SSC

7Loc a l Resist a nc e i n t h e Er a of C a pi t a l ist G l ob a l i z a ti o n: C l a sh of C ul t ures i n t h e 2 1 st C e nt ury

Local Resistance in the Era of Capitalist Globalization:

Clash of Cultures in the 21st Century

W it h t h e c o ll a pse o f t h e a lt ern a t ive id e o log i es o f t h e 2 0t h c e nt ury, c a p it a lism h a s h a d severa l de c a d es o f uno p pose d inf lu e nc e a cross th e g lo b e . Th is h a s h a d a n in cre a sing resu lt o f c h a n g ing t h e lives o f p e o p l e in t h e mo ld o f t h e w est t o t h e d ism a y o f m a ny p e o p l e . N o id e o lo gy u n it es t h e m , no int ern a t io n a l org a n iz a t io n c a n prot e c t t h e m from a rmi es a nd c orpora t e milit i a s a nd d e a t h squ a ds. N a t io n a l governm e nts c a ll t hose w ho resist “ terrorists” a nd so c l ass a ny a c tio ns o f se lf-de f e nse . W e h a ve ent ere d a n era of g lob a l co n f lict b e tw e e n tra d it io n a l p e op l e a nd c orpora tio ns w h ere o n e w a y o f lif e is b e ing e xt ermin a t e d . W h il e it is in g e n era l a c o nt inu a t io n o f t h e a ss a u lt o f w est ern c o lo n i a lism , t o d a y ’s in d ig e nous re b e ls, inst e a d o f b e ing c o nsid ere d d evil w orsh ip ers, a re no w o f te n se e n a s min io ns of t error. Po lit ic a l re b e llio ns, arm e d g a ngs a n d dru g lords a n d re lig ious t errorism a p pe a r t o f orm a ra ng e o f typ es w it h c o nqu est o f t errit ory t h e go a l o n t h e o n e e nd a nd o p era t io n a l int e grity (e . g . , busin ess) o n t h e ot h er a s in o lig a rc hs morp h ing int o w a rlords a nd presid e nts ( a s in C h e c h ny a a nd Ukra in e). At t he s a m e time , intern a t io n a l co nfro nt a t io ns a nd c ompe tition f or resourc es a re esc a l a t in g . Th e d e f e a t o f t h e USSR is o f t e n d escrib e d a s a “ c o ll a pse ” o f a ut hority a n d tra nsit io n t o a n e w c ivil e nt ity, Russi a , but lik e t h e d e f e a t o f t h e O t t om a n Emp ire , it h a s resu lt e d in t h e d ism e mb erm e nt o f t h e Sovi e t Emp ire . W h il e t h e M idd l e E a st re m a ins u nst a b l e 1 0 0 ye a rs a f t er t h e O t t om a n d e f e a t , t h e Russi a n p erip h ery h a s b e c om e u nst a b l e in bot h in d e p e nd e n c e move m e nts a lo ng its so ut h ern bord ers a s w e ll a s t hose f l a n k in g Euro p e . Th e d e mise o f bot h e mp ires t hre a t e ns t h e st a b ility o f t h e w orld t o d a y.

© 2 0 1 5 N i cc ol o C a l d a r a ro . A l l Ri g hts Reserv e d .

Niccolo Ca ld a raro*

* L e ct urer, D e p a rt m e nt of A nt hrop ol ogy, S a n Fr a ncisc o St a t e U niv ersi ty, S a n Fr a ncisc o , C a l i f orni a , U SA . E-m a i l : c a l d a r a ro @ a ol . c o m

Introduction To d ay, w e f i n d a risi n g t hre a t t o t h e d a i ly l if e o f p e o pl e fro m t errorism a n d a n t i -t error a ct ivit i es by g overn m e n ts. Ye t t h e o n ly org a n iz e d resist a n c e t o gl o b a l d eve l o p m e n t exercise d by tr a nsn a t i o n a l c orpor a t i o ns, dru g g a n gs a n d d e a t h squ a ds a n d t h e n a t i o ns fro m w h ic h t h e ir po w er h as rise n , is i n cre asi n gly se e n by t h e p o or a n d dispossesse d o f t h e w orl d as a l - Q a e d a or si m i l a r e n t it i es. Si m i l a r l o c a l o f fsh o o ts l ik e ISIS / IS h ave a lso a pp e a re d , t h o u gh re m n a n ts o f M a o ist m ove m e n ts p ersist i n so m e a re as as i n In di a w it h t h e N axa l it es. 1 , 2 O t h er g u erri l l a gro u ps a re re m n a n ts o f st a t es f a i l e d i n t h e C o l d Wa r stru ggl e as i n t h e c ase o f So m a l i a a n d Ye m e n . Ye t a ro un d

1 K Bal agopal (1 9 8 7), “A Tale of Arson” , Economic a nd Political Weekly, Vol. 2 2, N o. 2 9, July 1 8, pp. 1 1 6 9-1 1 7 1. 2 D Ti l a k G upt a (2 0 0 6), “ M a oism i n Indi a : Id e ol ogy, Progr a m m e a nd A rm e d Strug gl e ” , Eco nomic a n d

Po lit ic a l We e kly, Vol . 4 1 , N o . 2 9 , July 2 2 - 2 8 , p p . 3 1 7 2 - 3 1 7 6 .

Th e IU P Jo urn a l of Int ern a ti o n a l Re l a ti o ns, Vol . IX , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 58

t h e w orl d, fro m t h e uprisin gs i n Indi a by tr a dit io n al p e ople a g ai nst t h e Ve d a nt a m in in g a n d deve lo p m e nt sc h e m es, 3 th e N go be -Bu gl e Indi a n tri be i n Pa n a m a , to t h e rec en t m assa cre i n th e A m a zo n as provin c e of Peru , n a tive pe ople are strivin g t o pro te ct th eir l a n ds fro m reso urce extr act io n a n d e nviro n m en t al pol l ut io n . 4 We h ave e nt ere d a n er a o f gl ob a l co n fl ict b et w e en tr a diti on al pe ople a n d corpora t io ns w h ere on e w ay of l if e is be in g ext erm in at e d. W hi l e it is i n ge n er al a co nt i nu at io n o f th e ass a ult of w est ern c ol on i a l ism , to d ay ’s i ndig e no us re be ls, i nste a d of b e in g c onsi dered d evi l w orsh ip ers as th ey w ere i n t h e p ast , a re n ow of te n se e n as mi ni o ns o f t error. Th e roo ts o f c on te mp ora ry terror are no t j ust se e n i n th e disorder cre a te d by co lo ni a lism , but i n t h e very f orm it h as t ak e n . S a u di Wa hh a bism w as bro ught t o p ow er by t h e British i n t h e ir su pport o f A bd a l-Aziz or Ibn Sa ud with a rms a nd a dvic e be fore th e F irst Worl d War t o u nd ermi n e O t t o m a n a t te mpts to suppress th e vi o le nt f a n a ticism of A bd al - Wa h h a b a nd M u h a m m a d Ib n Sa ’ ud t h a t f ol l ow ed t h eir uprisin gs af ter 1 74 6. 5 ,6 W h a t is co n tr a dict ory is th at w h il e t h e w est c o nc en tr a tes o n mi lit a n t gro ups i n va rio us Isl a mic c ou ntries th a t are f ig ht i ng f or Sh ari a l a w a nd a n Isl a mic st a te , t his is w h at Sa udi A ra bi a h as n ow a n d h as pro m ot ed a bro a d thro ug h its do n a ti o ns, forei gn ai d a n d e du c at io n a l f ou nd at i on a ct ivity. But as D or a n 7 n ot es, th e Sa u di govern m e nt h as a l on g history o f pro m o t in g co nserv a tive Isl a m , tryi ng to b a l a nc e its ro le i n a sec u l a r a nd C hrist i a n do m in at e d w orld a nd ye t a tt em pt i n g to l i mit t h e rol e o f Shi a Isl a m .

Th e c o nse qu e n c es o f t h is su pp ort h ave st e m m e d fro m t h e cre a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l it a ri a n st a t e o f t h e S a u dis a n d t h e spre a d o f f a n a t ic Wa h h a bism by t h e use o f o i l m o n ey. In t h e p ast t w o d e c a d es, i n t ern a t i o n a l c o n fro n t a t i o ns a n d c o m p e t it i o n f or reso urc es h ave esc a l a t e d . C urre n t ass a u lts o n n a t i o n a l t errit ori es fro m Ye m e n t o C o l u m bi a i n se a rc h o f a p a cif ic a t i o n o f a ct ivit i es t h a t a re se e n as “ t errorist ” a n d i n c o nsist e n t w it h gl o b a l c a pit a l ism o f t e n re f l e ct a pro c ess o f re pressi o n o f l o c a l po l it ic a l resist a n c e t o d eve l o p m e n t . A ct ors a re fre qu e n t ly l e f t l it t l e re c o urse t o p e a c e f u l ly resist a f t er c orru pt l e g a l pro c esses d e ny t h e ir st a n di n g t o bl o ck d eve l o p m e n t . Th ese pressures a re b o u n d t o g e t h er as i n t h e c ase o f S a u di -b ase d Wa h h a bi prose lyt izi n g a n d re gi o n a l (e . g. , Egypt i a n b o m b a rd m e n t o f S a ’ d a h) a n d i n t ern a t i o n a l i n t erve n t i o n (Sovi e t a n d A m eric a n cl i e n t su pport). 8 Ye m e n w as divi d e d i n t o n ort h a n d so u t h p ort i o ns b e t w e e n t h e Brit ish (so u t h) a n d O t t o m a n (n ort h) a t t h e b e gi n n i n g o f t h e 2 0 th c e n t ury. M a i n resist a n c e t o o u tsi d e c o n tro l , w h e t h er

3 A n o nym o us (2 0 1 4), “Indi a —‘ F oi l Ve d a nt a ’ Prot ests Erupt i n D e l hi ” , Th e Eco lo g ist , July 7 , a v a i l a bl e a t h t t p : / / w w w . t h e e c o l o g i s t . o r g / N e w s / n e w s _ r o u n d _ u p / 2 4 9 9 8 1 0 / i n di a _f oi l_v e d a nt a _ pro t es ts_ erup t_i n_d e l hi . ht m l

4 A l e x L é t o urn e a u (2 0 1 4 ), “Il l e g a l Mi ni ng Sev e re ly Im p a cti ng P er uvi a n Enviro n m e nt ” , F orb es, J uly 4 , a v a i l a b l e a t ht t p : / / w w w. f o rb es. c o m / s i t e s / k i t c o n e w s / 2 0 1 4 / 0 7 / 0 4 / i l l e g a l - m i n i ng-s ev e re l y- i m p a ct i n g- p er uvi a n - e nvi ro n m e nt /

5 Aym a n S A l -Ya ssi ni (1 9 8 2), “ S a udi A r a bi a : Th e Ki ng d o m of Isl a m” , i n C a rl o C a l d a rol a (Ed .), Re lig io ns a n d So cie t ies: Asi a a nd t h e M idd le E a st , p p . 6 1 - 8 4 , Mo ut o n Press, Berl i n .

6 Rob ert W i lso n a nd Fre e t h Z a hr a (1 9 8 3), Th e Ar a b o f t h e D esert , A l l e n a nd U nw i n , Lo nd o n . 7 Mi c h a e l Sc ott D or a n (2 0 0 4), “ Th e S a udi Pa r a d ox” , Fore ig n A ff a irs, Vol . 8 3 , N o . 1 , p p . 3 5 - 5 1 . 8 Aym a n H a m i di (2 0 0 9), “Inscri pti o ns of Vi ol e nc e i n N ort h ern Ye m e n: H a u nti ng H ist ori es, U nst a bl e Mor a l

Sp a c es” , M idd le E a st ern St u d ies, Vol . 4 5 , N o . 2 , p p . 1 6 5 - 1 8 7 .

