2 history ppt

THE GROWTH OF INCA EMPIRE

The Inca Empire glory traces its roots back in the pre-Columbian America, a time when there existed no larger empire than the Incan Empire. Its specific location is in South America, and its expansion traced between 1438 C. E. and 1532 C. E. The most striking feature about the empire is its meteoric growth. Early 15th century marked Cuczo town, which was merely a small area rule from Tiwanaku acting as headquarters of one of the tribe (Incas) in competition with each other. In about 55 years since the expansion begun, the Incas dynasty was a huge empire stretching for 300,000 square miles making it as vast as the renowned Roman Empire[footnoteRef:1]. [1: R. Alan Covey, How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru (New York: University of Michigan Press, 2006), 18-37. ]

Often, most people marvel at how the Incas, a small pastoralist tribe managed to grow a huge empire in such unprecedented time. The underlying questions often asked are, how did the empire rise that quick? What are the factors that contributed to the immense growth? In this light, the focus of the paper is examining the empire’s rapid growth and the factors contributing to its success. Accounting that there could have been many factors contributing to the growth and success of the empire, this paper will focus on the factors having the most impact.

Inca Empire begun with arrival of Inca people in 1200 A. D. at Cuzco Valley, but the expansion of the Empire only commenced in 1400 A. D. The first Inca, known as “son of the sun” begun the Inca rule and begun civilization part of which included roads to help relay messages. In 1425, Viracocha Inca commences building the Empire, which he extend to South America. In 1438, the Pachacunti Inca Yupanqui who took over commenced rebuilding pogramme at Cuzco, the capital city. The leader conquered numerous territories, which today can be found in Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador. In 1471, after Pachacuti dies, his son, Topa Inca becomes the 10th rule. He conquered 70% of the total empire that the Incas ruled. Hayan Capac Inca adds more territories, up to 1525 to build an Empire stretching 300,000 square miles prior to civil war and Spanish invasion, which ruined the empire begun in 1533.

Bauer and Covey note that archeologists have just discovered an overlooked critical element in feeding the accelerated growth of the Inca Empire, the weather. Archeological findings from Peruvian lake sediments of 4000 years ago show that changes of weather were critical for accelerating the growth of the empire. In the initial 3,000 years, the lake sediments revealed that climate within the Empire region was cold, as the core contents had sandy and rocky fragments from the mountains washed in the lake. Specific sediments that can be traced back in the 1800 AD further revealed existence of an arid era, characterizing severe drought that lasted for over 100 years. This was evidenced by presence of sedge seeds only traceable at fringes of lake, which is characteristic of drastic drops in the lake’s water levels that provoke sedges to shift to the middle. The climate begun to change around 1100, a time that dramatic temperature changes were experienced, thus boosting the Incans. Archeological cores during this time moving forward show increase in Incan agriculture, specifically re-landscaping of the lake’s terrain. The increase in temperatures had ended a cold aridity era and ushered in a new era supporting crops that were impossible to grow in the cold climate. The warm temperatures, as shown my archeological findings of lasted for 400 year, serving a critical role in supporting new irrigation systems by meting water from Andean glaciers[footnoteRef:2]. Nonetheless, how did this facilitate the growth of the empire? [2: Brian S. Bauer and R. Alan Covey, Processes of State Formation in the Inca Heartland (Cuzco, Peru), American Anthropologist 104 (2003), 846-863]

Changes in temperature imply that it was possible to cultivate the entire Andes, specifically a lot of maize in lower down and potatoes in the high altitudes. It implies that from the surpluses, the Incas met the most basic need (food), and they were healthy, thus able to involve themselves empire-building activities, such as building roads extensively, weaponry, trade and growing armies. For example, during that time, wood was scarce and highly priced, but the Incans were grew trees in their mountains. In this case, they had the material necessary to make their wooden clubs that were tipped with bronze and stone. To increase their chances of survival during were as the expansion ensued, the Incan tribes also used plates of woods to protect their chests and backs, as well as, made wooden shields for defense. Ideally, the change in climate affected critical aspects contributing to the growth of Inca Empire, including building a powerful economy.

