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Study Unit

Proposals and Special Projects By

Robert G. Turner Jr., Ph.D.

All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or serv- ice marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or serv- ice mark.

About the Author

Robert G. Turner Jr. holds a B.S. in business and an M.S. and a Ph.D. in sociology. He has more than 20 years of teaching experi- ence, mainly at the college level, and is currently serving as an adjunct professor at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg. Dr. Turner is primarily employed as a professional freelance writer. His literary credits include two stage plays, two novels, and two nonfiction works, along with an array of publications in academic and educational venues.

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Printed in the United States of America

11/11/05

iii

This study unit begins with an exam- ination of how to write a proposal. A proposal is a report in which the writer makes an offer to the reader and tries to persuade the reader to accept it. The proposal may be a sug- gestion that an employee makes to management, or it may be a bid to

an outside company or individual. In a sense, a proposal is a type of sales letter. The writer is attempting to sell goods, services, or ideas to someone else.

This unit also covers the procedures for developing descrip- tions, instructions, and manuals. To properly describe an object or a process, a writer must take great care to be precise and include all the necessary details and steps.

Now that you know what you have in store for you in this study unit, let’s get started!

P r e v i e w

When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to • Identify the purpose of an informal proposal and know how

to prepare one

• Explain the nature of a formal proposal and how one is organized

• Describe an object or a process and prepare a set of instructions

• Describe the preparation and submission of professional and technical articles

• Explain the use and preparation of technical and procedural manuals

PROPOSALS 1

Proposal: A Definition 1 External Proposals 2 Internal Proposals 4 Proposals vs. Reports 5 Informal Proposals 8 Formal Proposals 16

DESCRIPTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS 20

Describing an Object 20 Describing a Process 26 Writing Instructions 27

ARTICLES AND MANUALS 35

Professional and Technical Articles 35 Technical and Procedural Manuals 38

SELF-CHECK ANSWERS 47

EXAMINATION 51

C o n t e n t s

PROPOSALS

Proposal: A Definition A proposal may be one of the most important documents you may be asked to write during your career—important because proposals are often the major means of producing income in some businesses. A proposal is a written document in which an individual or a business makes an offer to another indi- vidual or business and gives reasons why the offer should be accepted. The language of a proposal, therefore, should be factual, but persuasive (Figure 1).

Briefly, a proposal offers something of value and expects something of value (usually money) in return. In addition, a proposal suggests or requests that some kind of action be taken to fill a need or solve a problem. In that context, it’s also a request for authorization to pursue the substance of the proposal.

In this study unit, you’re going to examine external and internal proposals as well as formal and informal proposals.

Proposals and Special Projects

FIGURE 1—When developing a proposal, present the facts. Don’t offer more than you can deliver.

Proposals and Special Projects

External Proposals External proposals are directed to readers outside an organi- zation’s environment. Most of these proposals are prepared for potential clients. For example, a company might send a proposal to a supplier or to a local, state, or federal regulatory agency. More often, however, external proposals are aimed at people who can provide business for the organization.

External proposals can be either solicited or unsolicited. The main difference between the two is that the solicited proposal is requested by someone outside a company, and the unsolicited proposal is initiated by someone within a company.

Solicited Proposals

Solicited proposals generally begin with a request for bid (RFB). In other words, some company or government agency may ask (request) businesses to provide proposals (bids) for specific jobs they need to have completed. Building contrac- tors, architectural firms, and any organization that provides services on a time-defined contractual basis may be asked to submit a bid.

As you may imagine, bids may involve immensely complex projects, such as major construction projects, or they may involve only brief, routine treatments, such as a bid for a local plumbing project.

A request for bid might be published nationwide, or it might be mailed to only a select group of organizations. When only a small group of organizations is solicited, the person or organization requesting the bid should carefully choose these organizations. For example, only local contractors with a good reputation are likely to be asked to bid on a contract for building a public library or a new elementary school. Only well-established firms with solid reputations may be asked to bid on major government contracts.

Proposals and Special Projects 3

Bid requests may be solicited for any of the following items:

• Products, such as computers, office equipment, or water coolers

• Services, such as machinery maintenance, telecommuni- cations networking, or industrial engineering

• Investigative research, such as that provided by consult- ing firms or market research specialists

Unsolicited Proposals

Unsolicited proposals are usually developed by companies or businesses that hope to sell a product or a service to a client. They are, in effect, a type of marketing tool. Therefore, unso- licited proposals are often crucial elements for organizations that are trying to expand their share in a competitive market. There’s an old saying: “The squeaky wheel gets the oil.” In the world of business, this can mean, “Companies that solicit new business usually stay in business and grow.”