9Loc a l Resist a nc e i n t h e Er a of C a pi t a l ist G l ob a l i z a ti o n: C l a sh of C ul t ures i n t h e 2 1 st C e nt ury

O t t o m a n i n t h e 1 6 th a n d 1 7 th c e n t uri es or Brit ish , h as b e e n fro m t h e Z aydi . Ye t Z aydi i n f l u e n c e h as b e e n c o n t est e d by Su n n i Wa h h a bi fro m S a u di A r a bi a a n d t h a t c o n f l ict h as c o n t i n u e d t o t h e prese n t . 9 Th e prese n t H o u t h i risi n g c a n b e se e n as a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h is c o n f l ict . A n d t h e S a u dis h ave n o t esc a p e d t h e c o nse qu e n c es o f t h is exp ort f a n a t icism , as H e ggh a m m er1 0 n o t es, t h e rise o f t h e S a h w a m ove m e n t i n t h e e a rly 1 9 9 0s, esp e ci a l ly a f t er t h e a rriv a l o f U S tro o ps i n t h e G u lf Wa rs, l e d t o risi n g t e nsi o ns a n d vi o l e n t c o n fro n t a t i o ns.

Th e n eg ative effe cts of culture ch a n ge att end a nt to col oni alism h ave long be en rec ognize d. Bodl ey11 h as publish ed a n effect ive cross-sect ion of th ese effects of interventions. Educ ation h as be en on e elem ent in this process, p artly positive in producing a tr ain ed n ative c a dre for p ostcol oni al a d a pt a tion , but in m a ny c ases, as G o ody12 h as show n fro m West Afric a , individu als beco m e educ a ted but c a n f ind no jobs, yet do not wish to re turn h o m e to f arm w ork a n d often f ail to pro duce t h e tra dition a l h elp a nd aid for p a rents a nd f a mily. In this cont ext, th e respo nse of Boko H ara m c a n be se en , not as a m indless reje ction of w estern kno wledge a nd tra ining in tech nic al skills, but as frustratio n w it h th e econo mic a n d soci al consequ en ces of such traini ng.

Th e a pp e a r a n c e o f ISIL / IS / ISIS p a r a l l e ls t h e evo l u t i o n o f so m e o t h er re b e l gro u ps i n t h e p ast f ive d e c a d es w h ere so ci a l issu es a re tr a nsf orm e d by re pressi o n i n t o a rm e d stru ggl e a n d t h e n su pport f or m i l it a ry i n fr astru ct ure a n d m a t eri a l re qu ires e c o n o m ic a ct ivit i es l ik e k i d n a ppi n g, dru g tr a d e , b a nk ro bb ery, sm u ggl i n g, esp e ci al ly i n reso urc e extr a ct i o n (l o ggi n g , o i l , m i n er a ls, e t c .) a n d sh a d o w b a n k i n g . A re c e n t re port o n ISIS’s o i l tr a di n g a rg u es t h a t it h as t a k e n over pre - exist i n g n e t w orks o f o i l sm u ggl i n g i n Ir a q a n d Syri a , bu t ISIS’s po l it ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic so p h ist ic a t i o n a pp e a rs t o o u tstri p c o nve n t i o n a l re b e l a n d cri m i n a l g a n g c o m pl exity. 1 3 U su al ly th e evo lu t io n o f cri mi n a l g a n gs fro m i ll eg al act ivities, as in alc ohol i n th e USA in th e 1 920s a nd th e 1930s, to legitim ate investm ents took n ew forms in th e post-WWII period w h ere drug lords, bec a use of t h e lon g exist ence o f th e drug w a r a nd i ncre ased dem a nd, be g a n to contro l exte nded territories of l a nd a n d busi n ess a cross countries lik e C ol u mbi a (se e F igure 1).1 4, 15 ,1 6 ISIL/ IS’s co mpl exity belies a lo ng er hist ory, on e th a t m ay b e p a rt o f st a te -spo nsored regio n a l w ars as in t h e C o n tr as i n C en tra l A m eric a or U N ITA in A ngol a . 1 7

9 Ki ng J a m es Robi n (2 0 1 2), “ Z a ydi Re viv a l i n a H osti l e Re p ubl i c: C o m p e ti ng Id e nti ti es , Loy a l ti e s a nd Visi o ns of St a t e i n Re p ubl i c a n Ye m e n” , Ar a b ic a , Vol . 5 9 , p p . 4 0 4 - 4 4 5 .

1 0 Th o m a s H e g g h a m m er (2 0 0 8), “Isl a m ist Vi ol e nc e a nd Re gi m e St a bi l i ty i n S a udi A r a bi a ” , Int ern a t io n a l A ff a irs, Vol . 8 4 , N o . 4 , p p . 7 0 1 - 7 1 5 .

1 1 Jo h n H Bodl ey (1 9 8 8), Trib a l Pe o p les a n d D eve lo pm e nt Issu es, M a yfi e l d Publ ishi ng, Mo u nt a i n Vi e w, C A . 1 2 J a ck G o o dy ( 1 9 8 7), Th e Int er f a c e B e t w e e n t h e Wr it t e n a n d t h e O r a l , C a m bri d g e U niv ers i ty P ress,

C a m br i d g e . 1 3 Borzo u D a rag a hi a nd Erik a Solom on (2 0 1 4), “ Fue ll ing Isis Inc .” , Th e Fina ncia l Times, Monday, Se pte mber 2 2. 1 4 Bruc e B a gl ey (1 9 8 8), “ C ol o m bi a a nd t h e Wa r o n Drugs” , Fore ig n A ff a irs, Vol . 6 7 , N o . 1 , p p . 7 0 - 9 2 . 1 5 Raf a el Pard o (2 0 0 0), “ C ol o mbi a’s Tw o-Fro nt War ” , Fore ig n A ffa irs, Vol. 7 9 , N o . 4 , p p. 6 4 - 7 3 . 1 6 U ni t e d St a t es D e p a rt m e nt of t h e Tre a sury (2 0 0 4), “ Tre a sury D esi g n a t es Fi n a nci a l We b of C ol u m bi a n

Drug Lords” , Press C e nt er, O ffi c e of Publ i c A ff a irs, Se pt e m b er 1 4 , a v a i l a bl e a t htt p : / / w w w. tre a sury. g ov / p r ess - c e n t er / p r ess -re l e a se s / P a g e s / j s 1 9 1 5 . a s px

1 7 Id e a n S al e hy a n (2 0 1 0), “ Th e D e l e ga ti o n of War t o Re b e l O rg a ni z a ti o ns” , Th e Jo urn a l o f C o n flict Resolut io n , Vol . 5 4 , N o . 3 , p p . 4 9 3 - 5 1 5 .

Th e IU P Jo urn a l of Int ern a ti o n a l Re l a ti o ns, Vol . IX , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 51 0

W h a t is n e w is t h e ov erw h e l m i n g u n i f o rm i ty o f o pp osi t i o n t o l o c a l c o n tro l a n d d e m o cr a cy by c orpo r a t e po w er. Res is t a n c e h as t a k e n t h e f o rm , i n t h e w orl d pr ess, as t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f dru g w a r, r e l i gi o u s t erro r a n d n e w m e di a . Bu t w h a t s e e ms a lso t o b e i gn or e d is t h a t e ve ry w h e re i n t h e w o rl d w h e re t h er e is c h a n g e driv e n by g l o b a l e c o n o m ics, t h ere is u nr es t , a n d t h is u n res t is a pro bl e m f or t h e Wes t as it is f or C h i n a a n d o t h er “Bri cs” , a n d y e t it is a n o p port u n i ty f o r r e l i g i o u s m i l it a n ts l ik e a l - Q a e d a f or i t c o u l d f orm t h e b as is f or a n e w i d e o l o g ic a l c h a l l e n g e t o C h rist i a n c a pi t a l is m , a s w e l l as st a t e c a p it a l ism (w h e t h er i d e o l o g ic a l as i n C h i n a , or o p po rt u n ist a s i n Russi a) a n d “Th ird ” f orm s o f c a pi t a l is m as i n J a p a n , a n d so ci a l d e m o cr a t i c c a p it a l ism ( N G O p h i l a n t h ro py su pp ort e d by l a rg e so ve re i gn f u n ds as t h a t o f N orw a y). A l l t h es e f or ms a r e l i n k e d i n a n i d e o l o gy o f pro gre ss a n d d e ve l o p m e n t . Th is “ ev eryw h er e ” is n o t j u st t h e h i n t e rl a n ds, b u t t h e m assive “ u n d erd ev e l o p e d ” s l u m s a n d s h a n t yt o w n s t h a t su rro u n d t h e c it i es o f t h e 2 1 st

c e n t u ry. 1 8 Th e o rg a n i z a t i o n o f f o rms o f re b e l l i o n c a n b e pl a c e d i n t o a r a n g e o f t yp es b a se d o n ori g i ns , su pp o rt a n d e n ds (s e e F i gu re 2).

Figure 2: O rg anization of Forms of Rebellion in the 21st Century

Dru g G a n gs W a rl ords D e a t h Sq u a ds Id e o l o g i c a l Re b e ls Re l i g i o us

En tr e pr e n e uri a l ******** C o l d W a r or C o l o n i a l , St a t e *****In d i g e n o us

So c i a l U nr e st → Re b e l l i o n → W a rl ords → Dru g W a r → Te rrorism

So c i a l U nr e st → Re b e l l i o n → Se iz ur e o f Po w e r → Pro tr a ct e d C ivi l W a r

Figure 1: Fra gmentation of Mexico by Drug Lords

1 8 Rob ert N e uw irt h (2 0 0 6), Sh a do w C it ies: A Billio n Squ a t t ers, a N e w Urb a n World , Ro utl e d g e , N e w York .

Source : F in a n ci a l Tim es, M a y 8 , 2 0 1 5

1 1Loc a l Resist a nc e i n t h e Er a of C a pi t a l ist G l ob a l i z a ti o n: C l a sh of C ul t ures i n t h e 2 1 st C e nt ury

W h i l e t h e c o m bi n a t i o n o f t error a n d dru gs is n o t n e w, h avi n g b e c o m e a re l a t ive ly su cc essf u l busi n ess pl a n a m o n g L a t i n A m eric a n re b e ls o f l e f t a n d ri g h t , 1 9 t h e c o m bi n a t i o n o f t h ese m e t h o ds a n d a re l i gi o us, a n d n o t sp e cif ic a l ly po l it ic a l i d e o l o gy, h as b e gu n a n e w tre n d . 2 0 Th ese o f t e n h ave t h e c h a r a ct er o f t h e m i l l e n a ri a n m ove m e n ts o f t h e 1 9 th a n d e a rly 2 0 th c e n t uri es, esp e ci a l ly t h ose o f M e l a n esi a 2 1 bu t t h e ir l e a d ersh i p a n d t h e ir w e a p o ns a n d m e t h o ds a re sp e cif ic a l ly a pro du ct o f gl o b a l t e c h n o l o gy a n d l a t e m o d ern ity gro u p org a n iz a t i o n , m ost n o t a bly i n t h e re c e n t tr a nsf orm a t i o n o f a bre a k a w ay gro u p fro m a l - Q a e d a i n t h e f orm o f ISIS / IS. Th ey sh o w p a r a l l e ls d espit e dif f ere n t re l i gi o us cl o t h i n g , as i n t h e c ase o f t h e Lord’s Resist a n c e A rmy i n U g a n d a a n d its c o m bin a t i o n o f l o c al h ist ory o f th e A c h ol i sp e ak ers a n d m i l l e n a ri a n C hrist i a n ity. 2 2 , 2 3 Su ppressi o n o f i n di g e n o us re l i gi o us m ove m e n ts i n c o l o n i a l possessi o ns (e . g . , A fric a a n d M e l a n esi a) h as pro du c e d m u lt i pl e l o c a l a n d re gi o n a l re b e l l i o ns. 2 4