The Inca’s had devises a successful expansion and military strategy that accelerated Empire growth. First, the Incas were diplomats in that they approached tribes in the Andes region and negotiated with them for the takeover (allow them to be under an Inca governor). They would offer tribute and trade agreements, organize inter-marriages, impressive gift exchanges, as well as, relocate some of the population to the areas newly acquired. This ensures minimal bloodshed, thus presenting as an easy, yet effective expansion strategy that would allow them acquire and use the resources found in the newly acquired territory. Nonetheless, this did not always work, meaning that they sometimes resulted in warfare. The expansion of the Empire became more of a culture, a ruler’s prestige, as rulers sought great victories during his reign so that people would recount them and make pilgrimages to his burial site. Hence, rules sought to outdo those before them, meaning that the empire only expanded outwards and into new territories in Incas history. The expansion strategy was highly influenced by religion, as Incas believed that their conquests were a way of worshiping Inti, god of the sun. They fasted two days, sacrificed children and Illamas, feasted and carried religious idols in the battleground. In this case, conquest, which accelerated expansion were a religious call, thus inspiring Incas to make one conquest after the other to fulfill their religious obligation[footnoteRef:3]. [3: R. Alan Covey, How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru (New York: University of Michigan Press, 2006), 109-148]

The Inca’s military strategy was one of the best during that time and this helped accelerate the expansion. Strong leadership to ensure accountability and cohesion characterized it. The army comprised mostly non-Incas from conquered tribes, thus comprising of different ethnicities and specifically farmers that would have been difficult to coordinate. Nonetheless, organizing them in decimals made it easier. As Leon notes in his chronicles when in Inca State “Units were divided into decimals, the smallest group being 10 men commanded by a chunka kamayuq, then 100 led by a pachaka kuraka, then 1,000 men under a waranqa kuraka, and finally 10,000 led by a hunu kuraka”[footnoteRef:4]. In a single battle, there would be up to 100,000 troops. In this case, effective leadership for coordinating large-scale troops despite ethnical differences became a major strength in the expansion process. The military, organized in large numbers above those of the enemy ready for battle would commonly send a messenger demanding the enemy to surrender with favorable terms and rewards, as long as their allegiance was to Inca King. The intimidating scale of numbers and promises made them acquire most of Upper Mantaro Valley. Failure to surrender, the army sent a huge army to ruthlessly kill opposing army, displace the population and wipe out existence of the cities. The army employed this strategy in areas, such as Canete, Tunanmarca, as well as, Tunanmarca. An effective, ritualistic strategy employed to wipe out the enemy included firing the slingers, archers and nacres in this order. Then, with small hatchets attached to wrists, they engaged in hand-to-hand combat, doing great damage by chopping heads with swords. In one of the primary sources (ancient drawing) one can see an Inca soldier with a hatchet on his left hand and holding a man’s head, cut by the hatchet on the other[footnoteRef:5]. This is evidence of the ruthlessness of the military that made them feared and a large number of areas willing to surrender to avoid their wrath, thus making territorial expansion possible. They had the best of logistics, including extensive road networks, with routers and intervals where waystations were location to provide fresh supplies in every 20 kilometers. Protecting the territory was part of the expansion strategy, to prevent losing the areas conquered and provide stability when conquering other areas, thus ensuring accelerated growth. In this case, the military/Empire builds fortresses to fortify boarders by maintaining presences in conquered territories. The fortresses were along areas threatened by invasion and strategically placed on hills to have a clear view of the enemy and respond on time. [4: Lasalle University, “Incan Documents (1500s),” Accessed July 9, 2016, https://century.adams12.org/sites/century.d7sb.adams12.org/files/users/bec013147/attachments/Incan%20primary%20source%20Documents.pdf] [5: Lasalle University, “Incan Documents (1500s),” Accessed July 9, 2016, https://century.adams12.org/sites/century.d7sb.adams12.org/files/users/bec013147/attachments/Incan%20primary%20source%20Documents.pdf]

