Early Childhood Developement
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Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
• Explain advances in self-regulation skills in school-aged children.
• Describe milestones in moral development during the middle childhood period that affect children’s prosocial and antisocial behavior.
• Explain gender stereotypes, especially as they relate to layers in Bronfen- brenner’s ecological model.
• Explore childhood peer groups and how the microsystem, macrosystem, meso- system, and chronosystem influence them.
• Explain peer interactions in elementary school, especially as they relate to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model.
8
Social and Behavioral Outcomes: School-Aged Children
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CHAPTER 8Pre-Test
Introduction
In Chapter 7, we discussed that the elementary school years are filled with cognitive and emotional transitions. In this chapter, we will explore the social and behavioral transitions in school-aged children. How do children deal with stress reactively and proactively and learn how to navigate diverse social contexts? More on this subject will be covered as we consider the nuances of emerging friendships.
Once children enter elementary school, they are opened up to a new world of social con- texts as they build their friendship networks and become involved in a variety of struc- tured activities at school and in their communities. Why do children of this age tend to congregate in gender-segregated groups, and why do they become more selective in choosing friends? We also will apply Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model as it relates to shaping children’s peer groups. It is important to explore peer relations in middle child- hood, because having a best friend in childhood is predictive of social competence later in adolescence.
Not all peer relations in middle childhood are positive, however, and bullying is perva- sive during this age. Bullying can take many forms, and we will discuss examples of the types of bullying that occur among school-aged children. We will also explore warnings signs of bullying and intervention programs to demonstrate what parents and teachers can do to identify bullying and help both bullies and their victims.
Pre-Test
1. Collaboration has little impact on a child’s ability to solve problems. True False
2. Early antisocial behavior is often associated with deviant peer relations. True False
3. Children generally describe females in action-related terms and males in appearance-related terms.
True False
4. Children who have secure relationships with their parents are likely to make friends more easily at school.
True False
5. Babak is 10 years old, and most of his friends are girls. Babak’s choice of friends would tend to make him less popular with his male peers.
True False
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Self-Regulation in Middle Childhood
Answers 1. False The answer can be found in Section 8.1. 2. True The answer can be found in Section 8.2. 3. False The answer can be found in Section 8.3. 4. True The answer can be found in Section 8.4. 5. True The answer can be found in Section 8.5.
8.1 Self-Regulation in Middle Childhood
Self-regulation is an important concept because it relates to how school-aged children solve problems. As we saw in Chapter 7 (Section 7.1), during this stage of childhood children have moved into a stage where they are able to solve problems logically. Children who are able to think through problems and the consequences of their actions are more likely to consider the feelings of others.
Proactive Coping
Self-regulation skills in school-aged children are critical because they are the root of pro- active coping skills. Proactive coping is a mechanism that involves anticipating poten- tial stressors, evaluating how to prevent them or reduce their impact, and planning a course of action to deal with a potential problem (Buckner, Mezzacappa, & Beardslee, 2009). Through proactive coping, children are able to reduce the number of stressors that they experience, which leads to better psychosocial adjustment. Let’s look at an example of proactive coping.
Malachi was invited to a birthday party the same weekend his dad was planning to take him camping. On the one hand, he is excited about the party and seeing his friends. On the other hand, he knows his dad was really looking forward to spending time with him, which hasn’t happened a lot lately because his dad frequently travels for work. Malachi is experiencing stress because he wants to do both things. Although he understands he can’t be in two places at once, he doesn’t know which invitation to accept, so he turns to his mother for advice. Proactive coping in this situation involves thinking through the options and the consequences of his decision, and his mother provides scaffolding for him to sort through his options. She tells him to consider his alternatives: First, he could go ahead with his plans to camp with his dad but buy a gift for his friend and give it to him the day before the party. This way he can spend time with his dad without hurting his friend’s feel- ings. Next, she explains that he could go to the party and talk with his dad about choosing another weekend to go camping. This option would allow him to celebrate with his friend yet not hurt his dad’s feelings by making plans to spend time another weekend when he is free. If Malachi had accepted the birthday party invitation right away before talking with his parents about the situation, he would have experienced a greater dilemma. However, because he hasn’t made a commitment yet, he still has time to weigh his options before hurting anyone’s feelings. Malachi’s proactive coping skills are helping him come up with a solution before the situation becomes an unmanageable problem.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Self-Regulation in Middle Childhood
Focused Coping
Self-regulation skills may also be critical in effectively dealing with stressors after they have occurred. Two types of strategies for coping with stressful situations in a reactive manner are emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Guthrie, 1997). Emotion-focused coping is a strategy that involves the regulation or management of negative emotions such as fear and anger. In contrast, problem-focused coping is a strategy that involves goal-directed efforts that include behavioral and atten- tion-regulation strategies that resolve the stressful situation.
For example, Helen broke her mother’s favorite vase in two pieces when she accidentally knocked it off the table. As an emotion-focused coping strategy, Helen counts to 10 to help her calm down before responding to the situation. Problem-focused coping in this situation involves coming up with the plan to fix or replace the vase. Helen decides to recruit her grandfather to help glue the vase back together. In this situation, Helen’s problem- focused coping motivates her to gather the resources necessary to resolve the problem before it escalates even further.
Roles of Parents and Peers in Self-Regulation
As is the case with self-regulation of toddlers (see Section 6.1), a child’s microsystem plays a pivotal role in helping the child continually develop self-regulation. Parents continue to be a major microsytem influence, but during this stage, peer relationships grow and begin to have more influence on a child.
The period of transition from preschool to middle childhood is a point of change in the relations between positive and negative social behaviors (Hastings, Utendale, & Sulli- van, 2007). These changes affect how children solve problems. In Chapter 7, we showed how Piaget believed that peer interaction helped lead to cognitive change (see Section 7.1). School-aged children who work collaboratively have been shown to have a greater ability to solve problems. Moreover, working collaboratively with their peers has been shown to facilitate lower-ability children’s problem-solving abilities—at times working with peers has greater results than working with a teacher or parent (Fawcett & Garton, 2005).