So ci al ist a n d co m m u n ist m ove m e n ts a t t e m pt e d t o u n it e i n di g e n ous m ove m e nts i n a c o h ere n t i d e o l o gy i n t h e 2 0 th c e n t ury, b u t w ere l a rg e ly c o o pt e d by t h e n a t i o n a l ism o f t h e F irst a n d Se c o n d Worl d Wa rs. N o i d e o l o gic a l or po l it ic a l m ove m e n t h as su cc e e d e d i n pro du ci n g c o nstru ct ive m e a ns o f i n t erve n t i o n o n b e h a lf o f l o c a l c o m m u n it i es a n d i n di g e n o us p e o pl es. In divi du a l n a t i o ns h ave b e e n a bl e t o bl o ck i n t ern a t i o n a l a g e n ci es’ e f f orts as h ave m u lt i n a t i o n a l c orpor a t i o ns i n c a n c e l i n g l e g a l re dress. 2 5 , 2 6 W h ere l a w a n d di pl o m a cy h ave f a i l e d , w h a t a re t h e a lt ern a t ives? O n e c o u l d i m a gi n e a n e w m ove m e n t l ik e t h e K h m er Ro u g e o n ly pro j e ct e d i n t ern a t i o n a l ly w h ere t h e m a i n i d e o l o gic a l i d e a is t h e pro t e ct i o n o f i n di g e n o us c u lt ure a n d l o c a l c o n tro l c o u c h e d i n a po l it ic a l a n a lysis w h ere w e a lt h i n e q u a l ity a n d a n i d e n t if i e d tr a nsn a t i o n a l ru l i n g e l it e a re pict ure d as t h e e n e my. Th is is n o t f a r fro m t h e w orl d vi e w o f Bo k o H a r a m . A si m i l a r re j e ct i o n o f w est ern e du c a t i o n a n d c u lt ure a pp e a re d i n w h a t C a l d a ro l a 2 7 c a l l e d t h e “ M o d ern ist ” p eri o d o f Isl a m ic h ist ory, esp e ci a l ly i n t h e writ i n gs o f a l - A f g h a n i a n d M u h a m m a d A bd u h . Bu t t h ere is n o t h i n g n e w a bo u t t h is sit u a t i o n a n d re m i n ds o n e i m m e di a t e ly o f t h e sit u a t i o n i n t h e f irst c e n t ury o f o ur

1 9 W i l l i a m M L e o G r a n d e a n d Ke n n e t h E S h a r p e ( 2 0 0 0) , “ Tw o Wa rs o r O n e ? Dr ugs , G u erri l l a s, a nd C ol o m bi a ’s N e w Vi ol e nci a ” , World Po licy Jo urn a l, Vol . 1 7 , N o . 3 , p p . 1 - 1 1 .

2 0 St e p h e n El l is a nd G erri e t er H a a r (2 0 0 4), Worlds o f Po w er, Re lig io us Tho u g ht a n d Po lit ic a l Pr a ct ice in A fric a , O xf ord U niv ersi ty Press, N e w York .

2 1 A n n e m a ri e d e Wa a l M a l e fi j t (1 9 6 8), Re lig io n a n d C u lt ure : A n Intro du ct io n t o t h e A nt hro po lo gy o f Re lig io n , M a c Mi l l a n .

2 2 Fr a nk Va n A ck er (2 0 0 4), “ U g a nd a a nd t h e Lord ’s Resist a nc e A rmy: Th e N e w O rd er N o O n e O rd ere d ” , A fric a n A ff a irs, Vol . 1 0 3 , N o . 4 1 2 , p p . 3 3 5 - 3 5 7 .

2 3 A l fre d G N h e m a (2 0 0 8), Th e Reso lut io n o f A fric a n C o n flicts: Th e M a n a g e m e nt o f C o n flict Reso lut io n & Post-C o n flict Re co nstru ct io n , O hi o U niv ersi ty Press.

2 4 Bri a n Morris (2 0 0 6), Re lig io n a nd A nt hro po lo gy: A Crit ic a l Intro du ct io n , U niv ersi ty of C a m bri d g e Press, C a m br i d g e .

2 5 A m a n G upt a (2 0 0 5), H um a n Rig hts o f In d ig e no us Pe o p les, Ish a Bo oks, D e l hi . 2 6 H u m a n Ri g hts Wa tc h (2 0 0 1), Vio le n ce a n d Po lit ic a l Imp a sse in Pa pu a , Vol . 2 0 , N o . 1 0 , July. 2 7 C a rl o C a l d a rol a (1 9 8 2), “Introd ucti o n” , i n C a rl o C a l d a rol a (Ed .), Re lig io ns a n d So cie t ies: Asi a a nd t h e

M idd le E a st , p p . 9 - 5 8 , Mo ut o n Publ ish ers, Berl i n .

Th e IU P Jo urn a l of Int ern a ti o n a l Re l a ti o ns, Vol . IX , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 51 2

c o m m o n er a w h e n m i l l i o ns o f J e ws h a d f l e d re l i gi o us i n t o l er a n c e , po l it ic a l c h a os a n d tri b a l c o n f l ict t h a t l e d t o t h e Ro m a n o cc u p a t i o n a n d l a t er t h e t w o “ i nsurg e n t ” w a rs a g a i nst f a n a t ic n a t i o n a l ists. 2 8 W h a t is si gn if ic a n t is t h e f a i l ure o f t h e w est t o c o nsi d er t h e c a uses o f t h e c urre n t risi n g su cc esses o f i nsurg e n ts t o re cru it a n d exp a n d t h e ir o p er a t i o ns. Th e f a ct t h a t a l - Q a e d a ’s N ort h A fric a n br a n c h a pp e a rs t o b e e n g a g e d i n tr a nsport i n g dru gs as re port e d by D evl i n Ba rre t t (Asso ci a t e d Press, D e c e m b er 1 9 , 2 0 0 9) is o n ly a n a t ur a l evo l u t i o n o f t h e bl i n dn ess t h a t a f f l icts West ern govern m e n ts. In A m eric a , t h e w a r o n dru gs h as t urn e d m ost o f So u t h a n d C e n tr a l A m eric a i n t o a b a t t l ef i e ld a n d, a l li e d w it h t h e op er at i o ns o f a u t h orit i es u n der th e P atri o t A ct, erod es A m eric a n civi l l i b ert i es.

A n t i -k n o w l e dg e or sci e n c e m ove m e n ts a re n o t r a re i n t h e h ist ory o f o t h er se cts o f t h e Ju d e o - C hrist i a n tr a dit i o n as t h e h ist ory o f t h e In q u isit i o n d e m o nstr a t es, or t h e a cts d uri n g t h e 3 0 Ye a rs Wa r a n d o t h er p eri o ds duri n g t h e Pro t est a n t Re f orm a t i o n , or t h e a n t i - C a t h o l ic vi o l e n c e a n d d estru ct i o n o f t h e m o n ast eri es d uri n g t h e En gl ish Revo l u t i o n . P a r a l l e ls c a n a lso b e se e n i n A m eric a i n t h e vi o l e n c e o f t h e F irst a n d Se c o n d G re a t A w a k e n i n g or t h e p urgi n g o f t e a c h ers a n d sci e n t ists i n t h e 1 9 5 0s duri n g t h e Re d Sc a re a n d H o use U n - A m eric a n A ct ivit i es C o m m it t e e . M urd er a n d vi o l e n c e h ave c h a r a ct eriz e d t h e f a n a t icism o f t h e a n t i - a bort i o n m ove m e n t w it h t h e k i l l i n g o f d o ct ors, bo m bi n g o f cl i n ics a n d h o m es o f Pl a n n e d P a re n t h o o d w ork ers a n d su pp ort ers a cross t h e c o u n try, esp e ci a l ly i n t h e 1 9 8 0s a n d t h e 1 9 9 0s. 2 9 , 3 0

To g e t h er c o u n t er-i nsurg e n cy o p er a t i o ns a n d dru g er a dic a t i o n a n d i n t erdict i o n ass a u lts h ave t urn e d t h e w orl d i n t o a n o p e n A m eric a n a t t a ck pl a n . Th e f a l l o u t fro m t h ese o p er a t i o ns, n o t o n ly i n l oss o f l ives b u t i n c o m e a n d t h e c h a os a n d c orru pt i o n t h a t h as fo l l o w e d, is cre a t i n g t h e n e w a rmi es t h at A m eric a a n d t h e w est f a ce everyd ay i n n e w f i e l ds o f resist a n c e . M ost o f t h e c asu a lt i es h ave b e e n i n tri b a l a re as or w h ere tri b a l po pu l a t i o ns h ave b e e n presse d i n t o urb a n m asses. Th e c o n dit i o ns o f l if e i n t h ese a re as o n ly f u e l re b e l l i o n m ore . As D u pre e 3 1 n o t e d i n h is w ork o n A f gh a n ist a n i n t h e 1 9 7 0s, it h as b e e n t h e f a n t asi es o f t h e w est over dru gs a n d tri b es t h a t h ave l e d t o t h e m ost seri o us dis ast ers a n d m ist a k es i n f ore i g n po l icy i n t h e p ast 2 0 0 ye a rs. Th e It a l i a n exa m pl e i n Li by a is a n i nstru ct ive o n e 3 2 a n d i n f orms us o f t h e p a t t ern i n o t h er l o c a t i o ns as i n t h e Be l gi a n C o n go or i n t h e A m eric as i n t h e ext erm i n a t i o n a n d p a cif ic a t i o n o f n a t ive p e o pl es duri n g c o l o n i a l ism . 3 3 , 3 4

2 8 Jose p h us Ti t us Fl a vi us (1 9 5 9), Th e Je w ish Wa r, Pe ng ui n C l a ssi cs, Pe ng ui n , Lo nd o n . 2 9 M erl e H off m a n , L a ur a Fl a nd ers a nd Rut h Rose n (2 0 0 1), “ We l c o m e t o My Worl d ” , Wom e n’s Revie w o f

Bo o ks, p p . 8 - 9 . 3 0 Terri Sol l u m a nd Pa tri ci a D o n ov a n (1 9 8 5), “ St a t e L a ws a nd t h e Provisi o n of F a m i ly Pl a n ni ng a nd A b orti o n

Servi c es i n 1 9 8 5 ” , F a mily Pl a n n ing Persp e ct ives, Vol . 1 7 , N o . 6 , p p . 2 6 2 - 2 6 6 . 3 1 Lo uis D upre e a nd Li n e tt e A l b ert (1 9 7 4), A fg h a n ist a n in t h e 1 9 7 0s, Pr a e g er Press, N e w York . 3 2 E E Ev a ns-Pri tc h a rd (1 9 5 4), Th e Sa nusi o f Cyre n ic a , Th e C l a re nd o n Press, O xf ord . 3 3 Tzv e t a n Tod orov (1 9 8 4), Th e C o nqu est o f A m eric a , H a rp er Pere n ni a l , N e w York . 3 4 Jo h n H e m m i ng (1 9 7 8), Re d G o ld: Th e C o n qu est o f t h e Br a z ili a n In d i a ns, 1 5 0 0-1 7 6 0 , H a rv a rd U niv ersi ty

Press , C a m bri d g e .

