autonomy support at the end of the program was positively related to the gain
in physical self-worth (r ¼ .262, p , .01). However, there was no significant relationship between perceptions of autonomy support
and gains in perceptions of physical competence or emotional
self-efficacy.
Conclusions: Findings support that positive changes in physical
self-worth occur during participation in GOTR–PS. Perceived
autonomy support is 1 potential mechanism explaining this change.
Future research should also consider a comparison group to better
document program effects. Overall results suggest that the quality
of the program experience is important and should be intentionally
incorporated in staff and leader training.
Fitsporation Versus Thinsporation: Is There a Difference?
Heather I. D. Van Mullem, Lewis-Clark State College
Background/Purpose: Obesity is a global epidemic (“Overweight
and Obesity,” n.d.). The Internet can be a source for ideas and
strategies to create a plan to achieveweight-loss goals.While access
to sound and healthy weight-loss alternatives is available on the
Internet, unhealthy practices are also plentiful (Lewis&Arbuthnott,
2012). In particular, much research has focused on the presence and
impact of pro-eating disorder Web sites (Abbate Daga, Gramaglia,
Peiro, & Fassino, 2006; Andrist, 2003; Harper, Sperry, &
Thompson, 2008; Lewis & Arbuthnott, 2012; Norris, Boydell,
Pinhas & Katzman, 2006; Roleau & von Ranson, 2011). Lewis and
Arbuthnott (2012) indicated that sites using terms like “thinspo” or
“thinsporation” often contain content most likely to lead to
damaging weight-loss practices. Terms used to promote engage-
ment in healthy behavior choices like “fitspo” or “fitsporation” are
increasingly popular on the Internet. Critics (Dahl, 2013; Fabello,
2013) note that images on these sites are similar to images on sites
that support the concepts of “thinspo” or “thinsporation.”
The purpose of this research was to explore if people can
distinguish between images intended to promote fitness versus
images promoting disordered eating.
Method: Undergraduate participants (152 male, 146 female)
viewed images posted to Pinterest, an online social media Web site
that allows users to share or “pin” images by content area. Images
chosen for comparison were examples tagged on Pinterest threads
as “Fitsporation” or “Thinsporation.” After reading a definition of
“fitsporation” and “thinsporation,” participants identified on which
type of thread they would expect to find each image.
Analysis/Results: Mean scores showed that male participants
believed “fitsporation” images were more likely to be found on a
“fitsportation” Web site (9 out of the 15 images) and female
participants reported the location correctly for 5 of 15 images.
When reviewing “thinsporation” images, male participants’
perceived location was accurate for 7 of 15 images. Female
participants scored accurately for 8 of 15 images. Mean scores
indicate participants were challenged to distinguish between types
of images. T tests of unequal variance revealed that female
participants were more critical of site expectation. Thirteen of the
15 “fitsporation” and “thinsporation” images showed a statistically
significant response by gender.
Conclusions: Results revealed that male and female college
students had a difficult time distinguishing between images of
women used to promote fitness versus images of women meant to
promote disordered eating. Findings can contribute to the body of
scholarship addressing the impact of media on behavior choices.
Entity Beliefs Negatively Predict Resiliency in Olympic Weightlifters
Jason von Stietz and James Garbanati, Alliant International
University-Los Angeles
A-38 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
Background/Purpose: Olympic weightlifting is a demanding
sport that involves both physical and psychological factors. It is
widely agreed that mental toughness or resiliency is a predictor of
successful outcomes in sport. Several studies have shown that
implicit theories, an individual’s often unspoken assumption about
the stability or malleability of core personal qualities, are related to
resiliency in sport and nonsport settings. The implicit theories
model consists of 2 theories or mind sets: entity and incremental.
An entity belief is an assumption that a core quality of a person is a
fixed entity and is not malleable. An incremental belief is an
assumption that a core quality of a person is malleable and can
change over time. The present study examined the relationship
between implicit theories, goal orientation, perceived self-
competence, and resiliency in Olympic weightlifters.
Method: Participants were 140 adults competing in the sport of
Olympic weightlifting (98 male, 42 female; Mage ¼ 31.01 years, SD ¼ 10.904, age range ¼ 18–71). Most participants were Caucasian, had competed at the local/regional level, and had
been training in Olympic weightlifting for 1 to 2 years.
A correlational design was used and data were collected online
utilizing Qualtrics survey software. Predictor variables consisted of
incremental beliefs, entity beliefs, task orientation, and ego
orientation. Perceived self-competence was tested as a moderator
variable. The criterion variable was resiliency.
Analysis/Results: Significant relationships were found between
entity beliefs and resiliency as well as task orientation and
incremental beliefs. A simultaneous regression revealed that entity
beliefs negatively predicted resiliency as expected. However,
incremental beliefs did not significantly predict resiliency. A linear
regression showed that task orientation significantly predicted
incremental beliefs. Furthermore, a hierarchical regression showed
that perceived self-competence did not moderate the relationship
between entity beliefs and resiliency.