The United States places a strong emphasis on competition. As a result, children in middle childhood in particular are encouraged by their parents and peers to participate in activi- ties that enable them to gain confidence through competing in sports or other situations. These activities help children to learn how to perform under pressure and how to work
Michael Blann/Thinkstock
Problem-focused coping is an effective strategy that entails identifying a solution to a problem, such as asking one’s grandfather for help, before it results in a potential conflict.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Moral Development in Middle Childhood
together to achieve success. Children are positively reinforced when they win competi- tions, which in turn encourages them to continue in these pursuits throughout elementary school. If children are not successful in a particular activity, they may choose another domain or may be encouraged by peers in other groups to which they belong to partici- pate in some other activity.
8.2 Moral Development in Middle Childhood
Children who show signs of aggression at an early age are likely to continue these aggressive behaviors once they reach elementary school. Thus, early prosocial behavior protects against later antisocial behavior. Moral development is an impor- tant concept because it relates to the quality of relationships with peers.
What factors are related to development of prosocial and antisocial behavior in school- aged children? What can parents and teachers do to promote prosocial behaviors in mid- dle childhood? These are some questions we will answer in the following sections.
Prosocial Behavior
The socialization of prosocial development progresses through the ongoing and dynamic interactions between children and their parents, siblings, peers, teachers, and culture. The give-and-take nature of social influence motivates the complex processes shaping social and emotional development in childhood (Kuczynski, 2003).
Recall in Chapter 2 (see Section 2.3) we discussed various meth- ods of socialization including the observation method. Parents, siblings, peers, and teachers fos- ter children’s prosocial develop- ment in middle childhood by modeling concern for the needs of others through activities such as being caring, helping others in distress, and engaging in vol- unteer work. Children witness these prosocial activities, and they provide an example of how to interact with others in a kind manner. There is a strong cultural value placed on helping others in need, which also illustrates the role of the macrosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model in shaping children’s prosocial behavior.
The cognitive method of social development (see Section 2.3) is also important when shaping prosocial behavior because it can help children who may get “stuck” in one way of looking at a situation to consider other possibilities. The mesosystem of both parents and teachers can use inductive reasoning to inform children of norms and
Jupiterimages/Thinkstock
Interacting with peers who participate in charitable acts models key prosocial behaviors such as sharing.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Moral Development in Middle Childhood
principles, to explain why rules are necessary, to highlight the needs of other children and adults, and to explain the effects of children’s actions. For example, classroom teachers frequently explain to children the rules of the classroom and why these rules are important for the safety and well-being of the entire class. Explaining the conse- quences of one’s actions also promotes children’s reasoning skills. When children mis- behave, parents should explain why these actions are hurtful to others so children can understand the consequences of their behaviors.
Antisocial Behavior
Recent theoretical viewpoints about the develop- ment of antisocial behavior emphasize the impor- tance of the age of onset of antisocial behavior (Kokko, Tremblay, Lacourse, Nagin, & Vitaro, 2006). Some children will manifest antisocial behavior early in life and are likely to follow a pathway of deviance, whereas other children will first show signs of deviance at a later age, such as during adolescence. A common example of deviant behavior in adolescence is shoplifting. Sometimes adolescents steal clothing or desirable objects to try to impress their friends even if they have the means to buy the item they are stealing. Also, some may try to steal just to see if they can get away with it.
Factors for childhood-onset antisocial behavior may be intensified by a high-risk social environ- ment (van Lier, Wanner, & Vitaro, 2007). These high-risk social environments reflect the role of different layers in Bronfenbrenner’s ecologi- cal model. For example, having a parent who has poor skills for coping with stress associated with child-rearing and affiliating with other devi- ant peers at school and in the neighborhood are
examples of microsystems and mesosystems that shape pathways of antisocial behavior. Let’s look at an example of early-onset antisocial behavior.
Ever since he was a baby, Austin had a difficult temperament. No matter what his mother or father tried to do to comfort him, he was fussy and didn’t like to be held. As a toddler he was hyperactive. He always tried to get into closets and cupboards, and noises in the environment easily distracted him. In preschool, Austin was diagnosed with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). He had a difficult time making friends, but the children he did associate with were very aggressive and often got into trouble for biting and hitting their peers. In elementary school, Austin continued his aggressive behavior. Austin was teased by other children because he was tutored after school, and he retaliated by hitting and stealing their belongings. Austin’s parents used harsh discipline strategies to control him. Even though his parents thought these techniques were calming him down, they actually were modeling the kind of behaviors they wanted Austin to stop at school.
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Children with later onset of deviance are likely to manifest antisocial behaviors such as shoplifting during adolescence.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Gender Role Development in Middle Childhood
8.3 Gender Role Development in Middle Childhood
In Chapter 6, we discussed gender consistency (see Section 6.3), which is part of the final stage in Kohlberg’s theory (see Section 2.4). Only boys and girls in middle child-hood can explain their answers in a way that demonstrates an understanding of con- stancy, such as boys always remain boys even if they grow long hair or wear jewelry.
The belief that girls should have long hair and like to wear jew- elry and boys should have short hair and play sports are examples of common gender stereotypes, and themes of masculine and feminine stereotypes have been discovered in children’s sponta- neous descriptions of boys and girls (Miller, Lurye, Zosulus, & Ruble, 2009). For example, when asked what girls are like, children describe girls predominantly in appearance-related terms, such as dresses, jewelry, long hair, and makeup. In contrast, when asked what boys are like, children describe boys mostly in activity- or behavior-related terms, includ- ing wrestling, rough-and-tumble play, and action fantasy play.
It is important to note that although ADHD may be associated with a higher risk of antisocial behavior, this does not imply that all children with ADHD will demonstrate aggressive behavior.
Austin’s story highlights the importance of parents in modeling ways to handle conflict. Although parents may think a particular strategy is effective, they actually may be pro- moting the behavior they are trying to eliminate. Girls are more likely to display adoles- cent-onset antisocial behavior as they begin to question authority and rebel, whereas boys are more likely to follow a childhood-onset pathway (Fergusson & Horwood, 2002). Why do these differences in genders exist? We will explore next this next.