1 3Loc a l Resist a nc e i n t h e Er a of C a pi t a l ist G l ob a l i z a ti o n: C l a sh of C ul t ures i n t h e 2 1 st C e nt ury

N i n e t e e n t h c e n t ury Euro p e a n d its c o l o n i a l spi n - o f fs s a w tri b a l ism as its m a i n e n e my. To e l i m i n a t e l o c a l p o w er stru ct ures—k i nsh i p re l a t i o ns—w o u l d resu lt i n a cc u lt ur a t i o n a n d ord er. Th is h as l a rg e ly b e e n t h e str a t e gy a n d r a t i o n a l e f or gl o b a l ism a n d st ayi n g in b oth Ir a q a nd Afgh a nist a n . Elim in ate trib al ism a n d you get doci le w ork ers, m ore profit a nd a n end to resist a nce a nd terror. Inste a d, th e 21st cen tury is re a ping a h arvest of uprisi ngs driven a n d m a gn ified by th e very a ccultur ation th at w as expect ed to b e so p ositive (prof it a ble?). Dru gs a nd m on ey pl ay a signif ic a nt role in th e acceleration of th at process. Th e intensity of th e rebellion h as cre ated a det ermin ed a nd w ell- org a nized m odel se en i n Syri a espe ci ally in th e destructio n of m ajor urb a n cent ers as in Ale ppo a n d D a m ascus w h ich presa ges future urb a n w arf are in o th er loc a tions as in N igeri a ’s K a n o . Th e n ature of th is resist a nc e c a n b e foun d in t h e f ai lure of n ation a l govern m ents as i n N igeri a to respon d pro a ctively to lo c al crisis, especi ally in t h e north e ast ern provinces a nd t o th e disrupt ions i n loc a l econo mic a n d politic al life by glob al invest m ent. Th e ass assin a tion of th e l e a der of Bok o H ara m a nd m a ny of his e arly foll ow ers is a po w erful m otiva tion h ere a nd c a n go f ar t o expl a in current con ditions.3 5

As so ci ol o gist M ax Web er3 6 no te d i n th e mi ddl e of th e 19 th ce nt ury, pe asa nts rem oved fro m t h eir l a n ds b e co m e do ci le a n d e asily a d a pt ed t o n ew f orms o f w ork , a nd St a rr3 7 , re f erri n g t o t h e e arly 20 th ce nt ury f ou nd t h a t th e i nve nt io n o f m ass m e di a m a d e th e m a n i pu l a ti o n of m asses of ro ot less pe opl e a n e f fe ct ive substitu t e for pol ic e a n d mil it ary acti on . C a n e tt i3 8 f oun d t h a t m ass m e di a c onditi on e d p eo ple to act as cro wd e le m e nts a nd h as pro m o te d a c onsci ousn ess o f cro wd i n m od ern socie ty. Th e l a ck o f re aso n a nd resp onse t o f act t h a t w e are se e in g i n A m eric a n p ol itic a l d eb at e is evi de nc e o f ho w f ar t h is h as deve l op ed . Fro m cro wd c o nsci o usn ess to m o b acti o n is on ly a sm al l ste p. M urdo ck w it h his Fox N e ws a nd M urphy o f Li berty N e ws i nsti ll t his w ay of t hi nk in g every d ay. Th is “ i nv asi on o f c orpor at e n ews” , as Edge cl if f e - Jo h nson 3 9 h as term e d it , h as t ak e n sh a pe l arg ely i n th e l ast tw o d ec a des. H o w ever, m e di a h as c o m e t o b e th e voice of n ot just n a ti ons, bu t rel igi ons a nd i d eo lo gi es. Th e cross-p urposes a n d n e w t ec hn i qu es se em t o b e c a p a ble of m ot iva ti n g pe opl e to m ass m urd er as i n Rw a nd a a nd t h e st at es of th e form er Yugosl avi a . H ow ever, a ll th at is m issin g is a m e a ns t o org a n iz e t his resist a n ce a n d for a l - Q a e d a -l ik e or Bok o H ar a m -l ik e org a niz a t io ns t o se e t h e opportu nity a n d t o f a bric a te a n i de o lo gy t h at c a n be tr a nsl a te d across c ultura l a nd re li gi ous b arriers. ISIL (or IS) h as pro du c ed a so ph ist ic at ed m e di a prese n ce o n th e In tern et a n d i n pu bl ic a ti o ns as i n its f in a n ci a l rep ort. 4 0 Th e o ut co m e of su ch a n 3 5 A bi m b ol a A d esoj i (2 0 1 0), “Th e Bok o H a r a m U prisi ng a nd Isl a m i c Revi t a l ism i n N i g eri a ” , A fric a Sp e ctrum ,

Vol . 4 5 , N o . 2 , p p . 9 5 - 1 0 8 . 3 6 M ax We b er (1 9 5 8), Th e Prot est a nt Et h n ic a n d t h e Sp irit o f C a p it a lism , Tr a ns. Ta l c ott Pa rso ns, t h e Scri b n er

Li br a ry, N e w York . 3 7 K evi n St a rr (1 9 8 5), Inve nt ing t h e Dre a m , O xf ord U niv ersi ty Press, O xf ord . 3 8 El i a s C a n e tti (1 9 6 2), Cro w ds a nd Po w er, Vi k i ng Press, N e w York . 3 9 Andre w Ed gecliffe - Joh nson (2 0 1 4), “ The Invasion of C orp ora te N ews” , Th e Fina ncia l Times, Septem ber 2 0. 4 0 Ro ul a Kh a l a f a nd S a m Jo n es (2 0 1 4), “ Se l l i ng Terror: H ow ISIS D e t a i ls i ts Brut a l i ty ” , Fin a n ci a l Tim es,

Ju n e 1 7 .

Th e IU P Jo urn a l of Int ern a ti o n a l Re l a ti o ns, Vol . IX , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 51 4

i de ol ogy m igh t be a co ll a pse of so ci a l co mpl exity i n urb a n w a rs, w h ere f a n a ticism a n d m il le n a ri a nism lik e th at o f t h e C hrist i a n righ t bl en d w it h t h e visio ns of a nu cl e a r a po c alypse . 4 1

U si n g re l i gi o n a n d i d e o l o gy as a w e a po n is n o t n e w a n d c urre n t ly t h e U S is e n g a g e d i n su c h a pro gr a m t h a t m ay b a ck f ire . M a j or G e n er a l D o u gl as St o n e t o l d re port er Wo o ds4 2 o f pl a ns d eve lo p e d by t h e U S A rmy t o u t i l iz e priso n ers i n t h e v ari o us c a m ps h e l d by t h e m i l it a ry f or a gr a n d re org a n iz a t i o n o f Isl a m i n t o a m ore p e a c e f u l re l i gi o n . Possessi n g a do ct or a t e i n pu bl ic a d m i n istr a t i o n , a n d a d e gre e fro m St a n f ord Busi n ess Sc h o o l a n d h avi n g m a d e a f ort u n e i n Si l ic o n Va l l ey, G e n er a l St o n e o u t l i n e d h o w t h e m i l it a ry w o u l d w i n t h e “ b a t t l e f i e l d o f t h e m i n d . ” U n d er h is dire ct i o n , m i l it a ry priso ns l ik e A b u G hr a i b w ere tr a nsf orm e d , a f t er 2 0 0 6 , i n t o se e i n g t h e ir d e t a i n e es as str a t e gic asse ts t h a t c o u l d b e resh a p e d t o spre a d t h e se e ds o f a n e w Isl a m t o t h e M i ddl e E ast a n d Asi a . A i d e d by t h e R a n d C orpor a t i o n , St o n e a n d t h e U S m i l it a ry h ave u n d ert a k e n a re - e du c a t i o n pro c ess a n d su cc essf u l ly re l e ase d t h e ir c h a rg es (priso n ers / st u d e n ts) b a ck t o t h e ir h o m e c o u n tri es. O f t h e 8 , 0 0 0 m e n re l e ase d si n c e 2 0 0 6 , o n ly 2 4 h ave b e e n re c a pt ure d , w h a t St o n e c o nsi d ers t o b e pro o f o f su cc ess, i n t erpre t i n g t h is as a re ci divism r a t e o f l ess t h a n 1%. W h i l e t h is i d e a o f St o n e ’s a n d t h e pro gr a m h e d escri b es m ay be si m ply a US m i l it a ry disi n f orm a t i on pro j e ct spe ci a l ly d esi gn e d t o discre dit t h ose re t urn i n g or t o i n cre ase suspici o ns a m o n g a n t i - U S gro u ps i n t h e M i ddl e E ast , t h e c o n c e pt is o f i n t erest as it re f l e cts f or t h e f irst t i m e i n h ist ory t h a t o n e m i l it a ry h as use d a re l i gi o us se ct as a c o u n t eri n t e l l i g e n c e m ove m e n t . Th e issu e o f e t h ics asi d e , t h e i d e a o f usi n g re l i gi o n as a w e a po n w i e l d e d by a n e n e my is d a n g ero us. Th o u gh duri n g t h e C o u n t er Re f orm a t i o n t h ere w ere so m e e f f orts t h a t c a m e cl ose to t h e ef f e ct if n o t t h e i n t e n t t h ey w ere h a rdly su cc essf u l . Th ere is a l i a bil ity t o t h e l e a d ers o f a l - Q a e d a , ISIS or Bo k o H a r a m . By di l u t i n g t h e ir m ess a g es t o e n c o m p ass su c h a w i d er i d e o l o gic a l p ersp e ct ive , t h ey m ay l ose t h e ir c ore po pu l a t i o n su pp ort . Lik e th e e a rl i er e f f ort o f t h e Sovie t C o m i n t ern , c o n trol o f l o c a lly a ppro pri a t e d issu es a n d m ove m e n ts is dif f ic u lt a n d c a n h ave c o nsi d er a bl e u n i n t e n d e d c o nse qu e nc es.

Disintegration of Empires: USSR and Ottoman Equals Chaos W h i l e it is cl e a r t h a t t h e c o l l a pse o f t h e O t t o m a n Em pire h as cre a t e d c o n t i n u i n g vi o l e nc e a n d u nrest over th e p ast 1 0 0 ye a rs, t h e dism e m b eri n g o f t h e U SSR is provi n g t o b e j ust as d est a bi l izi n g . Th is is tru e n o t j ust i n t h e v a ri o us u prisi n gs a g a i nst Russi a n do m i n a n c e as i n C h e c h ny a bu t t h e l i n g eri n g t e nsi o ns i n f orm er Sovi e t Re p u bl ics l ik e U kr a i n e . W h i l e re l i gi o n a n d a l a ck o f a h ist ory o f se lf -govern m e n t a re f a ct ors, so t o o is t h e h ist ory o f re pressi o n o f e t h n icity a n d l a n gu a g e . Th e se c o n d o u t c o m e is t h e d esire o f Russi a n po l it ici a ns a n d a se g m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o re cre a t e t h e

4 1 Se e Jo h n H a g e e (1 9 9 6), Be g in n ing o f t h e En d: Th e Assa ssin a t io n o f Yiz h a k Ra b in a n d t h e C omin g o f t h e A nt ichrist , Th o m a s N e lso n Publ ish ers, N a shvi l l e .

4 2 A ndre w Wo ods (2 0 0 8), “ Th e Busi n ess End ” , Pa rt I a nd Pa rt II, Th e Fin a n ci a l Tim es, Ju n e 2 8 .

1 5Loc a l Resist a nc e i n t h e Er a of C a pi t a l ist G l ob a l i z a ti o n: C l a sh of C ul t ures i n t h e 2 1 st C e nt ury

Sovi e t Em pire as is se e n t o d ay i n U kr a i n e . Th is l e a ds t o i n t ern a t i o n a l t e nsi o ns as t h e w est , w h ic h h as w o n t h e C o l d Wa r a n d i m pose d a n d overse e n t h e disi n t e gr a t i o n o f t h e U SSR, a t t e m pts t o ext e n d its c o n tro l as w it h its i nst it u t i o ns l ik e t h e Euro p e a n U n i o n a n d N AT O . O n e c a n s ay t h a t j ust as t h e O t t o m a n c o l l a pse disi n t e gr a t e d t h e m or a l a n d po l it ic a l tr a dit i o ns o f p e a c e f u l i n t er a ct i o n o f m i n orit i es b ase d o n t h e m i l l e t syst e m , 4 3 l e a di n g t o t h e p ast 1 0 0 ye a rs o f m i n ority vi o l e n c e t h a t h as l e d t o m ass a cres a n d t h e n t o t a l it a ri a n post c o l o n i a l re gi m es, t h e Sovi e t c o l l a pse h as prod u c e d a si m i l a r v a c u u m o f a u t h ority a n d c o o p er a t i o n l e a di n g t o e t h n ic vi o l e n c e fro m U kr a i n e t o C h ec hnya .