Conclusions: The present study extended previous findings that
entity beliefs negatively correlated with resiliency to an Olympic
weightlifting setting. The findings were in contrast to previous
findings that incremental beliefs positively correlated with
resiliency. It is possible that incremental beliefs only relate to
resiliency when the likelihood of failure is high. The measure of
resiliency did not assess for resiliency in situations in which it was
made explicit that failure was highly likely. The findings were
consistent with earlier studies that showed task orientation to
positively correlate with resiliency. Future studies should examine
a more culturally diverse sample. Mental skills training involving
decreasing entity beliefs and increasing task orientation could
possibly improve sport performance.
Three Types of Perceived Competence in a Summer Sports Camp
Ping Xiang, Xiaoxia Su, Ron E. McBride, Jiling Liu, and
Melissa Scarmardo, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Perceived competence (PC) is defined as
students’ perceptions of what they can do and how good they are at
different tasks (e.g., Xiang & Lee, 1998). PC plays a critical role in
students’ motivation, engagement, and performance in physical
activity/physical education settings. Recent research (Spray &
Warburton, 2011) revealed high school physical education students
in England were able to distinguish 3 types of PC: task mastery-
referenced (PC mastery), self-referenced (PC self), and other-
referenced (PC other). The current study examines the differen-
tiation and prediction of the 3 types of PC in effort among
adolescent at-risk boys in a summer sports camp.
Method: As part of a larger project, participants in this study were
79 boys placed at-risk, aged 10 to 14 years old (Mage ¼ 11.91 years, SD ¼ 1.21), attending a 3-week summer sports camp located in Texas during the summer of 2013. The population included
50.6% Hispanic American, 25.3% Caucasian American, 20.3%
African American, and 3.8% Others. A 10-item questionnaire
assessed the 3 types of PC and effort with the stem, “In my physical
activity sessions at this camp...” Items were adapted from the
research literature (e.g., Guan, Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2006;
Spray & Warburton, 2011) and were accompanied by a 5-point
Likert scale ranging from “not at all true” (1) to “very true” (5).
Analysis/Results: An exploratory factor analysis yielded 3 distinct
categories of PC accounting for 81.65% variance. Factor loadings
ranged from .86 to .90. The 3-factor model was supported by a
confirmatory factor analysis (x 2/df ¼ 1.33, comparative fit index ¼ .997, Tucker-Lewis index ¼ .993, root mean square error of approximation ¼ .006, standardized rootmean square residual ¼ .008). Cronbach’s alphas for the scores of PC mastery, PC self, PC other, and
effort were .77, .82, .69, and .74, respectively. A multiple regression
analysis revealed the3 types ofPCcollectively accounted for 34%of the
variance in effort, F(3, 77) ¼ 12.51, p , .001, with PC mastery (b ¼ .42, t ¼ 4.014, p , .01) and PC self (b ¼ .272, t ¼ 2.465, p , .05) emerging as significant positive predictors.
Conclusions: Consistent with previous research, 3 types of PC
were distinguishable among these adolescent at-risk boys in the
present study. Given that PC mastery and PC self positively
predicted boys’ effort, we recommend that this summer sports
camp focus on helping the boys construe competence based on how
well they master the camp’s physical activities and how much they
improve in those activities.
A Study of Youth Tennis Players’ Motivation in Suzhou
Zhenhao Zeng, Brooklyn College of the City University of New
York; and Li Sheng Xie, Changsu International School of JiangSu
Province
Background/Purpose: In recent years, the sport of tennis has
obtained great progress in China; research involving tennis
players’ motivation, however, has rarely been covered. The
purpose of this study, therefore, was to determine the essential
factors that motivate youth tennis players to continually engage in
practices and competitions. Firsthand information and meaningful
feedback can provide much for the international tennis community
that will improve their teaching/coaching and help manage various
competitions more effectively.
Method: Participants were 120 youth tennis players (boys, n ¼ 78; girls, n ¼ 42; age ¼ 11–17 years) from the metropolitan area of
RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT A-39
Suzhou (People’s Republic of China). The Adapted Questionnaire
of Athlete’s Motivation (AQAM; Zeng, 2013) was employed for
data collection; the AQAM consists of 30 items wherein 10 items
in the 1st part asked participants general information; 20 items in
the 2nd part asked what factors motivate the participant to engage
in the practices and competitions continually. Each motivation
question (MQ) allowed the participant to respond on a 5-point
Likert type scale (5 represents “strongly fit” and 1 represents
“somewhat fit”).