Think About It
Stop and think back to your classroom experiences in elementary school or any experiences you have with children in the middle-childhood period. What examples of early aggressive behavior and devi- ance do you recall observing in your peers? How do these behaviors reflect the different layers in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model?
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
When spontaneously asked to describe what boys are like, both boys’ and girls’ stereotypes reflect a portrayal of boys in terms of physical activity.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Gender Role Development in Middle Childhood
Gender stereotyping illustrates the role of three systems in Bronfenbrenner’s ecologi- cal model, the microsystem, exosystem, and macrosystem, in the socialization process. Almost all children become aware of gender stereotypes regardless of family (microsys- tem) attitudes or values, because the mass media (exosystem) exposes children to mes- sages about gender. Further, the child’s cultural setting (macrosystem) contains implicit and explicit message about values. We will discuss each of these layers individually.
Microsystem Influences on Gender Stereotypes
Although different groups of the microsystem can influence a child’s gender stereotyp- ing, it is the microsystem of the parents that seems to affect a child’s beliefs the most. How do parents communicate gender stereotype content to their children? Narratives, or the way parents talk to their children about personal experiences, can influence what children learn about gender. For example, analysis of low-income immigrant families showed that conversations with sons contained more action-based activities than conver- sations with daughters (Cristofaro & Tamis-LeMonda, 2008). In contrast, conversations with daughters included references to physical appearance more frequently than conver- sations with sons. Parents also may communicate gender differences between men and women in subtle ways such as how expectations of appropriate emotions are expressed. For example, parents may subtly hint that it’s acceptable for girls to be scared, but boys should not be scared.
Others suggest that mothers and fathers differ in the types of activities they do with chil- dren, which may promote gender stereotypes such as caregiving for females and physical strength for males. Whereas fathers spend more time playing games and participating in sports with their children, especially boys, mothers spend time teaching their children and having conversations with them about their feelings (McHale, Crouter, & Whiteman, 2003). Differential parenting roles are also influenced by cultural values and expectations about what males and females are supposed to do while raising their children, which reflects the impact of the exosystem.
Exosystem Influences on Gender Stereotypes
Society at large also can influence children’s knowledge of and use of gender stereotypes, such as television and the media in general (Halim & Ruble, 2010). The mass media is part of the exosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (1979, 1989, 2005). Despite attempts at change over the past few decades, television programming still reflects stereo- typic messages that teach and reinforce traditional gender roles. The media seldom por- trays boys with feminine traits. For example, an analysis of school-aged children’s reading textbooks revealed that boys were depicted with stereotypically masculine traits (Evans & Davies, 2000). Further, examination of commercials directed at school-aged children demonstrated that boys and men were more likely than girls and women to be depicted in a major role, have active movement in an individual activity, and be in an occupational setting (Davis, 2003). For example, men were more likely to be depicted as participants in sporting activities or doing activities at work.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Gender Role Development in Middle Childhood
Macrosystem Influences on Gender Stereotypes
Another area that reflects macrosystem influences on gender stereotypes is children’s per- ceptions of gender status. Public regard refers to the awareness that other people may evaluate one’s group and hold it in high or low esteem, which reflects cultural values. The experience of being a member of a low-status group motivates changes in one’s iden- tity that involve distancing oneself from the low-status group and/or associating more strongly with the high-status group. The “pink frilly dress” (PFD) phenomenon has been described as a striking trend in 3- and 4-year-old girls (Halim, Ruble, & Amodio, 2011). The PFD phenomenon reflects the observation that preschool-aged girls love to wear pink clothes and demand to wear a dress even when inconvenient and inappropriate, such as when the weather is cold. Despite its prevalence in early childhood, there is shift away from PFD and an emergence of tomboy behavior in middle childhood. Compared to pre-
schoolers, school-aged girls show increasing interest in masculine activities and behaviors and may actively shun pink objects and female-typed activities. They may like to play more sports, wear pants, and play with male- typed toys (Paechter & Clark, 2007). For example, Terry is an 8-year-old girl. She used to play with dolls and wanted to wear pink outfits to school. When she was 6, she started to play soccer and became more interested in sports. Now she prefers to wear jeans and shorts instead of pink dresses. In fact, she finds it awk- ward to wear dresses and skirts at all because it would interfere with the activities she wants to do at recess.
The shift away from PFD and the emergence of “tomboyism” in middle childhood may be triggered by an emerging sense of public regard (Halim et al., 2011). School-aged girls may embrace masculine-typed behavior in order to improve their social standing as they become more aware of the differential status ascribed to males and females. Interestingly, boys in middle childhood tend to be more rigid in their stereotypic toy and activity prefer- ences than girls (Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006).
Barry Austin/Thinkstock
School-aged girls’ choice of activities and clothing may end up being in sharp contrast to behaviors of preschool girls who might prefer to wear frilly dresses.
Think About It
Stop and think about the content of some commercials you have seen recently on television. Describe the main characters of the commercial and the portrayals of men and women or boys and girls. How did the portrayals compare to gender stereotypes? In what ways were the attributes or actions of the characters consistent or inconsistent with gender stereotypes?
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Peer Group as Socialization Agent in Middle Childhood
8.4 Peer Group as Socialization Agent in Middle Childhood
Peer relations in childhood, particularly during the elementary school years, are criti-cal because being rejected during middle childhood is a precursor to other problems such as bullying and depression. Friendships take on a new level of complexity dur- ing middle childhood compared to friendships in preschool. For example, school-aged children become more selective in choosing friends and are more likely to be friends with peers who share common interests and values. Further, close friendships occur almost exclusively with peers of the same sex (Parker, Rubin, Erath, Wojslawowicz, & Buskirk, 2006). What factors influence the nature of school-aged children’s friendships? Applica- tion of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model as it relates to children’s peer groups in middle childhood, namely the microsystem, macrosystem, mesosystem, and chronosystem, pro- vides key insights into the bioecological influences on the peer group.