If your job ever requires you to write an unsolicited proposal, remember your audience as well as your purpose. Make sure you know as much as possible about your potential customer. Use your proposal to demonstrate how that potential customer will benefit from what you’re offering. Often, that may involve calling attention to needs or potential needs that your audi- ence or readers may not be focused on. For example, an opening from an unsolicited proposal might go like this:

Notice that the writer starts out by mentioning the comforts of modern buildings and then asks a question to get the reader thinking. Finally, the writer provides some documen- tation by referring to some current research that supports the proposal to follow.

Modern buildings are sealed off from the discomforts of sum- mer heat and winter cold. But what happens to productivity and employee morale when the heating and air-conditioning systems fail? Current research strongly supports the cost- effectiveness of semiannual inspections and maintenance of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems.

Proposals and Special Projects

Internal Proposals An internal proposal, as its name suggests, is intended for distribution within an organization. Depending on the culture of the organization, internal proposals may be solicited or unsolicited. In organizations that emphasize employee par- ticipation and de-emphasize the role of upper management, internal proposals may be actively solicited. On the other hand, some of the newer approaches to management also encourage unsolicited proposals. The typical pattern in organizations is for employees to generate unsolicited proposals (Figure 2).

FIGURE 2—Employees are working with procedures and processes every day. Therefore, they’re famil- iar with the problems and can often come up with solutions. That’s when an unsolicited pro- posal is in order.

Proposals and Special Projects 5

Whether solicited or unsolicited, an internal proposal may cover a wide range of personnel, production, procedural, or marketing issues. In general, such a proposal is aimed at identifying a problem and proposing a solution. In organiza- tions that employ highly trained specialists, such as engineers or researchers, an internal proposal is often aimed at calling attention to problems that supervisors should be aware of. In such cases, the internal proposal represents professional responsibility, courtesy, and a concern for the well-being of the organization.

Proposals vs. Reports On the surface, proposals resemble reports because they often have a similar format. For example, external proposals may take the form of a letter; internal proposals may take the form of a memo. In some respects, too, a proposal is similar to a feasibility report, because it researches a prob- lem and presents a recommended action.

But the similarity ends there. Proposal writers have a very different relationship to their material than report writers do. You’ve already learned that effective reports require objectivity. They’re not meant to persuade. Instead, report writers investigate a problem thoroughly and objectively, draw clear conclusions, and make logical recommendations based on the data gathered in the investigation. The ideal role for a report writer is that of an objective researcher.

By contrast, proposals are meant to persuade their readers. However, proposal writers can’t simply abandon objectivity. In fact, if they want their readers to be persuaded to do something, proposal writers must present objective facts, reasoned arguments, and logical assertions. All of these will add to their credibility and support their proposal.

The difficulty with proposals is that they often ask readers to focus on problems that may not be foremost in their minds—problems they may not even be aware of. Also, proposals often require their readers to invest time and/or money in these problems. Therefore, almost any proposal, any kind of effort to persuade someone to make a change, tends to create some degree of resistance.

Proposals and Special Projects

To persuade someone, writers generally try to approach the topic from the reader’s point of view, then demonstrate a benefit for the reader, and finally overcome the reader’s resistance. That effort can be a challenge because a proposal must also represent the writer’s point of view and the writer’s self-interest—a point you’ll consider in more detail shortly.

Possibly the main difference between proposals and reports lies in their starting points. Reports usually begin with a known problem, and their primary purpose is to find a solu- tion to that problem. Proposals, on the other hand, must first convince the reader that a problem exists. If the reader isn’t convinced, the proposal is useless. Once the reader is con- vinced, however, the next job of a proposal is to convincingly argue for the feasibility of a particular solution.

A report writer deals with a problem that has already been identified. A proposal writer must often convince readers that a problem exists. A report writer’s conclusion should flow logically from the facts and figures presented in the report. A proposal writer must try to persuade the reader that a solution to the identified problem is available, feasible, and beneficial.