Analysis/Results: Data analysis techniques, like descriptive
statistics and independent-samples t tests, revealed: (a) The top 5
mean scores from the 20 MQs are MQ15, “reduce pressure”
(M ¼ 3.81 ^ 4.84); MQ6, “make new friends” (M ¼ 3.70 ^ 1.31); MQ7, “contest winners” (M ¼ 3.61 ^ 1.33); MQ1, “high technical content and unique value”
(M ¼ 3.55 ^ 1.54); and MQ4, “have fun and happiness” (M ¼ 3.53 ^ 1.55). (b) The comparison analyses on the mean score between the boys and girls revealed that 15 out of 20
comparisons reached significantly different (p , .05 or higher) levels, whereas the boys scored significantly higher than the girls
on MQ1, MQ3, MQ4, MQ6, MQ9, MQ11, MQ12, MQ15, MQ16,
and MQ17 (e.g., MQ3, “for health”; MQ11, “foster self-esteem”;
MQ12, “improve my own literacy”; and MQ17, “develop skills”);
the girls scored significantly higher than the boys on MQ2, MQ13,
MQ18, MQ19, and MQ20 (e.g., MQ2, “for fun and get rid of
boredom”; MQ13, “for establishing prestige among classmates/
friends”; MQ18, “hope to become tennis coach”; and MQ19,
“satisfy the will of family”).
Conclusions: In conclusion, the results of this study provided
quantitative data regarding the essential factors that motivate youth
tennis players to keep practicing and attending competitions.
Meaningful feedback and suggestions are presented; much of the
detail and reasons behind these results/findings were analyzed and
discussed.
Implicit Theories of Ability in Sports and 2 £ 2 Achievement Goals
Qi Zhao, Nanjing Sports Institute; and Weidong Li, The Ohio State
University
Background/Purpose: Students’ ability conceptions are a strong
predictor of their engagement in physical education (PE).
According to implicit theories of ability (Dweck, 2002), there
exist 2 dimensions: entity/fixed and malleable through effort.
These ability beliefs determine what goals students would adopt in
an achievement context. Students endorsing entity views of ability
would pursue ego goal orientations where social comparisons are
focused, while students with incremental views would pursue task
goal orientations where task mastery is emphasized. Elliot and
colleagues (Elliot, 2005; Elliot & McGregor, 2001) have advanced
the traditional dichotomous goal perspective by amalgamating the
approach and avoidance forms of motivation. They propose a 2 £ 2 achievement goal model: mastery-approach goals (developing
self-referent competence), mastery-avoidance goals (avoiding
developing self-referent incompetence), performance-approach
goals (demonstrating normative competence), and performance-
avoidance goals (avoiding demonstrating normative incompe-
tence). The previous research has mainly examined the relationship
between implicit theories of ability and achievement goals from a
dichotomous perspective. The purpose of this study was to
examine implicit theories of ability and achievement goals using
the 2 £ 2 model. Method: Participants were 272 Chinese 5th graders. They
completed a demographic survey, implicit theories of ability in
sports, 2 £ 2 achievement goals, and other questionnaires for research purposes in their classroom.All the surveyswere translated
into Chinese and back-translated into English by the 2nd author
(bilingual and fluent in Chinese and English). The translations were
also checked by 3 experts who are fluent in Chinese and English.
Analysis/Results: Correlational analysis was conducted to
examine the relationship between implicit theories of ability in
sports and 2 £ 2 achievement goals. The Entity subscale was dropped from the analysis due to a low Cronbach’s alpha of .55.
The standardized Cronbach’s alphas for other scales ranged from
.68 to .88. Participants held high incremental views, mastery-
approach goals, and performance-approach goals. The correla-
tional analysis showed that incremental views were positively
related to mastery-avoidance, r(272) ¼ .21, p , .0004; mastery- approach, r(272) ¼ .53, p , .0001; and performance-approach, r (272) ¼ .22, p , .0002. Conclusions: The findings of this study supported the previously
established link between incremental views of ability in sports and
dichotomous achievement goals. Additionally, we found that
participants with incremental views were likely to adopt
performance-approach goals. It is suggested that students who
believe in the efficacy of effort can focus themselves on developing
both self-referent and normative competence. This study is
significant as it lays a foundation to further explore how students
who endorse incremental views and pursue performance-approach
goals would respond in the face of difficulties.
MOTOR BEHAVIOR AND MEASUREMENT
Implementation Facilitators and Barriers of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program
Jeanne M. Barcelona, Hannah G. Calvert, and Jessica
Duncan Cance, University of Texas at Austin; Seraphine Pitt-
Barnes, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Jane Wargo,
Presidential Youth Fitness Program; and Darla M. Castelli,
University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: The Presidential Youth Fitness Program
(PYFP) is a multifaceted program that offers resources to improve
student health through fitness and physical activity to promote
lifelong health. Its primary aim is to enhance fitness education
through quality of physical education (PE) programming in schools
by providing continual professional development (PD) for
teachers, health-related fitness assessments, and associated
motivational recognition for students, as well as by encouraging
communication with students and family. Given the potential
A-40 RQES: 2015 CONVENTION SUPPLEMENT
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