Th e m ost i m p ort a n t f a ct o f t h e c urre n t w orl d ord er is t h e pro bl e m o f t h e n a t i o ns o f t h e f orm er U SSR a n d t h e st a bi l ity o f Russi a . Russi a l a cks a n i n t ern a l l o gic or i d e o l o gy as bo t h t h e Russi a n Em pire a n d t h e U SSR w ere exp a nsi o n ist i n n a t ure . A va ri e ty o f t e nsio ns cre a t e a n opportu n ist n a t io n a l govern m e n t l e d by o li g a rchs o ft e n d erive d fro m t h e se c urity a pp a r a t us o f t h e U SSR, b u t re l i gi o n a n d k i nsh i p a re i n resurg e n t f orm i n Russi a as i n t h e f orm er Sovi e t Re p u bl ics. 4 4 , 4 5 We h ave t o k e e p i n m i n d t h a t t h e U SSR w as d e f e a t e d a n d dism e m b ere d bu t u n l ik e t h e exp eri e n c e o f t h e Turks w it h t h e d e f e a t o f t h e O t t o m a n Em pire , dism e m b erm e n t w as exp eri e n c e d a t a t i m e o f i nv asi o n o f t h e vict ori o us a l l i es o f Worl d Wa r I. Th a t i nv asi o n w as d e f e a t e d by Turk ish f orc es l e d by Ke m a l A t a t urk . Th e a bi l ity o f t h e Yo u n g Turks t o revit a l iz e Turk ey a n d d e f e a t t h e i nv asi o n is esse n t i a l t o u n d erst a n di n g c o n t e m por a ry Turk ey. It a lso i n f orms us o f Russi a t o d ay, as Russi a h as h a d n o u n ifyi n g f i g ure l ik e A t a t urk n or a c o h ere n t i d e o l o gy t o re pl a c e c o m m u n ism . It h as r a t h er i n so m e assessm e n ts b e c o m e a Kl e pt o cr a cy lik e so m e t h ird w orld st a tes t h at a re f a i l e d post c ol o n i a l e n t iti es, n o t eve n n a t i o ns. 4 6 , 4 7

As is, Russi a a pp e a rs as a m o d ern i n dustri a l iz e d n a t i o n w it h a f orm i d a bl e m i l it a ry bu t a sh a t t ere d civic l if e a n d po orly f u n ct i o n i n g i nst it u t i o ns. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , Turk ey se e ms t o b e d esc e n di n g i n t o a pro c ess t o reverse t h e w est ern iz a t i o n t h a t A t a t urk f ash i o n e d w it h a Presi d e n t w h o h as cre a t e d a po w erf u l f o u n d a t i o n fro m w h ic h t o ru l e t h e n a ti o n a n d m i m ic th e f orm er O t t o m a ns. W hi l e t h e Sovi e t U n i o n disi n t e gra t e d i n t o a n u m b er o f u nst a bl e st a t es o n t h e p eri p h ery o f Russi a w it h vi o l e n t eru pt i o ns pu n ct u a t i n g t h e tr a nsit i o n fro m c o m m u n ism , Turk ey exists surro u n d e d by t h e c h a os a n d re pressi o n t h a t t h e disi n t e gr a t i o n o f t h e O t t o m a n Em pire h as cre a t e d a n d b e e n sust a i n e d by t h e o cc u p a t i o n , bo t h m i l it a ry a n d e c o n o m ic , o f w est ern f orc es.

4 3 Yuc e l G ucl u (2 0 1 0), Arm e n i a ns a nd t h e A llies in C ilici a : 1 9 1 4-1 9 2 3 , U t a h Seri es i n Turk ish a nd Isl a m i c St udi es, U niv ersi ty of U t a h Press, S a l t L a k e C i ty.

4 4 G e e G re tc h e n Kn udso n (1 9 9 5), “ G e ogr a p hy, N a ti o n a l i ty a nd Re l i gi o n i n U kr a i n e : A Rese a rc h N ot e ” , Jo urn a l for t h e St u dy o f Re lig io n , Vol . 3 4 , N o . 3 , p p . 3 8 3 - 3 9 0 .

4 5 Ka t h eri n e R M e tz o (2 0 0 6), “ Exc h a ng e i n Buri a ti a : Mut u a l Sup p ort , Ind e bt e d n ess, a nd Ki nshi p” , Et h no lo gy, Vol . 4 5 , N o . 4 (F a l l), p p . 2 8 7 - 3 0 3 .

4 6 P a tri ci a G l ost er- C o a t es a nd Li nd a Q u est (2 0 0 5), “ Kl e pt ocr a cy: C urse of D ev e l op m e nt ” , Int ern a t io n a l So ci a l Scie n ce Revie w , Vol . 8 0 , N os. 1 & 2 , p p . 3 - 1 9 .

4 7 A ndre i Shl e i f er a nd D a vi d Tre ism a n (2 0 0 5), “A N orm a l C o u ntry: Russi a A ft er C o m m u nism” , Th e Jo urn a l o f Eco nomic Persp e ct ives, Vol . 1 9 , N o . 1 , p p . 1 5 1 - 1 7 4 .

Th e IU P Jo urn a l of Int ern a ti o n a l Re l a ti o ns, Vol . IX , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 51 6

Modernity and Rebellion We a re se e i n g a c o m bi n a t i o n o f e f f e cts, dru gs, re l i gi o n , i d e o l o gy a n d m ass m e di a , a l l pro m o t i n g a n t i -govern m e n t a ct i o n a n d dire ct e d t o w a rd sp e cif ic “ e n e m i es. ” Th e dru g w a r a n d exp a n di n g reso urc e expl o it a t i o n a re m o t iv a t i n g f a ct ors i n re b e l l i o n w orl dw i d e . W h a t e f f orts m i gh t d e f use t h e av a l a n c h e o f c o n f l ict? Mc D erm o t t 4 8 a n d H a tzf e l d 4 9 h ave do c u m e n t e d t h e pro c ess by w h ic h ordi n a ry p e o pl e b e c o m e t errorists i n a n e nviro n m e n t o f e c o n o m ic a n d po l it ic a l tr a nsf orm a t i o n . Th e U S i nv asi o ns o f Ir a q w it h t h e c o n t i n u e d o cc u p a t i o n o f m i l it a ry b ases i n t h e S a u di p e n i nsu l a a l o n g w it h t h e i nv asi o n o f A f gh a n ist a n a n d o n go i n g Isr a e l i -P a l est i n i a n c o n f l ict h ave cre a t e d a n a ro m a o f crisis.

M iddl e E ast ern co n fl ict , ho w ever, h as be e n si m m eri ng si nc e World Wa r I du e t o th e c on diti o ns o f divisio n , 5 0 with be tr ay a l a n d ass assin at i ons m ol di ng th e m a ny ki n gdo ms c arve d o ut o f t h e O t to m a n b ody. 5 1 Th e c on text for t h e d e fe at of t h e Sovi e ts i n A fgh a nist a n w as a cl e a r ro a d to fu ture inst a bi lity a n d ch a os a cross t h e re gi o n w h ic h w as o bvi ous fro m hist ory a t t h e b egi nn in g. 5 2 , 5 3 If f a ct , w estern invo lve m e nt i n A fgh a nist a n , Ir a n , P ak ist a n a nd Ir a q h as be e n so disastro us th a t th e h istory re a ds as fo lly. 5 4 , 5 5 , 5 6 Russi a n c a m p ai gns t o at te m pt t o st a bi l iz e th e ir sou t h ern t i er h ave b e e n bru t a l a nd expe nsive 5 7 bu t presa ge fu ture probl ems as im mi gr a ti on spre a ds t h e f a ll ou t a cross t h e c o un try a nd t h e gl ob e as M a cki nl ay5 8 h as pre dict ed fro m al l th e M iddl e E astern a dve n tures o f th e w est . Even co un tri es lik e A l geri a h ave p urch ase d re l at ive qui et a t a trem en do us price i n blo od5 9 , 6 0 a n d it is a qu ie t t h a t re e ks o f a h i dd en t h un der as Jose p hus d escrib e d th e Ro m a n su ppressi on of P a lest in e 2 , 0 0 0 ye ars a go .

Beheadings Versus Drones Every p eri o d o f h ist ory se e ms t o h ave its c h a r a ct erist ic f orm o f t error: f or t h e a n ci e n t w orl d it w as cru cif ixi o n ; f or t h e m e di ev a l , burn i n g a t t h e st a k e or dr a w i n g a n d qu a rt eri n g; f or A m eric a h a n gi n g , or t a r a n d f e a t h eri n g i n dif f ere n t t i m es a n d re gi o ns; i n t h e m o d ern p eri o d , g as c h a m b ers, t hro w i n g p e o pl e fro m h e l ic o pt ers or n a p a l m i n g

4 8 Terry Mc D erm ott (2 0 0 5), Perfe ct So ld iers, H a rp er C ol l i ns, N e w York . 4 9 Je a n H a tzf e l d (2 0 0 5), M a ch e t e Se a so n: Th e Killers in Rw a n d a Sp e a k , F a rr a r Str a us G iro ux. 5 0 P a tri ck Se a l e (2 0 1 0), Th e Stru gg le for Ar a b In d e p e n d e n ce , C a m bri d g e U niv ersi ty Press, C a m bri d g e . 5 1 A l i A l l a w i (2 0 1 4), F a isa l I o f Ir a q , Ya l e U niv ersi ty Press, N e w H a v e n . 5 2 Rodri c Br a i t hw a i t e (2 0 0 9), “ Th e F a m i l i a r Ro a d t o F a i l ure i n A f g h a nist a n” , Fin a n ci a l Tim es, D e c e m b er 2 2 . 5 3 G e org e C ri l e (2 0 0 3), “ C h a rl i e W i lso n’s Wa r ” , A t l a nt ic M o nt h ly, N e w York . 5 4 W i l l i a m D a lrym pl e (2 0 1 3), Re t urn o f a Kin g: Th e Ba t t le for A fg h a n ist a n , Bl o o msb ury, N e w York . 5 5 A h m e d Ra shi d (2 0 0 0), Ta lib a n: M ilit a nt Isl a m , O il, a n d Fu nd a m e nt a lism in C e ntr a l Asi a , N e w H a v e n , Ya l e

U niv ersi t y Press. 5 6 Ra j iv C h a ndr a se k a r a n (2 0 1 2), Lit t le A m eri c a : Th e Wa r Wit h in t h e Wa r for A fg h a n ist a n , Bl o o msb u ry,

N e w York . 5 7 A h m e d Ra shi d (2 0 0 2), Jih a d: Th e Rise o f M ilit a nt Isl a m in C e ntr a l Asi a , Pe ng ui n Bo oks, N e w York . 5 8 Jo h n M a ck i nl a y (2 0 0 9), Th e Insurg e nt Arch ip e l a go , C ol u m bi a / H urst , N e w York . 5 9 M a rti n Ev a ns (2 0 1 1), A lg eri a : Fr a n ce ’s U n d e cl a re d Wa r, O xf ord U niv ersi ty Press, O xf ord . 6 0 Je n ni f er E Sessi o ns (2 0 1 1), By Sw ord a n d Plo w : Fr a n ce a nd t h e C o n qu est o f A lg eri a , C orn e l l U niv ersi ty

Press, C orn e l l .