While you may often have to write a report because a super- visor requires it, you generally write a proposal to express your own concerns. You want the reader to recognize the prob- lem, and you want the reader to be engaged by the potential benefit of your proposed solution. Therefore, any proposal sent to a client or a potential client outside your organization reflects your self-interest. Its purpose is to generate business, produce profitability, secure your place in the company, and enhance the value of your retirement fund. For that matter, even an internal proposal represents a type of self-interest by the writer. Internal proposal writers are usually employees who know that initiative is usually rewarded. People who have good ideas are often promoted. Proposals then, unlike reports, do something important for the writer—provided, of course, that the proposals are accepted. And, for a proposal to be accepted, it must be convincing.

Table 1 summarizes the similarities and differences between reports and proposals.

Proposals and Special Projects 7

Perhaps you noticed this process involves a paradox, the “proposal paradox.” Proposals must represent the writer’s self-interest fairly and reasonably while at the same time engaging the self-interest of the reader.

The key to the paradox is a convincing presentation that simmers and bubbles with the pleasing odor of a win-win situation. To accomplish this goal, to resolve the “proposal paradox” in your favor, you should carefully consider the information you select for your proposal and the way you organize that information.

Every piece of information in an effective proposal should be aimed at persuading your reader that

• A specified problem exists

• The problem needs immediate attention

• You can provide and implement the solution

• Your efforts will provide a measurable benefit

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REPORT PROPOSAL

A paradox is something that seems to be con- tradictory but at the same time is perfectly true.

Proposals and Special Projects

Most often, you can achieve these objectives by appealing to your reader’s practical self-interest. Convince your reader, for example, that the problem not only exists, but that it needs immediate attention in order to reduce overhead, increase productivity, enhance product quality, or improve the work situation in some way. Next, you should attempt to prove that you’re especially qualified to address and correct the problem. It might be wise to add your credentials or, in some other way, certify your ability to do the job that needs to be done.

Informal Proposals As is the case with formal and informal reports, formal and informal proposals are distinguished by the same key factors:

• A formal proposal is generally longer than an informal proposal.

• The subject matter of a formal proposal is generally more complex than that of an informal proposal.

• The writer of a formal proposal isn’t usually as familiar with his or her audience as the writer of an informal proposal is.

• The language of a formal proposal is usually less casual than that of an informal proposal.

An informal proposal intended for internal distribution may be written in either letter form or memo form, but the far more typical form is the letter proposal. A letter is usually used for informal proposals to be submitted to people outside the organization. Therefore, we’ll focus on the letter format in this unit.

Figure 3 is an example of an informal proposal. Refer to it as you read the following information.

Proposals and Special Projects 9

JEMCO COMPANY Plant 8

9167 Service Lane Charlotte, NC 28202

Phone: (704) 555-1345 Fax: (704) 555-1291

September 7, 2005

Frank Reese President Jemco Company 2350 Industry Road Roanoke, VA 24001

Dear Mr. Reese:

Until October 2004, Plant 8 epitomized our company’s commitment to excellence through its team approach to production. Unfortunately, as the senior management team knows from the biannual report of July 15, 2005, Plant 8’s work output has since dropped a dramatic 20 percent. The number of failed quality checks has increased an alarming 15 percent. In response to this dire situation, I present you and the team the following proposal for returning Plant 8 to its former exemplary position within Jemco.

Background

In September 2004, Plant 8 employed 41 people on three production lines operating at 98 percent efficiency with 0.8 percent failed quality checks, thus achieving the highest rating of Jemco’s 12 plants. To discover the reason for Plant 8’s current poor performance, I spent five days at the plant observing the teams at work on each of the production lines, meeting with the team leaders and with the shop supervisor, Joseph Cairns, and reviewing the weekly team reports from September 2, 2004, through June 30, 2005. Through my investigation, I determined that the change in output is due to the unexpected addition of two production lines.

On September 20, 2005, Plant 8 was assigned overflow from Plant 3, which had been irreparably damaged by Hurricane Ivan. Enough of Plant 3’s manufacturing equipment was salvaged and moved to Plant 8 to establish two production lines. The division of space to accommodate these lines resulted in one line being placed in the employee break room, blocking a fire exit and making the restrooms difficult to access.

In addition, since only four employees from Plant 3 were willing to relocate to Plant 8, Mr. Cairns had to hire 20 employees, all of whom had little experience with our product line. He therefore directed most of his attention toward training and supervising these new employees. Despite Mr. Cairns’s close attention and daily intervention, the work output and quality of production from the two new teams increased only minimally in the first six months of 2005. Moreover, Mr. Cairns was not able to provide needed direction and oversight for the three experienced teams. As a result, their production levels also fell.