Voices: Thoughts From the Playground: Children’s Gender Roles in Elementary School
Mallory, age 8, student: I am a 3rd-grade student at Jefferson Elementary School and just celebrated my 8th birthday. I want to be the first female president someday. My favorite color is blue. I love to play sports at recess and have two best friends on the softball team. I used to wear dresses and skirts all the time when in preschool, but I told my mom not to buy them for me anymore. All of my friends wear jeans and pants to school now, and I wouldn’t be able to run around as easily while wearing a dress. Girls can do anything that boys can, and playing outside is more fun than playing with girls’ toys. There is no reason for me to play with dolls anymore. I would rather practice my swing so that I can move up in the line-up and maybe even be the leader-off batter one day. If I want to be in charge of the country one day, it is important for me to be strong and be a good role model for my teammates. Even when I get upset, I try to keep my cool on the field. A good leader must be able to deal with pressure.
Brandon, age 9, student: I am a fourth-grade student at Washington Elementary School. My favorite color is red, and I want to be a pro football player someday. I love to watch Drew Brees, the quarter- back of the New Orleans Saints, on television. My dad was a good athlete when he was young and even won a football scholarship in college, but he didn’t make it to the NFL. However, he plays foot- ball with me and my brothers every day after school so we can practice. My dad tells me that I am fast and coordinated, which is a good skill to have if you want to be a quarterback like me. I play in the Pop Warner League just like my brother. The teachers at school don’t allow tackling on the play- ground, so we can’t do any scrimmaging at school. My friends and I practice running drills instead at recess so we can improve our speed. I always have been interested in sports and doing physical activi- ties like climbing trees and wrestling. My mom is worried that I am going to get hurt playing football, just like my dad, but I am not afraid. When I get tackled, I always get back up and shake it off just like my heroes in the NFL.
Reflection Questions
Compare and contrast Mallory and Brandon’s behavior. Explain how their activities support or refute gender stereotypes.
1. What themes did you notice that relate to concept of public regard? 2. How do their behaviors reflect the influence of the different layers of Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological model?
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Peer Group as Socialization Agent in Middle Childhood
Microsystem Influences on the Peer Group
Parents are one example of microsystem influences on the peer group in middle child- hood. Children who have positive and close relationships with their parents are more likely to engage in prosocial activities (Anderson, Sabatelli, & Kosutic, 2007), and children who are prosocial have an easier time making friends at school. Further, parents who are supportive of their children are also more likely to get them involved in activities at school (Wang & Eccles, 2012).
Parents are not the only influences that expose children to new people and activities. Sib- lings are another example of microsystem influences. Depending on how close the chil- dren are in age, they may share some of the same friends. Older siblings may provide a gateway to peer interaction by introducing the younger children to other children in the neighborhood or at school who are similar in age. Siblings also introduce children to social norms and values by teaching them what behaviors are appropriate in particular settings.
Macrosystem Influences on the Peer Group
Peer interactions in middle childhood are likely to be shaped by cultural norms and values in their community and society at large, reflecting macrosystem influences as outlined in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model. For example, Western societies like the United States place a strong value on social initiative, assertiveness, expressiveness, and competitive- ness. Therefore, children who are shy or inhibited are likely to be viewed as lacking social compe- tence, and the negative feedback that shy children may receive may create pressure to modify their behaviors (Chen, 2012). This example demonstrates the regulatory function of peers in shaping the process through which cultural values influence individual development.
Children also play an active role through their participation in adopting existing cultures and constructing new cultures for social evaluations and other activ- ities in the group. For example, children routinely form informal peer groups based on common interests such as academics, sports, or hobbies. These peer cultures formed by children provide an opportunity for group functioning along with guidance for children on how to evaluate their behavior and act in accordance with group norms (Chen, Chang, He, & Liu, 2005). The extent to which culture encourages children to maintain, adopt, and transform existing values in the society either promotes or weakens the active role of children in development. By emphasizing particular features of peer relationships, cultural beliefs and
Digital Vision/Getty Images
In Western societies like the United States that place a high value on extroversion, peer groups are more likely to shun shy children.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Peer Group as Socialization Agent in Middle Childhood
values heighten children’s sensitivity to socially valued characteristics and influence peer interactions. Societal norms and values can shape the types of activities that children are encouraged to pursue in middle childhood.
Mesosystem Influences on the Peer Group
As children enter elementary school, they spend a significant amount of time in struc- tured settings such as classrooms. They may also be part of youth organizations such as sports leagues and teams, or the Scouts. Structured youth activities are associated with positive youth development. Children living in communities with more opportunities to participate in structured activities have multiple contexts for building peer relations and developing social skills. These programs provide the context for children to build their strengths and competencies, and the encouragement to learn and explore, and the codes and rules associated with the organization convey expectations for caring, character building, and moral identity (Damon, 2004).
Youth organizations illustrate the impact of the mesosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model because of the linkage of multiple systems including home, school, neighborhood, and larger community. These pro- grams illustrate the bidirectional influence on children’s develop- ment and the peer group. These organizations provide a venue for youth to interact and build friend- ships while working toward a common goal while also provid- ing the opportunity for youth to influence their own develop- ment through building leader- ship skills and even shaping their own communities through social change—for example, cleaning
up neighborhood parks. The attributes of organizations that are highly predictive of posi- tive outcomes for children include opportunities for planning and taking initiative and the availability of positive peer and adult role models (Ramey & Rose-Krasnor, 2012).
Chronosystem Influences on the Peer Group
Normative and non-normative life events reflect the role of the chronosystem in Bronfen- brenner’s ecological model (see Section 1.4). An example of a normative life event would be going to school, while an example of a non-normative life would be an unexpected life event, such as a child’s parents divorcing.