1 7Loc a l Resist a nc e i n t h e Er a of C a pi t a l ist G l ob a l i z a ti o n: C l a sh of C ul t ures i n t h e 2 1 st C e nt ury

ch i l dre n a n d m ost re c e n t ly, extr a ordi n a ry re n dit i o ns. 6 1

F i gure 2 se n ds a m ess a g e i n t e nd e d t o c o n tro l th e vi ew er w h o re c e ives it . As t h e Bure a u o f Invest i g a t ive Jo urn a l ism re port e d i n J a n u a ry, 6 2 t h e n u m b er o f dro n e k i l l i n gs u n d er t h e O b a m a a d m i n istr a t i o n w as over 2 , 4 0 0 , m ost ly t a rg e t e d p o l it ic a l l e a d ers or a ct ive m e m b ers o f org a n iz a t i o ns t h e a d m i n istr a t i o n c o nsi d ers t errorist . Th is do es n o t i n cl u d e o t h er dro n e k i l l i n gs c o n tro l l e d by n a t i o ns sh a ri n g t h e t e c h n o l o gy l ik e Isr a e l t h a t a t t a ck o f t e n t h e s a m e org a n iz a t i o ns. W h i l e b e h e a di n g w as a fre qu e n t m e a ns o f disp a t c h i n g re b e ls

i n En gl a n d , as i n t h e f a m o us b e h e a di n g o f Wa t Tyl er or M a ry Q u e e n o f Sc o ts, a b e h e a di n g w ith a sw ord dif f ers l it t l e fro m t h e use o f a d evic e l ik e a gu il l o t i n e , exc e pt t h e l a t t er is m ore e f f e ct ive a n d usu a l ly pro du c es a u n if orm a n d e f f e ct ive e n d . Be h e a di n g w as o f t e n pr a ct ic e d by c o l o n i a l p o w ers f or sl ave re b e l l i o n . 6 3 D e b a t i n g t h e issu e o f h o w h u m a n e su c h m e t h o ds o f exe c u t i o n a re is o n ly sym b o l ic o f re l a t ive po w er. 6 4 , 6 5 O t h er b e h e a di n gs by org a niz at io ns w h o use d t h e m edi a as a ve hicle t o pro m o te terror in cl ud e so m e o f th e M exic a n drug g a ngs. 6 6 M ut il a ti ons w ere c o m m o n

u nd er co lo ni a l re gim es by t h e co lo ni a l po w ers a n d w ere o ft en arbitr a ry (F ig ure 3 is a n exa mple fro m Be lgi a n C on go 6 7), ISIS' use of sim i l a r m et ho ds sh ou l d be se en i n t h e c on t ext of response to c o lo ni al vi ol en c e. O n e c a n no t t erroriz e po pu l at io ns for 40 0 ye a rs a n d th e n be li eve t h a t i n a fe w p ost c ol on i a l d ec a des al l w il l b e w e ll .

Th ere is c u rre n t ly a m e di a bl it z spre a di n g m isi n f orm a t i on reg a rdin g t h e p o w er a nd prese n ce o f a l - Q a e d a i n v a ri o us M i ddl e E ast ern a n d A fric a n c o u n tri es, i n cl u di n g Li by a a n d M a l i . Th e M a l i sit u a t i o n w as c o nso n a n t w it h my disc ussi o n a b ove . Th e i n di g e n o us Tu a re g h ave f a c e d a v a ri e ty o f c h a l l e n g es fro m t h e

c e n tr a l govern m e n t a n d fro m c o m p e t it i o n f or reso urc es b e t w e e n a n u m b er o f a dj a c e n t n a t i o ns, i n cl u di n g Li by a (u n d er G a dd a f i) a n d C h a d . Th e Tu a re g h ave respo n d e d w it h d e m a n ds vi a a v a ri e ty o f civi l m e a ns a n d w it h re b e l l i o ns, t h e m ost

Figure 2: Behea dings

Figure 3: Mutilations

6 1 A l a n W C l a rk e (2 0 1 2), Re nd it io n t o Tort ure , Rut g ers U niv ersi ty Press, N e w Bru nsw i ck . 6 2 J a ck Seri e (2 0 1 4), “ Dro n e Wa rf a re : More t h a n 2 , 4 0 0 D e a d a s O b a m a‘s Dro n e C a m p a i g n M a rks Fiv e

Ye a rs” , Bure a u of Inv esti g a tiv e Jo urn a l ism , J a n u a ry 2 3 . 6 3 G re g G r a ndi n (2 0 1 4), Th e Emp ire o f N e cessity: Th e U nt o ld St ory o f a Sl a ve Re b e llio n in t h e A g e o f Lib erty,

O n e w orl d , M e trop ol i t a n Press, N e w York . 6 4 O g e c hi E A ny a nw u (2 0 0 5), “ C ri m e a nd Justi c e i n Postc ol o ni a l N i g eri a : Th e Justi fi c a ti o ns a nd C h a l l e ng es

of Isl a m i c L a w of Sh a ri ’ a h” , Journ a l o f L a w a n d Re lig io n , Vol . 2 1 , N o . 2 , p p . 3 1 5 - 3 4 7 . 6 5 Mi c h e l F o uc a ul t (1 9 7 7), D iscip lin e a nd Pu n ish , Vi nt a g e Bo oks, N e w York . 6 6 Ra is a Bruner (2 0 1 2), “ C artel Rivals Behe ad Zet as on C a m er a ” , ABC N ews, Jun e 2 8, 2 0 1 2, av ail abl e a t http : /

/ abc n ews. go . co m / Bl ott er / drug-c art e l-riva ls-b e he a d-z e ta s-ca m er a / st ory?i d = 1 6 6 7 0 5 8 4 . 6 7 A d a m H oc hsc hi l d (1 9 9 8), “ Ki ng L e op ol d ’s G h ost : A St ory of G re e d , Terror, a nd H eroism i n C ol o ni a l

A fri c a ” , H o ug ht o n Mi ffl i n , Bost o n .

Th e IU P Jo urn a l of Int ern a ti o n a l Re l a ti o ns, Vol . IX , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 51 8

rece nt w as quite successful though it w as overt ak en by th e m ore org a niz ed a l- Q a ed a affi li ates. D u e to th e in a bi lity o f n ati on st at es in th e are a to m ount effect ive border controls, th e are a is inf ested with i lleg al tra de of every ki nd.

Thousands of indigenous problems fester across th e globe like the Tu areg story, a nd yet it is th e n ature of the west’s view of the world that allows it to ignore the fundam ent al econo mic problems of people and promote repression .6 8 , 6 9

ISIS and Rapid Conquest Th ere h as b e e n m u c h e m p h asis i n t h e press over t h e r a pi d exp a nsi o n o f t h e ISIS (it h as a lso c a l l e d itse lf ISIL or Isl a m ic St a t e) i n t h e p ast ye a r. A v a ri e ty o f expl a n a t i o ns h ave surf a c e d , bu t o n e t h a t is c o nsist e n t w it h t h e h ist ory o f t h e a re a re f ers t o t h e n u m ero us t i m es a m o bi l e f orc e h as c a use d t h e c o l l a pse o f e m pires a n d st a t es. Br a u d e l 7 0 n o t es t h a t t h e M a c e do n i a n c av a lry i n A l exa n der t h e G re a t ’s a rmy w as m ore o f a f a ct or i n t h e d e f e a t o f D a ri us’ f orc es t h a n t h e p h a l a nx a n d cit es l a t er c o n qu ests o f t h e e a rly M usli m , M o n g ol a nd Turks as b e in g d ep e n d en t on a use of c ava lry w it ho u t resp e ct t o typic a l f i g h t i n g t a ct ics.

W h a t a pp e a rs o n t h e h oriz o n o f t error is a re l a t i o nsh i p b e t w e e n st a t e t error a n d l o c a l resp o nses. W h e t h er w est ern m i l it a ry a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e cre a t e d a l - Q a e d a t o f i gh t t h e Sovi e ts t h e e f f e ct h as b e e n t h e s a m e . We a re t o l d t h a t d o c u m e n ts se iz e d i n Ir a q prove t h a t t h e gre a t est n u m b er o f “ j i h a dis” , n o t a l - Q a e d a (bu t t h a t do es n o t m a t t er t o m ost c o m m e n t a t ors), c a m e fro m Li by a 7 1 w h ic h w ere su pp ose dly fro m a l - Q a e d a or “ l i n k e d ” gro u ps a n d f irst p u bl ish e d by t h e C o m b a t i n g Terrorism C e n t er ( C TC ) a t West Po i n t . W h a t is t h e a u t h e n t icity o f t h ese do c u m e n ts? Th ey h a d t h e f u n ct i o n , l ik e t h e “ pro o fs” f or S a dd a m’s w e a p o ns o f m ass d estru ct i o n , t o b u i l d su pport f or t h e w a r a t h o m e . Fro m t h e b e gi n n i n g , t h e so urc es use d t o i d e n t ify t h e exist e n c e a n d h ist ory o f a l - Q a e d a a re t h e s a m e as t h e o n es use d t o give b a ck gro u n d t o t h e d eve l o p m e n t o f t h e m u j a h i d e e n i n A f g h a n ist a n . Bi l l M oyers’s so urc es a re a n exa m pl e . 7 2 M ost a re writ t e n by j o urn a l ists l ik e t h a t by A bd e l Ba ri A t w a n (Th e Se cre t H istory of a l- Q a e d a) w h o h as h a d a l o n g c a re er e m pl oye d by S a u di f a m i ly e n t it i es. O t h ers a re by p e o pl e l ik e Bru c e H o f f m a n , 7 3 so m e o n e w h ose b a ck gro u n d is st e e p e d i n bo t h t h e pro f its o f a w a r c o n tr a ct or a n d i n t h e h ist ory o f t h e M i ddl e E ast stru ggl e o f Isr a e l a g a i nst h er n e i gh b ors. Lik e m a ny f o l l o w i n g t h is l i n e o f re aso n i n g , h e a rg u es, “It a m a z es m e t h a t p e o pl e d o n’ t t h i n k t h ere is a cl e a r a dvers a ry o u t t h ere , a n d t h a t o ur a dvers a ry do es n o t h ave a str a t e gic a ppro a c h . ” A w orl dw i d e c o nspir a cy o f a n i nvi n ci bl e org a n iz a t i o n st a lks a p e a c e f u l w orl d . Th e i m a g e c o u l d b e t urn e d u psi d e

6 8 Th o m a s K e a n a nd L e e H a m i l t o n (2 0 0 6), Wit ho ut Pre ce d e nt : Th e Insid e St ory o f t h e 9 / 1 1 C ommissio n , A l fre d A . Kn opf, N e w York .

6 9 L a wre nc e Wri g ht (2 0 0 6), Th e Looming To w er: A l- Q a e d a a n d t h e Ro a d t o 9 / 1 1 , A l fre d A . Kn opf, N e w York . 7 0 F ern a nd Br a ud e l (2 0 0 1), M e mory a nd t h e M e d it err a n e a n , Rose l lyn e D e Ay a l a a nd P a ul e Br a ud e l (Eds.),

Tr a ns. Si a n Reyn ol ds, Vi nt a g e Bo oks, Ra nd o m H o use , N e w York . 7 1 Se e , “ Si nj a r D oc u m e nts” , a v a i l a bl e a t htt p : / / t a rpl ey. n e t / d ocs / C TC F ore i g nFi g ht er. 1 9 . D e c 0 7 . p df 7 2 h tt p : / / w w w. p b s . o rg / m oy ers / j o u rn a l / 0 7 2 7 2 0 0 7 / a l q a e d a . h t m l 7 3 htt p : / / e n . w i k i p e di a . org / . . .

1 9Loc a l Resist a nc e i n t h e Er a of C a pi t a l ist G l ob a l i z a ti o n: C l a sh of C ul t ures i n t h e 2 1 st C e nt ury

do w n w it h e ase a n d w e c o u l d vi e w t h e e n t ire a n t i -t errorist e dif ic e as o n e gre a t c o nspir a cy t o d e prive t h e w orl d o f p e a c e , fre e do m a n d prosp erity. O n e o f t h e gl a ri n g c o nse qu e n c es o f t h e p ost - 9 / 1 1 w orl d is t h e dr a m a t ic i n cre ase i n w e a lt h i n e q u a l ity a n d if w e f o l l o w t h e m o n ey, t h e v ast f u n n e l i n g o f f u n ds i n t o se c urity a n d m i l it a ry h a rdw a re si n c e 9 / 1 1 h as b e n e f it t e d a se l e ct se ct or o f i nvest ors.