According to Jemco’s own standards and to the regulations of the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA), Plant 8 should have no more than four regular production lines and no more than 50 employees. Therefore, the current number of 67 employees and the additional equipment exceed the levels needed to maintain safety, efficiency, and quality.

Consequently, I am not surprised that Plant 8 now trails the other plants. Nonetheless, I am convinced that Plant 8 can return to its stellar position by achieving the following objectives:

• Dismantle one production line to meet safety standards

• Add a second shift to accommodate increased output demand and number of employees

• Restructure teams to balance experience level by team and by shift

• Provide training for team leaders to assume a more supervisory role and for all employee teams toward more efficient, quality production

FIGURE 3—Sample Informal Proposal in Letter Format

Proposals and Special Projects10

Reese—2

Proposal

To return Jemco Plant 8 to its former efficiency and quality level as well as enhance production output, I propose the following plan.

Dismantlement. Since the plant can safely accommodate only four production lines, the line in the employee break room must be dismantled. Any usable materials will be kept for maintenance and repair of the other lines. Removal of this line will elim- inate the current safety hazards and restore that space to its proper use. For safety purposes, the line immediately in front of the break room should be halted. In this way, two teams can dismantle the line in the break room during regular work hours.

Second shift. Adding another time shift with two of the five teams is the most efficient way to resolve the safety and production issues at Plant 8. The current shift for all employees is 7:30 A.M. to 4:00 P.M. I propose the first shift be held from 6:00 A.M. to 2:30 P.M. and the second from 3:30 P.M. to 12:00 midnight. The second shift will require 24 employees for production, 2 team leaders, and an assistant shop supervisor. By keeping four production lines instead of three and by adding this second shift, Plant 8 will be able to plan for additional production opportunities.

This change will result in some increased costs for shift-differential pay for the second shift, for operation costs such as heating and electrical, and for the addition of an assistant supervisory position for the second shift. Nonetheless, these costs will be more than compensated for with increased, higher-quality production.

Team reorganization. Since the two new teams are clearly not functioning to standard, the five teams must be reorganized to integrate the more experienced employees with the less experienced. To ensure employees feel they are treated fairly and develop team unity, Mr. Cairns should work with a member of Jemco’s Human Resources Department and the five team leaders to establish the new teams.

Training. The necessary training must be a two-prong approach. First, the five team leaders and assistant shop supervisor should be trained in Jemco’s management approach, in strategies for team leading, and in maintenance of the production lines. Second, each restructured team should be trained in operating equipment properly and in establishing a cooperative spirit.

The leadership training, which must be accomplished first, will require a total of four work days. The employee team train- ing will require three work days. Per Jemco’s training requirements, there will also be a follow-up on team building for both leaders and teams within 30 days of the last training period.

Training Schedule

Dismantlement of line October 10 to October 21 Establishment of two shifts October 17 to October 31 Reorganization of teams October 17 to October 31

Management training Supervisory procedures November 1 Team leading November 2 and 3 Line maintenance November 7 Follow-up December 2

Employee training Team building November 4 Production line operation November 8 and 9 Follow-up December 2

Staffing

The current shop supervisor, Joseph Cairns, has a total of nine years’ experience at Plant 8: two years as quality controller, five as production-line team leader, and two as shop supervisor. His knowledge of production requirements and the employees will provide valuable insight for the director of Human Resources toward team restructuring.

Dillon Foster, Marion Conrad, and John Mandell are the experienced team leaders, each with at least eight years of experi- ence with Jemco and two or more years experience as a team leader. William Tonzent and Diane Lisko are the two newest team leaders to Plant 8, both having recently relocated from Plant 3, where each had three years of experience as team leader. Since team leaders have firsthand knowledge of the employees’ ability and personalities, they will also consult on team restructuring.

FIGURE 3—Continued

Proposals and Special Projects 11

Reese—3

As director of Human Resources for Jemco Company, Bernard Standler will appoint someone from his department to oversee the team restructuring as well as both the leadership and employee training. Those appointees will work with Mr. Cairns to organize the actual training periods. In addition, Mr. Standler will direct with Mr. Cairns the hiring efforts for an assistant shop supervisor.