Science Faction/SuperStock
Youth organizations such as the Boy Scouts of America promote team-building skills as well as individual development, including respect and honesty.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Peer Group Interactions in Middle Childhood
Other non-normative events of the chronosystem that probably have the greatest impact on peer groups are sudden poverty or homelessness. The National Center on Family Homelessness reports that over 1.6 million children, or 1 in 45 children, were homeless each year in the United States between 2006 and 2010 (Bassuk, Murphy, Coupe, Kenney, & Beach, 2011). Some homeless families live in shelters for short periods, while others live in cars, public spaces, or remain doubled up with family or friends in an apartment or home. Chronic homelessness has numerous impacts on children in middle childhood, includ- ing school performance and peer relations. For example, children who are homeless may have to move frequently, so they are separated from their friends. Further, if they partici- pated in an after-school activity and move to a new area, they have to find a new group to join. Additionally, children who are chronically homeless are more likely to be held back in school compared to their peers with stable residences (Rafferty, Shinn, & Weitzman, 2004). Children who are retained may be more likely to be teased by their peers for their academic performance as well, which in turn places an additional strain on peer relations.
Strained peer relations are concerning because friendships during middle childhood are critical for helping children build social skills and cope with adversity. Children in ele- mentary school are more aware of differences compared to preschoolers, which places homeless children at risk for social comparison among peers. In the next section, we turn our attention to the complexity of peer group interactions in childhood and describe the positive and the negative side of middle childhood.
8.5 Peer Group Interactions in Middle Childhood
During the elementary school years, children depend on each other for compan-ionship, advice, and self-validation. Peer relations provide a context for self- understanding and learning how to relate to others. Friends are a source of help and self-revelation. For example, children often reveal their deepest secrets and private thoughts to their best friends. Also, there is mutual dependency, illustrated by the principle, “I scratch your back, and you scratch mine.” Children also learn how to negotiate, share, compromise, and defend each other and themselves through interac- tions with peers.
A certain amount of aggression, counter-aggression, and reconciliation is expected in peer relations as children work out conflicts with one another and learn how to compromise. However, not all peer interactions during middle childhood have positive features, and some children are the victims of bullying. In the sections that follow we will discuss the darker side of peer relations including the types of bullying that are common during the elementary school years and the characteristics of bullies and their victims. We start by dis- cussing how children stratify themselves into different groups during middle childhood.
In-Groups and Out-Groups
In addition to the increase in the number of available peers as children enter school, chil- dren entering middle and later childhood are likely to encounter unprecedented variability in the characteristics and personalities of their peers, especially in school contexts (Parker et al., 2006). These differences contribute to observable hierarchies of power and popu- larity, striking similarities among friends, and to groups that are rigidly separated along
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Peer Group Interactions in Middle Childhood
various lines (Abrams, Rutland, & Cameron, 2003; McHale, Dari- otis, & Kauh, 2003). For example, children who have friendships primarily with members of the opposite sex tend to be less pop- ular with their peers and less socially skilled (Kovacs, Parker, & Hoffman, 1996). However, sex is not the only social category that separates children’s groups in elementary school. Beginning in the middle childhood years, children begin to hold nega- tive views about the groups to which they do not belong, or “outsiders.”
In-groups are peer groups to which children feel they belong, such as the “insiders,” or the collective “us.” In contrast, out-groups are peer groups to which children feel they do not belong, such as the “outsiders,” or the collective “them.” Children who share common attributes and interests would be part of an in-group, whereas children who are viewed as different would be part of the out-group. The concept of in-groups and out-groups relates to the concept of macrosystem influences on peer rela- tionships. Cultural values dictate which attributes are desirable in friends, such as athletic ability or common interests. Let’s look at an example of groupings in middle childhood.
Sarah is a member of the soccer team. She considers the other members of her team to be part of her in-group. They wear similar styles of clothing, wear their hair the same way, and share common interests in sports and outdoor activities. For example, the soc- cer team often goes camping together. The soccer team at her school hangs out together during lunch and plays with each other during recess and after school. Sarah considers the girls in her class who do not belong to the soccer team to be the out-group because they do not appreciate her love for sports. Her behavior illustrates a feature of friend- ship in middle childhood that children prefer friends of the same gender and who share common characteristics or interests, which in Sarah’s case is athleticism.
Children who are part of the “out-group” are more likely to be targets of bullies and pos- sibly even become bullies themselves. Let’s turn our attention to the types of bullying that are common in childhood and the factors that relate to bullying and peer victimization.
Bullies and Their Victims
Bullying during middle childhood takes on different forms, including direct and indi- rect bullying. Bullying often occurs in the context of the child’s mesosystems (linkage of microsystems) in Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1989, 2005) ecological model, such as school and extracurricular activities like sports. Forms of direct bullying include physical and
Brand X Pictures/Thinkstock
School-aged children’s friendships are separated along gender lines and areas of mutual interest; out-group members are excluded from desirable activities.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Peer Group Interactions in Middle Childhood
verbal. Direct bullying involves tactics perpetrated overtly against the victim, such as physical and verbal bullying. Physical bullying includes physical aggression, such as hitting, kicking, pushing, spitting, stealing, and using weapons. Verbal bullying includes hurting one another with words, such as name-calling, teasing, or making racial or ethnic slurs (Milsom & Gallo, 2006). Let’s look at some examples of direct bullying.
Bill is a 10-year-old student who doesn’t like to ride the bus to school. Every morning on the way to school, Martin, a 12-year-old, throws spitballs at Bill while he is reading a book. Bill has tried to ignore him, but other kids giggle when Martin throws the spitballs, which gives Martin greater motivation to continue the behavior. To make mat- ters worse, sometimes Martin grabs Bill, steals his lunch bag, and takes out his favorite snacks, throw- ing the bag on the ground after he takes whatever he wants from it. This example highlights acts of physical aggression against the victim, such as grabbing, throwing objects, and stealing.
In contrast to direct bullying, indirect bully- ing, which is also known as relational bullying, involves tactics that may be covertly targeted at damaging the victim’s social relations. Relational bullying involves using relationships to hurt or manipulate others, such as spreading rumors, intentionally excluding someone from a group, or influencing other peers to do certain behaviors (Crick, Ostrov, & Werner, 2006). Let’s look at some examples of relational bullying.