During that time, the Incas had one of the best modern government and leadership strategies that immensely facilitate the success of the Empire. Pachacuti became the first leader in setting the great empire system to run it well reaching the highest peak of development in his reign (1438-1471). Other rulers, about 9 of them preceded him and all sought to become better leader, as Pachacuti had set the standards. The government was well structured with hierarchical leadership entities to help successfully run it. An Apos, who was under the King headed each of the four quarters and under each quarter, there were officials to help Apos administer it. Each quarter compressive of several provinces each headed by a governor. It is estimated that about 80 provinces existed with each comprising 20,000 household. Under every province there existed two Curacas each overseeing 10,000 and under each Curacas, two curacas overseeing 5,000 households each. This chain of curacas continued until there was a curaca for every 100 households[footnoteRef:6]. [6: Brian S. Bauer and R. Alan Covey, Processes of State Formation in the Inca Hearland (Cuzco, Peru), American Anthropologist 104 (2003), 846-863. ]

Leadership from the top to bottom level was critical in meeting the demands and growth of the empire. For example, placing curacas in charge of a few households helped ensure that the Mita system functions well as each household was obligated to meet their duties in public service. This related to constructing enormous structures such as highways, bridges, temples, Emperor houses, as well as, working in mines among others. The system, which was made effective by the government structure, which gave provisions needed, including taking care of the family when male above 15 years joined the Mita system ended being a key growth facilitator. It made organized labor possible, thus able to build critical infrastructure needed for growth, protecting the empire, such as the fortress and for accelerating economic growth, such as the case of building roads linking to other areas and large-scale cultivation of land. Primary sources, Pedro de Cieza de Leon chronicles show that all people, whether natives or captured had to contribute to the growth of the Empire through public service. As Leon noted in his chronicles when in the Epire, “...not a single village of the highlands or the plains failed to pay the tribute levied on it....”[footnoteRef:7]. The Indians were placed to work in mines and their lands were cultivated by others, as part of public service to ensure that no land was unused. The government officials across the hierarchy also facilitated tax collection to help contribute to growth of the economy. Leon further noted that, “other regions paid as many thousand loads of corn as there were houses in it, which was done every harvest, and was credited to the province. Other areas supplied as many loads of chunyo [freezedried potatoes].... Others were obliged to supply so many thousand loads of lances ...slings and ayllos [bolas], and the other arms they use…” [footnoteRef:8]. This ensured that provinces had stored full of needful things and supplies to rely on during war and difficult times. The armies could make use of the supplies without the need to deplete what people had in their settlement. In absence of war, the supplies were given to poor and traded to keep the population growing, as well as, facilitate expansion of the empire. [7: Lasalle University, “Incan Documents (1500s),” Accessed July 9, 2016, https://century.adams12.org/sites/century.d7sb.adams12.org/files/users/bec013147/attachments/Incan%20primary%20source%20Documents.pdf] [8: Ibid]

In brief, the Inca Empire experienced remarkable growth, from once successful Inca ruler to another. The most critical factors facilitating the growth of the empire included, government structure and leaderships standards which were better back then, proper military and expansion strategy and presence of favorable weather that made the Incas fit and well fed, thus enabling them to focus on other growth factors.

Bibliography

Brian S. Bauer and R. Alan Covey. “Processes of State Formation in the Inca Hearland (Cuzco, Peru),” American Anthropologist 104 (2003): 846-863.

Covey, R. Alan. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. New York: University of Michigan Press, 2006.

Lasalle University. “Incan Documents (1500s).” Accessed July 9, 2016. https://century.adams12.org/sites/century.d7sb.adams12.org/files/users/bec013147/attachments/Incan%20primary%20source%20Documents.pdf