Budget

The following figures are estimates based on Jemco’s projected salary schedule for 2006, Plant 8’s current operating costs with one shift, and the Company’s 2005 travel allotments.

Assistant Shop Supervisor Recruiting fees (maximum) $ 2,000 Salary (including benefits package) 36,000

Shift Differential (added to regular salary) Assistant shop supervisor (1) 7,500 Team leaders (2) 7,000 Employees (24) 60,000

Operating Costs 125,000 Training Costs (travel and materials) 12,500

Total costs $ 250,000

Request for Authorization

High-quality products are what customers expect from Jemco Company. Although Plant 8 has recently fallen far short of standards as a result of an unexpected increase in project assignments, the plant can recover once the management team authorizes the proposed changes and budget. In fact, these recommendations do not represent a new direction for Jemco or Plant 8. Instead, they will merely restore to Plant 8 the effectiveness of Jemco’s unique team production system, an approach Plant 8 itself has previously shown effective in increasing work output and decreasing failed quality checks. The management team’s approval of this plan will therefore reinforce to both customers and employees Jemco’s commitment to excellence.

I appreciate having the opportunity to investigate the problems at Plant 8. I am confident that after the team reviews my proposal, I can expect authorization at our next management meeting on September 15.

Sincerely,

Franklin S. Delacroix Franklin S. Delacroix Vice President of Production

FSD:cms

FIGURE 3—Continued

Proposals and Special Projects

In general, an informal proposal should have six fundamental components:

1. Introduction

2. Background

3. Proposal

4. Staffing

5. Budget

6. Request for authorization

Introduction

An effective informal proposal usually begins with a brief explanation of the purpose of the document and a quick overview of why the proposal writer is qualified to make the proposal in the first place. Remember that a proposal is an instrument used to persuade your reader

of a serious problem affecting that reader and to demonstrate that you have the correct answer to that problem. Therefore, the crucial purpose of an introduction to a proposal is to command the reader’s attention. As it turns out, there are some guidelines for providing a “hook” in your introduction. That is, there are some widely accepted ways to engage your reader’s interest:

• A promise—or at least an implication—of extraordinary and significant results or benefits to the client, which will follow from committing to the proposal

• Disclosure of an independent source of support for your proposal that will command attention—for example, criti- cal market research that has just been published, a new kind of computer software that does remarkable things, or your personal access to an expert

• An up-front assertion about how the proposal aims at reducing costs or markedly increasing productivity

• An offer of a benefit that’s crucial to the reader’s inter- est, such as reducing equipment failures and downtime

Proposals and Special Projects 13

Background

The background section of your proposal should clearly identify the problem to be addressed and lay out the goals or purposes of the project. Even if you mentioned the problem in your introduction, you should elaborate on it in the background section. Try to convince your reader that you have

a command of the problem and its particulars—in other words, that you know what you’re talking about. To show your command of the problem, you may often need to sketch its history. For example, study the following paragraph from the background section of a proposal:

Once you’ve laid out the background and clearly specified the nature of the problem you’re addressing, you should then establish specific goals. For a company to provide a new retail inventory system, for example, it may need to consider at least three goals: installation, training, and troubleshooting. In this particular case, the purpose of the proposed system would almost certainly be improved inventory control. The purpose might be elaborated by indicating the lowered possi bility of merchandise being unavailable to customers due to a sluggish, outmoded, reordering system.

As you already know, the inventory system we’re currently using is the one we chose when we first started in business 10 years ago. At the time that our business was new— and for many years after that, that system was suitable for our purposes. However, in the past few years, our business has grown more than we ever expected. Because of the increase in the number of orders we’re receiving and because of the larger number of items we’re currently carrying in inventory, this old inventory system is now inefficient. Our orders are not delivered in a timely fashion, we are often out of stock of key inven- tory items, and we have been receiving many complaints from customers. Replacing our current system with a computerized inventory management system will be highly cost

Proposals and Special Projects

The Proposal

The proposal section is a call for action. Once you’ve engaged the reader’s self- interest, you should specify the problem as urgent and let the reader know that delay is costly and ill advised.

In this section, you should include an outline of a plan for implementing your proposal, along with a time schedule for the implementation. In effect, you’ll be saying (1) we can solve your problem, (2) here’s how we’ll do it, and (3) this is how long it will take.