Jasmine is a 12-year-old girl with a large group of friends at school. Recently, a new girl named Maya moved to town and has been causing trouble for Jasmine. Jasmine has tried to make peace with Maya, but it hasn’t stopped her bullying. For example, Jasmine’s birthday is coming up and she invited Maya to the party, hoping that she could get to know her better and make her feel important. However, Maya started a rumor that Jas- mine is in love with her best friend Sophia’s boyfriend, and now her friends are angry at her and don’t want to come to her party. In reality, Jasmine has no interest in the boyfriend and tried to explain this to Sophia, but she doesn’t believe her. Ever since the incident, no one will sit with Jasmine at lunch, and she is given the cold shoulder in and outside of class as well. This example highlights relational bullying, which includes the starting of rumors and social exclusion.
Henry King/Getty Images
Direct bullying includes use of force and may be hidden from teachers and parents if it happens in places with less adult supervision.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Peer Group Interactions in Middle Childhood
Figure 8.1: Types of bullying
Bullying greatly affects children’s social development and can create lingering anxieties for the victims. These anxieties can have lasting effects on children’s future development, including their attitudes and beliefs about the world.
Direct Bullying
Physical Bullying
Verbal Bullying
Indirect Bullying
Relational Bullying
Relational aggression also may involve the use of technology and social media. For exam- ple, a child may send unflattering pictures of a victim to other classmates via email or may post them to social media outlets like Facebook. It is important for parents to monitor children’s use of technology and social media to be on the alert for instances of bullying, whether it be sending potentially harmful messages themselves or being the target of a bully. Parents are often the first line of defense in bullying in other areas as well, which we explore in the next section.
Did You Know?
Did you know that direct bullying is more common among boys, and indirect bullying is more com- mon among girls? Girls are more likely to manipulate friendships, such as harming others through social exclusion and public humiliation, than boys. Relational aggression can have social payoffs for girls, such as moving to the top of the social hierarchy (Moretti, Catchpole, & Odgers, 2005).
Role of Parents in Bullying Prevention
Parents play a key role in bullying prevention by monitoring patterns in their school- aged children’s behavior and paying attention to any striking changes. It is important for parents to talk with their children on a daily basis about what happened before, during, and after school to identify any problems that might have occurred. Because children in middle school would rather talk with their friends than their parents, one strategy for engaging children is talking during meal times. Routine communication about children’s activities also highlights potential changes in behavior that might be signs of peer victim- ization. Let’s look at an example of some warning signs in a child’s behavior patterns.
Miguel is an 8-year-old boy who always made the honor roll and looked forward to going to school. He participated in several after-school activities with his friends and seemed to get along well with others. His teachers commented that he was hard working and very cooperative in the classroom. One day Miguel’s mother noticed a change in his attitude
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Peer Group Interactions in Middle Childhood
about school. He started to get sick often even though it was not the prime season for colds and flu. His grades started to decline, and he asked if he could quit the Boy Scouts. His mother also noticed that he was hungry after school as if he had not eaten lunch even though she gave him lunch every morning.
One of the warning signs of bul- lying is changes in the child’s behavior pattern, such as change in the child’s interest in school. If a child who ordinarily enjoys school and likes to participate in school activities all of a sudden wants to stay home, that is a red flag for the parent that something may be happening at school. The child is trying to avoid the situation where the bully is encountered by withdrawing and staying at home by pretending to be sick in this example. Miguel’s parents discussed the boy’s recent behavior changes after dinner and noticed that even at home he often stares into space and looks depressed.
Another change manifested by Miguel was in his appetite. He seemed to be starving all the time even though his mother gave him lunch every morning. This warning sign may indicate that someone is taking Miguel’s lunch or else he is so upset by something that he cannot eat the food at school.
What could Miguel’s mother do in this situation? First, she could talk to his teachers and other staff at school who could provide information about how he is interacting with other children at school and some insights into why Miguel doesn’t want to participate anymore or recall incidents that may have happened. Miguel’s mother also needs to have a conversation with Miguel himself about why he doesn’t seem to enjoy school anymore. When discussing the situation with Miguel, it is important that the mother remain calm and open-minded when discussing the situation with him. If Miguel doesn’t want to open up to his mother, she could recommend that he talk to someone else he trusts, but it is important to find out how Miguel is feeling. For example, he could talk to a friend, sibling, relative, teacher, or other trusted adult.
Second, his mother also should be looking out for other warning signs such as bruises or signs of direct bullying and pay attention to any signs she sees at home or in other con- texts. It is important for parents to intervene early before the situation escalates.
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Parents play a critical role in bullying prevention by noticing changes in their child’s behavior and looking for warning signs that often include sadness and withdrawal from previously enjoyed activities.
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Peer Group Interactions in Middle Childhood
This example illustrates the importance of parent involvement in bullying prevention pro- grams. Parents may be the first ones to identify that there is a problem going on at school. Often victims of bullies are embarrassed to admit that they are being harassed. Parents also can identify signs that their child is a bully, such as monitoring their Internet activity and observing interest in violent websites or noticing an increase in delinquent behavior or changes in mood. Parents can provide a valuable clue to teachers that something is happening at home that may translate to the school environment so that teachers can be prepared to monitor and intervene if the situation continues. Next, we discuss the role of teachers in bullying prevention, including how comprehensive programs include a parent involvement component.
Role of Teachers in Bullying Prevention
School violence has become a widely publicized topic in recent years. With more shoot- ings taking place on school property and students routinely fighting, teachers and school administrators have increased their efforts to prevent bullying. Evidence on bullying high-
lights the importance of appro- priate supervision by teachers and administrators. For exam- ple, bullying often takes place in contexts where there is little or poor supervision by teach- ers, or sometimes supervisors overlook or ignore the bullying, which reinforces the bully (Long & Alexander, 2010). As a result, bullies often think they can get away with the behavior if teach- ers ignore it, and their victims are afraid to report it to teachers for fear of additional attacks.
To bring bullying under control, first it is important that teachers are made aware that bullying is taking place in their classrooms and hallways. Students should
be encouraged to report bullying behavior immediately. Second, it is imperative that teachers routinely monitor hallways, playgrounds, and places where students frequently convene before, during, and after school to identify bullying behaviors before they esca- late and result in serious injuries. Third, schools must develop policies for dealing with bullying behaviors. Students should be made aware of the consequences of bullying, and it should be communicated clearly that bullying of any form will not be tolerated at the school. Fourth, it is important for teachers to be trained how to respond to bullying
Comstock/Thinkstock
Teachers must maintain awareness of what is happening in places where students congregate, like school hallways, to prevent bullying.