The Tail Wagging the Dog As a n a n t hro p o l o gist re a di n g over t h is l it er a t ure o n a l - Q a e d a , I f i n d it h as c ert a i n i n t erest i n g qu a l it i es. In o t h er w ords, t h e a l - Q a e d a st ory h as t h e m irror stru ct ure o f m a ny myt hs: f or exa m pl e , a l - Q a e d a is so w e l l org a n iz e d t h a t it c a n n o t b e i n f i ltr a t e d a n d ye t w e k n o w a l l a b o u t it b e c a use w e h ave c ert a i n u n n a m e d or e l usive so urc es t h a t c a n b e c o u n t e d o n t o pro du c e d e t a i l e d i n f orm a t i o n a bo u t t h e org a n iz a t i o n . U su a l ly, su c h org a n iz a t i o ns a re f o u n d i n t h e po pu l a r press as c o nspir a cy t h e ori es o f o n e k i n d o f i l l u m i n at i cre a ti o n myt h or a n o t h er d a t i ng b ack to e it h er t h e b e gi n n in gs o f civi l iz a t i o n or t h e f o u n di n g o f A m eric a ; bu t w h a t is m ore dist urbi n g is t h e f a ct t h a t m a ny i ndividu a ls a rrest ed or i nvolve d i n terrorist a cts or se ct associ a te d w it h al - Q a e d a h ave b e e n f o u n d t o b e govern m e n t pl a n ts or re cru it e d by govern m e n t a g e n ts. 7 4 , 7 5

A m ore cre a t ive vi e w is f o u n d i n Ro b ert Sh e a a n d Ro b ert W i lso n’s b o o ks. A p a r a n o i d p erso n a l ity is re qu ire d t o b e l i eve su c h t a l es a n d ye t a l l t h e w orl d b e l i eves i n t h e a l - Q a e d a cre a t i o n myt h . In t h ese c o nspir a cy myt hs, everyt h i n g c a n b e expl a i n e d by t h e se cre t org a niz a t i o n . Th is is tru e o f a l - Q a e d a . Th e de f e a t o f t h e Sovi e ts i n A f g h a n ist a n , a n u m b er o f t errorist a t t a cks fro m t h e 1 9 8 0s a n d t h e 1 9 9 0s a n d t h e su bst a n t i a l org a n iz a t i o n n e c ess a ry f or 9 / 1 1 a n d t h e n a h ost o f o t h ers si n c e o f v a ryi n g qu a l ity o f exe c u t i o n a n d g o a l . N o i n t ern a l l o gic is n e c ess a ry t o u n it e t h e eve n ts or t h e a ct ors. G o a ls a n d e n ds a re se cre t k n o w l e dg e a n d c a n n o t b e d e t erm i n e d .

Th e f a i l ure o f a l - Q a e d a t o t a k e a dv a n t a g es o f o pport u n it i es t h a t a re o bvi o us t h a t w o u l d f urt h er t h e ir po w er a n d b u i l d a m ove m e n t is g e n er a l ly i g n ore d . A l - Q a e d a h as n o t l i n k e d w it h t h e i n t ern a t i o n a l dru g m ove m e n t or i l l icit a rms tr a d e as u n d ergro u n d l e f t ist t errorists a re su ppose d t o h ave do n e i n t h e 1 9 7 0s, t h e 1 9 8 0s a n d t h e 1 9 9 0s. O n e c o u l d assu m e t h is is du e t o t h e ir su p eri or a n a lysis t h a t su c h i nvo lve m e n ts w ere d e tri m e n t a l t o t h e m ove m e n ts t h a t di d , b u t t h is is o p e n t o i n t erpre t a t i o n . Th e s a m e l a ck o f a ct i o n is tru e i n re g a rd t o i n ci d e n ts o f t error a g a i nst t h e po or a n d dise n fr a n c h ise d i n pl a c es l ik e C e n tr a l a n d So u t h A fric a , In di a a n d C e n tr a l a n d So u t h A m eric a , or a ny prese n c e i n l a bor stru ggl es i n t h e M i ddl e E ast . Th e ir su pp ose d prese n c e i n Ir a q a n d A f gh a n ist a n h as b e e n t h e ir c e n tr a l i m a g e , bu t i n t h ese a re as t h e ir a bi l ity t o pro du c e a ny su bst a n t i a l b ase or vict ori es is c uri o us. A g a i n , a l - Q a e d a se e ms m ore l ik e a myt h , a bru t al Ro bi n H o o d w h o se ld o m w i ns a nyt hi n g but is a lw ays prese n t t o t a k e t h e bl a m e f or everyt h i n g . A n d n o w w it h ISIS, t h ere c o u l d n o t b e a

7 4 S a m St a nt o n a nd D e n ny Wa lsh (2 0 1 4), “ Lodi -A re a Terror Susp e ct S a ys H e Wo ul d N ot H a v e A ct e d A g a i nst H is O w n C o u ntry ” , Th e Sa cr a m e nt o Be e , A ug ust 2 6 .

7 5 C a h a l Mi l m o a nd Ki m Se ng upt a (2 0 1 3), “ Terror i n Wo ol w i c h: MI5 ‘Tri e d t o Re crui t Susp e ct i n Ke ny a n J a i l ’ ” , Th e Ind e p e nd e nt , M a y 2 6 .

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m ore p erf e ct bo g eym a n . It is o bvi o us t h a t a l - Q a e d a a n d it a f f i l i a t es i n t h e Ye m e n a n d So m a l i a as w e l l as M a l i a h ave b e e n a bl e t o t a k e a dv a n t a g e o f f a i l e d st a t es t o i n t e nsify t h e d e gr a d a t i o n o f civi l l if e a n d t h e po t e n t i a l f or t h e re d eve l o p m e n t o f ord er a n d pro du ct ivity. U n l ik e org a n iz a t i o ns l ik e t h e M usl i m Bro t h erh o o d , a l - Q a e d a h as n o t sh o w n a ny a bi l ity t o cre a t e sust a i n e d l o c a l org a n iz a t i o ns f or c h a rit i es or busi n ess t o a i d l o c a l po pu l a t i o ns.

A l - Q a e d a / ISIL a n d bi n L a d e n a re t h e re aso n f or t h e l oss o f fre e d o ms i n sever a l w est ern c o u n tri es, m ost n o t a bly re prese n t e d i n t h e A m eric a n P a tri o t A ct a n d ye t h is pursu it (n o w t h e p ursu it o f ISIS as bi n L a d e n is d e a d) is t h e d e f i n it i o n o f t h e stru ggl e t o re g a i n it . A m ore c o i n ci d e n t c o nstru ct i o n t o Eric Bl a ir ’s bo o k , 1 9 8 4 , w o u l d b e h a rd t o f a bric a t e . Lik e a re l i gi o n , b e l i e f i n t h e exist e n c e o f a l - Q a e d a c a n n o t b e prove n or disprove n a n d sk e pt ics a re w orse t h a n h ere t ics or t h e o l d u n b e l i evers o f i n t ern a t i o n a l c o m m u n ism b e i n g b e h i n d every pro t est or u prisi n g o f t h e 1 9 5 0s. Su c h a t t it u d es d e f i n e “ f e l l o w tr ave l ers” i n t h e a n t i -c o m m u n ist vern a c u l a r o f “ u n p a tri o t ic c o c o nspir a t ors. ” Ye t if w e use l o gic t o a ddress t h e i d e o l o gy o f t h e “ a l - Q a e d a c o nspir a cy ” , w e m i gh t f i n d t h a t t h e very po l ici es t h a t h ave b e e n i nve n t e d t o f i gh t t error h ave cre a t e d m ore , fro m S a dd a m t o bi n L a d e n t o ISIS, a n d t h ere se e ms t o b e n o e n d t o t h is. Is t h ere a w ay o u t o f t h is str a i g h t j a ck e t t h e w orl d f i n ds itse lf i n?

D em a n ds of t h e USA a nd w est ern f orces i n g en er al to d e fe at or d estroy ISIS are j ust as n a ïve or b ased i n c on fl ict o f i nt erest as t hose w h ic h l ed t o t h e i nv asi on of Ira q in 1 99 0, 2 00 3 a nd A fgh a nist a n in 2 00 1. Era dic at io n of ISIS, Bo ko H ar a m , t h e N axal it es a nd o th ers ye t to c o m e , is no t p ossi ble usi n g force . Wh a t wi l l even t u a lly h a ppe n w il l b e m ore urb a n w ars a n d m a jor m od ern cit ies l ik e D a m ascus a nd A le ppo w il l suf fer m on ths if no t ye a rs of a rm e d stru ggl e a n d repressi on by w est ern forces. Su ch a n e nt erprise w o ul d be lik e t h e at t em pt ed ef fort to h ave O tt o m a ns i n fl u e nc e t h e Wa rs o f t h e Ref orm at i on , h a d t h ey a id ed or a tt a ck ed t h e e a rly Pro t est a nts. Th ey di d n eith er, f or i n 1 52 5 t h e Fre n ch w ere d estroye d a t Pavi a a n d th eir k in g , Fr a n cis w as t a k e n priso n er. M a rti n Lu t h er de cl a re d t o C h a rl es V ’s f a ce th e f a n at icism t h a t w as to ren d Europ e i n a gre at w a r. Bu t a risin g f a n at icism in t h e O t to m a n e ast c a used Sel i m th e G ri m to be o ccu pi ed su ppressi ng Sh it e reb el l io ns u n ti l 15 2 0 w h e n his son , Sul ei m a n t h e L a w giver (m a gnif ic en t i n m ost Euro pe a n hist ori es), c a m e to t h e thro n e .

Seli m th e G rim h a d consolid ated th e w orld of Isl a m , fro m Persi a to Sp ai n a nd be c a m e th e C aliph a nd C o m m a nder of t h e F aithful. Isl a m w as at its p olitic a l a nd cultur al h ei ght. Just as Su leim a n crush e d th e Knights of St . John on Rh odes a nd beg a n his assa ult on H ung ary, h e received a le tter fro m th e imprison ed King Lo uis in Sp ain asking his h elp, w hic h h e rejected . In 1 526, Sul eim a n exterm in ated th e H ung ari a n army at M oh acs a nd storm ed Bud a . In 1 529, Sul eim a n a dva nc ed a g ai nst Vi enn a w ith 200 , 000 troops, but w hil e th e C hrist i a n ki ngdo ms w ere divide d (a nd th e Pope a b a ndon e d th e defense to conc entrat e on suppressing Fl orence) th ey set aside differen ce enou gh to produc e a n effe ctive, yet d espera te def ense o f Vien n a .7 6

7 6 Fl e tc h er Pr a tt (1 9 5 6), Th e Ba t t les t h a t C h a ng e d H ist ory, D ol p hi n Bo oks, G a rd e n C i ty.