Think About It
What would you do if you observed that a child was exhibiting the warning signs of bullying?
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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Peer Group Interactions in Middle Childhood
In addition to bullying programs aimed to educate teachers, parents, and students in general, bullying interventions have been developed to promote prosocial behavior in children who are bullies. Given how common bullying is at elementary schools, it is important for both prosocial and antisocial children to participate in bullying preven- tion efforts to recognize the warning signs of bullying and learn strategies for coping with it.
incidents, including how to tend to the needs of the victim and how to provide feedback to the bully. Both victims and bullies can benefit from developing skills and receiving sup- port both prior to and after incidents of bullying (Rigby, 2002).
It is also important for directors of after-school programs to be alert for the warning signs of bullying and to incorporate bullying prevention programs in their activities. Given the prevalence of after-school programs and extra-curricular activities and the amount of time children spend in these mesosystems each week, these outlets are especially appropriate contexts for intervention. Bullying prevention programs must be comprehensive and tar- get both the bullies and the victims to help with perspective taking and getting the bullies to understand how their actions impact others and provide needed resources for victims.
Case Study 8.1: “Steps to Respect” Comprehensive Bullying Prevention Program
Responses to the prevalence and impact of bullying have included the development of school-based programs, many of which take a comprehensive approach to preventing and intervening in peer aggression at multiple levels in a school’s ecology. For example, prevention activities have included school-level, classroom-level, and individual-level components (Hirschstein, Van Schoiack Edstrom, Frey, Snell, & MacKenzie, 2007). At the school level, prevention activities have included the institution of antibullying policies and training staff how to monitor and intervene. At the classroom level, teach- ers have implemented curricular activities that target student learning objectives. At the individual level, teachers have worked one-on-one with students to encourage behavior change among children directly involved in bullying incidents.
One example of a comprehensive bullying prevention program is the “Steps to Respect” program (Committee for Children, 2001). The overall goal of this program was to reduce school bullying by increasing adult awareness and monitoring, enhancing support for prosocial behavior, and teaching social-emotional skills to support healthy peer relationships and counter bullying. The curriculum was developed for students in grades 3 through 6 and implemented in schools in Washington. One of the individual interventions entailed teaching the “Four-A Response”: affirm behavior, ask questions, assess immediate safety, and act. Classroom lessons included identifying types of bullying behavior, practicing emotion regulation skills, and teaching specific bullying prevention skills. Even parents were involved in this program through participation in a presentation and receiving home program materials.
Student outcomes were measured by student surveys, teacher ratings of peer social skills, and obser- vations of playground behaviors. Results of the evaluation revealed that teacher coaching of students involved in bullying was associated with reduced victimization and destructive bystander behavior among students who were engaged in these problems at the onset of the program (Hirschstein et al., 2007). Additionally, less aggression was observed among fifth- and sixth-grade students.
Reflection Questions
1. Which of the “Four-A Response” techniques do you think would be most effective or most widely used with children in middle childhood?
2. How do bullying behaviors relate to the different systems in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model?
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CHAPTER 8Post-Test
Conclusion
Middle childhood represents a period of major transition in many domains of development including self-regulation, prosocial behavior and moral develop-ment, gender roles, and peer relationships. School-aged children’s involvement in activities in and outside of school provide a rich context for building character, social skills, and friendships. Meeting new people exposes school-aged children to diverse backgrounds and new belief systems and values; it also provides a context for moral devel- opment as conflicts arise in the mesosystem that must be resolved by choosing between competing values. Having good friends in elementary school is especially important because having at least one friend to rely on for support is predictive of healthy outcomes later in adolescence and adulthood.
Not all youths have idyllic childhoods, however, and some of the challenges have long- term impacts on development include non-normative events like chronic homelessness. Being homeless over time is associated with negative cognitive and social outcomes for children and demonstrates the role of the chronosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model. The instability of changing residences may impact children’s friendships, espe- cially during middle childhood when children are likely to make social comparisons. It can also lead to other serious issues facing children in middle childhood, such as bullying.
As technology evolves, children are exposed to ever-changing contexts for the develop- ment of friendships. New social media also are outlets where bullying can occur. In Chap- ter 9 we will discuss this as well as the role of technology in the lives of children and how it relates to the various layers in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model.
Post-Test
1. Abdul is scared of the dark. His father showed him a trick to help him cope with his fear. Whenever he feels scared, Abdul just closes his eyes, takes a deep breath, and counts to 10. This is an example of _________________ coping.
a. problem-focused b. resilient c. emotion-focused d. proactive
2. When Ms. Ruiz explains to her students why there is no pushing on the play- ground, she is using the ________________ method of socialization.
a. sociocultural b. observation c. cognitive d. apprenticeship
3. A child in which of the following age groups is most likely to display behaviors reflective of the “pink frilly dress” phenomenon?
a. adolescence b. preschool period c. middle childhood
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CHAPTER 8Key Ideas
d. toddlerhood
4. Youth organizations illustrate the impact of the ______________ in Bronfen- brenner’s ecological model.
a. mesosystem b. exosystem c. macrosystem d. chronosystem
5. Sending mean photos of someone via text is an example of _____________ bullying. a. indirect b. verbal c. direct d. relational
Answers 1. c. emotion-focused The answer can be found in Section 8.1. 2. c. cognitive The answer can be found in Section 8.2. 3. b. preschool period The answer can be found in Section 8.3. 4. a. mesosystem The answer can be found in Section 8.4. 5. d. relational The answer can be found in Section 8.5.
Key Ideas
• Proactive coping enables school-aged children to reduce the number of stressors that they experience, thereby leading to better psychosocial adjustment.
• Self-regulation skills are critical in effectively dealing with stressors reactively after a problem has occurred.
• Early prosocial behavior protects against later antisocial behavior, but early anti- social behavior such as aggression appears to be a risk factor for later deficits in prosocial behavior.
• The socialization of prosocial development progresses through the ongoing and dynamic interactions between children and their parents, siblings, peers, teach- ers, and culture.
• Cognitive and observational techniques are effective methods in promoting pro- social skills in childhood.
• Physical aggression at age 6 is predictive of school dropout and physical violence later in life.
• Boys are more likely than girls to display childhood-onset antisocial behavior. • The peak of rigidity in gender stereotyping appears to occur around ages 5 to 6,
and then flexibility increases dramatically around ages 7 to 8. • Parents’ narratives, including the way they talk to their children about personal
experiences, can influence what children learn about gender. • Society at large, including television and the media in general, influences chil-
dren’s knowledge of and use of gender stereotypes.
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CHAPTER 8Critical Thinking Questions
• Compared to preschoolers, girls in elementary school show increasing interest in masculine activities and behaviors and may actively shun pink objects and female-typed activities.
• Cultural norms and values shape peer interactions in middle childhood and illustrate the role of the macrosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model.
• Peer relations during the elementary school years are critical because being rejected during middle childhood is a precursor for other problems such as bully- ing and depression.
• Children become more selective in choosing friends during middle childhood, and in-groups and out-groups are commonly observed in elementary schools.
• Bullying during childhood takes on different forms, including direct and indirect bullying.
• Boys are more likely to use direct bullying tactics such as physical aggression, whereas girls are more likely to use indirect tactics such as spreading rumors.
• Evidence on bullying highlights the importance of appropriate supervision by teachers and administrators.
• Effective bullying prevention programs have incorporated comprehensive inter- ventions at the individual, classroom, and school levels.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Reactive and proactive coping have different functions in solving problems. Have you ever been in a situation where you used a reactive or proactive coping strategy? Was the strategy effective? Why or why not? If not, what do you think might have been more effective?
2. Explain how the mesosystem and macrosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model relates to antisocial behavior in middle childhood.
3. Stop and think back to your classroom experiences in elementary school. Describe an example of something you learned from your teacher, parent, sib- ling, or peer group through the observational method (i.e., learning by watching others). What was the situation that prompted the strategy, and what was the outcome? Explain how this method encouraged the development of prosocial behavior.
4. What gender stereotypes have you observed in boys and girls in middle child- hood? Think about your own gender roles. How did they change in elementary school compared to when you were in preschool? How would you explain the PFD syndrome in terms of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model?
5. How do in-groups and out-groups in middle childhood reflect the influence of layers in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model?
6. Recall instances of bullying during middle childhood. How did your teachers and administrators respond to bullying incidents? Describe any programs or policies in your school and how they compare to comprehensive bullying pre- vention programs described in this chapter.
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CHAPTER 8
direct bullying Tactics that are perpe- trated overtly against the victim, such as physical and verbal bullying.
emotion-focused coping Strategy that involves the regulation or management of negative emotions such as fear and anger.
gender consistency An understanding that despite superficial changes such as clothing, a boy will remain a boy and a girl will remain a girl.
indirect bullying Tactics that may be covertly targeted at damaging the victim’s social relations; also known as relational bullying.
in-groups Friendship groups viewed as the “insiders” or collective “us.”
out-groups Friendship groups viewed as the “outsiders” or collective “them.”
physical bullying Type of bullying that involves physical aggression such as hit- ting, kicking, pushing, spitting, stealing, and using weapons.
proactive coping Strategy that involves anticipating potential stressors, evaluat- ing how to prevent them or reduce their impact, and planning a course of action to deal with a potential problem.
problem-focused coping Strategy that involves goal-directed efforts that include behavioral and attention-regulation strate- gies that resolve the stressful situation.
public regard Awareness that other people may evaluate one’s group and hold it in high or low esteem.
relational bullying Type of bullying that involves using relationships to hurt or manipulate others, such as spreading rumors, social exclusion, or influencing other peers to do certain behaviors.
verbal bullying Type of bullying that includes hurting one another with words such as name-calling, teasing, or making racial or ethnic slurs.
Web Resources
Key Terms
Web Resources
This website describes tips for developing caring kids and provides advice on how parents can help foster prosocial skills in children and promote empathy: http://www.csee.org/files/Documents/Resources/Eight_Tips_Eisenberg.pdf
This website describes how parenting stress can affect children. The article contains practical advice for coping with stress including recognizing the symptoms of stress and how to model and teach coping skills to children: http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/fcs/pdfs/fcs518-06.pdf
This website includes information on preventing antisocial behavior in disabled and at-risk youth: http://www.ldonline.org/article/5973
This website describes tips for helping parents promote healthy gender role develop- ment in their children: http://www.extension.purdue.edu/providerparent/PDF%20Links/TipsHealthy GenderDev.pdf
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CHAPTER 8Web Resources
This website discusses the importance of friendships in middle childhood and provides guidance for adults working with school-aged children on how to cultivate children’s friendships: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FY/FY54400.pdf
This website provides a link to a report that presents the results of a study examining the impact of Big Brothers Big Sisters program. In particular, the report describes the impact on youth in the following domains: antisocial behaviors; academic attitudes, behavior and performance; family relationships, peer relationships, self-concept; and social and cultural enrichment: http://www.ppv.org/ppv/publications/assets/111_publication.pdf
This official U.S. government website managed by the Department of Health and Human Services in partnership with the Departments of Education and Justice includes information and videos about bullying geared for children, teens, young adults, parents, educators, and communities: http://www.stopbullying.gov/index.html
This PBS website designed specifically for children contains child-friendly information on bullying, including the types of bullying, definitions of who is a bully, who is a target, how to handle bullying, innocent bystanders, and online bullying: http://pbskids.org/itsmylife/friends/bullies/
This website of the National Crime Prevention Council presents information on cyber- bullying, including tips on what parents can do about it: http://www.ncpc.org/topics/cyberbullying
This website contains a link to the Safe Passages resource guide for use with families, schools, and communities. The guide includes tips on how to handle harassment at home and school and how to build safe environments in neighborhoods and schools: http://www.amle.org/portals/0/pdf/advocacy/other_resources/safepassage.pdf
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