2 1Loc a l Resist a nc e i n t h e Er a of C a pi t a l ist G l ob a l i z a ti o n: C l a sh of C ul t ures i n t h e 2 1 st C e nt ury

Su le i m a n f a il e d a n d ye t th e w orst o f t h e Wars o f t h e Re f orm a ti o n w ere ye t to c o m e . Euro p e w as l e f t t o f i g h t it t o t h e e n d . Th e n a t i o ns o f Isl a m c a n n o t do t h is w it h t h e i n t erf ere n c e o f t h e w est , ye t su c h a c o nso l i d a t i o n w o u l d l ik e ly c o n t i n u e t h e re c e n t A r a b Spri n g a n d sw e e p a w ay n o t o n ly t h e w est ern -l e a n i n g A r a b k i n gdo ms, bu t a lso t h e c o l o n i a l b o u n d a ri es pro d u ci n g a n e w c o n f i g ur a t i o n f or t h e p e o pl e o f t h e M i ddl e E ast . W h e t h er t h e w est c a n c o n t i n u e t o c o nstr a i n t h ese p e o pl es a n d preve n t su c h a tr a nsf orm a t i o n is as u n l ik e ly as Su l e i m a n’s a t t e m pt t o c o n q u er Euro p e . It o f t e n se e ms as if w est ern po l ici es a re bu i lt o n t h e m o d e l o f t h e M a h dist tr a nsf orm a t i o n 7 7 , w h ere a tri u m p h a n t a nd revo l u t i o n a ry m essi a n ism t h a t h a d d e f e a t e d t h e Brit ish a rmy i n Su d a n t o est a bl ish a n i n di g e n o us re gi m e w as eve n t u a l ly c o m pro m ise d by c o l o n i a l i n tri g u e i n t o a c o l l a b or a t i o n p a rt n er. Th a t pro c ess w as i n it i a t e d by a f a i l ure o f t h e M a h dist m ove m e n t t o exp a n d , esp e ci a l ly t o Et h i o pi a w h ere t h e C hrist i a n Em p eror, Yo h a n n es IV, o f f ere d a n a n t i -Euro p e a n a l l i a n c e t h a t w as re j e ct e d by t h e M a h dist l e a d ers. Inst e a d , t h e ir i d e o l o gy, c o nstru ct e d a ro u n d Isl a m , l e d t h e m t o i nv a d e Et h i o pi a a n d w ast e bo t h n a t i o ns’ e n ergi es a n d reso urc es. Th e Brit ish re i nv asi o n w as su cc essf u l bu t give n t h e i n t ern at i o n a l sit u a t i o n re qu ire d so m e i n t er a ct i o n w it h f orm er M a h dist f o l l o w ers. 7 8 Th e i d e a o f so m e a cc o m m o d a t i o n , t h e “ preserv a t i o n o f f ore i gn i nvest m e n ts” , is a n a t t e m pt t o re t a i n asp e cts o f c o l o n i a l c o n tro l a n d p erp e t u a t e cl i e n t a l l i es a n d i nst it u t i o ns a g a i nst c o m pl e t e “re i n di g e n a t i o n . ” Th e d a n g er o f t h is w as l ess duri n g t h e p eri o d o f Sovi e t c o m p e t it i o n as c o m m u n ism is a f orm o f w est ern pro gressivism as Jo m o K e ny a tt a re a l iz e d . 7 9 Lik e t h e M a h dists, ISIS’s i d e o l ogy preve n ts it fro m c o nstru ct i n g w i d er a l l i a n c es a n d l i m its its a bi l ity t o i n t e gr a t e a gl o b a l crit i qu e t o a c h i eve a n a n t i -c o l o n i a l exp a nsi o n . Th e p a r a l l e l w it h t h e K h m er Ro u g e a lso is o f i n t erest w h ere a n extre m e a n t i -w est ern i n t erpre t a t i o n o f M a rxism l e d t o a f a i l e d a t t e m pt a t d e c o l o n i a l iz a t i o n o f t h e po pu l a t i o n .

F or st u d e n ts o f civi l iz a t i o n , t h e pro bl e ms c a use d by t h e c o l l a pse o f t h e O t t o m a n a n d Sovi e t Em pires w i l l b e t h e f o c us o f a t t e n t i o n f or ye a rs t o c o m e , ye t t h ey provi d e a fru it f u l so urc e o f a n a lysis t o t h e st u dy o f so ci a l c o m pl exity a n d its fr a gi l ity. Ye t as M oyo 8 0 h as n o t e d , d eve l o p m e n t a n d f ore i g n a i d is drivi n g c h a n g e a n d c h a os a cross t h e d eve lo pi n g w orl d a l o n g w it h t h e co n f l ict t h a t m issi o n a ry w ork bri n gs. M issi o n a ri es a re o f t e n se e n a a g e n ts o f f ore i gn c o l o n i a l ism 8 1 , 8 2 , 8 3 a n d t h e ir b e h avi or i n crit icizi n g

7 7 H a rol d B B a rcl a y (1 9 8 2), “ Sud a n: O n t h e Fro nti er of Isl a m” , i n C a rl o C a l d a rol a (Ed .), Re lig io ns a n d So cie t ies: Asi a a nd t h e M idd le E a st , p p . 1 4 7 - 1 7 1 , Mo ut o n Publ ish ers, Berl i n .

7 8 A b d e l S a l a m Si d a h m e d (2 0 0 6), Su d a n: Th e C o nt e mpor a ry M id d le E a st , Ro utl e d g e , Lo nd o n . 7 9 Bruc e Berm a n (1 9 9 6), “ Et h n ogr a p hy a s Pol i ti cs, Pol i ti cs a s Et h n ogr a p hy: K e ny a tt a , M a l i n owsk i a nd t h e

M a k i ng of F a ci ng Mo u nt Ke ny a ” , CJAS, Vol . 3 0 , N o . 3 , p p . 3 1 3 - 3 4 4 . 8 0 D a m is a Moyo (2 0 0 9), D e a d A id , F a rr a r, Str a us a nd G iro ux, N e w York . 8 1 Rob e rt Fry k e nb erg (2 0 0 3 ), C hr ist i a n s a nd M issio n a ries in In d i a : C ross-C u lt ur a l C omm u n ic a t io n Si n ce

1 5 0 0 , E erd m a ns, C a m bri d g e . 8 2 Firoz e M a nj i a nd C a rl O ’ C oi l l (2 0 0 2), “Th e Missi o n a ry Posi ti o n: N G O s a nd D ev e l op m e nt i n A fri c a ” ,

Int ern a t io n a l A ff a irs, Vol . 7 8 , N o . 3 , p p . 5 6 7 - 5 8 3 . 8 3 N a ncy Fix A nderson (2 0 0 4), “Revie w of C hristi a ns a nd Missi o n ari es i n Indi a ” , A n glic a n a nd Episcop a l

H istory, Vol . 7 3 , N o . 4 , i n “Angl i c a ns a nd Lut h er a ns: Th e N e w Worl d Experi e nc e of Two O l d Worl d Tra diti ons” , Angli c a n Lut her a n C o nferenc e Pap ers I, C hi ca g o, Ju n e 2 0 0 4 (D ec e mb er 2 0 0 4), pp . 5 2 9- 5 3 1 .

Th e IU P Jo urn a l of Int ern a ti o n a l Re l a ti o ns, Vol . IX , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 52 2

l o c a l i n di g e n o us re l i gi o ns or o t h er m a j or w orl d re l i gi o ns (esp e ci al ly Isl a m) f e e ds l o c a l t e nsi o ns as m o n ey a n d p erso n n e l f or m issi o n a ry w ork c o m es fro m a bro a d a n d h as a l w ays re prese n t e d c o l o n i a l issu es versus l o c a l i n it i a t ive a n d i d e o l o gy. W h a t se e ms cl e a r is t h a t u n l ess so m e i n t ern a t i o n a l e n t ity c a n b e cre a t e d t h a t c a n c o n tro l i n t ern a t i o n a l f i n a n c e a n d l i m it t h e ri g h ts o f i n t ern a t i o n a l c orpor a t i o ns, t h e n t h e l a ck o f l o c a l j ust ic e w i l l c o n t i n u e t o pro du c e t error a cross t h e gl o b e .

Th e b e h avi or o f so m e o f t h e c urre n t re b e l gro u ps, f or exa m pl e ISIS, sh o ws d e f i n it e l a pses i n org a n iz a t i o n a n d k n o w l e dg e o f h o w t o i m pl e m e n t st a t e f orm a t i o n o p era t i o ns. So l o m a n 84 d escri bes so m e of t h ese d ef ici en ci es, yet t h is is n o t si g n if ic a nt ly dif f ere n t fro m l o c a l o p er a t i o ns t h a t evo lve d fro m dru g org a n iz a t i o ns i n pl a c es l ik e C o l u m bi a i n t h e 1 9 9 0s. P a r a l l e ls i n so p h ist ic a t i o n o f e c o n o m ic c o n tro l a n d org a n iz a t i o n c a n b e gl e a n e d fro m o t h er exa m pl es i n h ist ory, l ik e t h e cri m e l ords o f C h ic a go i n t h e 1 9 2 0s. 8 5 W it h t h e w orl d a w ash i n f orm er m i l it a ry h i gh ly tr a i n e d o p er a t ives, t h e p o t e n t i a l f or i m provi n g p erso n n e l qu a l ity a n d o p er a t i o n a l e f f ici e n cy is q u it e g o o d . W it h ISIS a lre a dy fr a n c h isi n g o p er a t i o ns i n so m e o f its p eri ph ery, 8 6

t h e p a t t ern is a lre a dy w e l l est a bl ish e d . G overn m e n ts m i gh t c o nsi d er su ppressi n g or t i gh t ly re gu l a t i n g t h e o p er a t i o ns o f priv a t e se c urity servic es as t h ey a re i n cre asi n gly b e i n g use d as virt u a l a rm i es a cross t h e gl o b e by bo t h l e git i m a t e busi n esses8 7 a n d govern m e n ts as w e l l as t h ose i n gr ay a re as o f l e g a l ity, as i n t h e Porosh e n k o / K o l o m o isky a f f a ir i n U kr a i n e 8 8 a n d o u tri gh t m erc e n a ry o p er a t i o ns f or pro f it . 8 9 So m e o f t h ese h ave evo lve d fro m m i l it a ry do w nsizi n g i n t h e w est a n d t h e ext e nsive use o f c o n tr a ct servic es si n c e t h e 1 9 8 0s i n t h e U SA .

Loy a lt i es o f su c h org a n iz a t i o ns a re c ert a i n ly qu est i o n a bl e as a re t h e ir c h a i n o f c o m m a n d a n d respo nsi bi l ity. As c ert a i n ty o f m ess a gi n g a n d f i n a n ci a l i n f orm a t i o n b e c o m e m ore vu l n er a bl e t o h a ck i n g , issu es o f c o n tro l by govern m e n ts w i l l b e c o m e m ore u nst a bl e a n d i nvo lve m e n t o f cit iz e ns dist a n t . A cc ess t o o w n ersh i p do c u m e n t a t i o n i n i d e n t ity t h e f t h as rise n i n so p h ist ic a t i o n as w e l l a n d t hre a t e ns t o bre a c h t h e b ast i o ns o f b a n k i n g as m ore v a l u e is sh if t e d t o d a rk m o n ey a n d sh a do w f i n a n ci a l e n t it i es. Th is c o m pl ex sc e n a ri o o f t h e f u t ure , w h ere w a r a n d n o n -w a r vi o l e n c e a n d e l e ctro n ic s a bo t a g e o f v a ri e d l oy a lt i es a n d se m i -l e g a l e n t it i es, h as b e e n sk e t c h e d vivi dly by W it t es a n d Bl u m (2 0 1 5). 9 0

Re f ere nce # 5 5J-2 0 1 5-0 7-0 1-0 1

8 4 Eri k a Sol o m a n (2 0 1 5), “ M e e t t h e Boss” , F in a n ci a l Tim es, J a n u a ry 6 . 8 5 Et h a n N a d e l m a n n (2 0 0 7), “ Drugs” , F ore ig n A ff a irs, N o . 1 6 2 (Se pt e m b er- O ct ob er), p p . 2 4 - 2 6 , 2 8 , 3 0 . 8 6 Sol o m a n (2 0 1 5), o p . cit . 8 7 Edi t ori a l , “ Te a Ind ustry ’s Priv a t e A rmy ” , Eco nomic a n d Po lit ic a l We e kly, Vol . 2 7 , N o . 4 2 , O ct ob er 1 7 ,

1 9 9 2 , p . 2 2 7 3 . 8 8 Ro m a n O l e a rc hyk (2 0 1 5), “ Porosh e nk o Wa rns Riv a l O v er ‘Pock e t A rmy ’ ” , Fin a n ci a l Tim es, M a rc h 2 4 . 8 9 D a vi d Sh e a rer (1 9 9 8), Priva t e Armies a n d M ilit a ry Int erve nt io n , O xf ord U niv ersi ty Press, N e w York . 9 0 Be nj a m i n W i tt es a nd G a bri e l l a Bl u m (2 0 1 5), Th e F ut ure o f Vio le n ce , B a si c C ivi t a s.

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