Be cautious, however, in what you include in this section. Make it clear that you know what you’re talking about, but don’t provide so much information that you work yourself out of a job. If you fully explain how to solve a problem, you may simply send your potential client scurrying away to take care of the problem with his or her available resources. Keep in mind that a proposal, as an instrument of persuasion, is a sales letter.

Staffing

In the staffing section of your proposal, say positive things about the credentials and expertise of the people who will exe- cute the action specified in your proposal. Make it clear that the project will be han- dled in an efficient and professional way by experienced people who know what

they’re doing. If specialized equipment is necessary for the project, make it clear that the necessary equipment is in place. If you think it’s necessary, include individual resumes of key personnel in an appendix to the proposal.

Proposals and Special Projects 15

Budget

An attention grabber in most proposals is the proposed costs of the project. Needless to say, those costs should be in line with the client’s available resources and the value of the actions being pro- posed. In other words, make sure your argument for change is strong and clear

enough to support the bottom line of what it will cost to implement your changes. Depending on the proposal, you may present your cost proposal in one of two ways. If the proposal is for a simple, relatively inexpensive project, you may present the figure very briefly as a total cost. If the proj- ect is more complex, you may need to include an itemized list of costs like that in the sample proposal in Figure 3.

Because the budget section represents a contract, you should establish a time limit on the rates you offer and set a dead- line for acceptance. To accept the contract, the client must sign and return a duplicate copy of the letter proposal, along with a deposit.

Authorization

In contractual terms, the authorization section constitutes a formal offer. However, this section is also the place to restate and highlight your intention to provide a benefit to the prospective client. To see how that’s done, study the authorization section of the sample proposal in Figure 3.

Sometimes proposals don’t include the terms of a contract. In such cases, the formal elements in the budget and author- ization sections of the sample proposal are omitted. Instead, the actual contract is worked out between the client and appropriate agents of the organization making the proposal. However, in such situations, you might still consider a sum- mary section in which you restate the general problem and emphasize the overall benefits to be obtained from imple- menting your proposal.

Table 2 presents a summary of the six parts of an informal proposal.

Proposals and Special Projects

Formal Proposals Formal proposals should follow the same formatting rules that were discussed for formal reports in the previous study unit. They should have a title page, a letter or memo of transmittal, and all of the other components you studied for formal reports, incorporated with the parts of an informal proposal given in Table 2. The only difference between a formal report and a formal proposal is the approach the writer takes to the subject. Remember: A report writer is an objective reporter, and a proposal writer is a persuader.

In the next section of this study unit, you’re going to study how to write descriptions and instructions. Before going on to that material, please complete Self-Check 1.

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Proposals and Special Projects 17

Self-Check 1 At the end of each section of Proposals and Special Projects, you’ll be asked to pause and check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Self-Check” exercise. Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far. Please complete Self- Check 1 now.

1. In order, list the six main components of an informal proposal.

__________________________________________________________________________

2. Each of the following situations is an excerpt from a typical report. Read each situa- tion, keeping in mind the differences between reports and proposals. Choose one of the suggestions given and revise the information into proposal form. Your answers may vary from those given at the end of this study unit, but your sentences should reflect an understanding of proposal guidelines.

Situation A

Over the past two years, the size of our company has grown 30 percent. Because of this growth, the effectiveness of the corporate bulletin board as the sole means of information exchange has decreased considerably, as evidenced by results of a study conducted to assess employee awareness and morale.

Employee awareness and morale may be improved by implementing any of the following methods:

• Install a bulletin board in each department.

• Supplement the corporate bulletin board with a monthly newsletter.

• Institute semiannual corporate meetings and quarterly department meetings.

(Continued)

Proposals and Special Projects18

Self-Check 1 Situation B

In tests conducted to determine the current-handling capabilities of the RJ30 series- pass transistor, three transistors burned up within a six-week period. Changing the series-pass transistor from the RJ30 to the RF90 did not remedy the situation and, in fact, resulted in another burn-up.

The burn-ups of the RJ30 and RF90 transistors may be eliminated if the beryllium oxide wafers used to mount the transistors to the heat sink are replaced by one of the following alternate thermal conductors:

• Filled silicon rubber pads

• Mica washers

• Thermal joint compounds

3. Assume that the following six excerpts have been taken from a typical informal pro- posal. Each excerpt corresponds to one of the parts of an informal proposal, as explained and described in this unit. Label each section; then number them to show the order in which they should occur in the proposal.

Suggestion: Read through all six items before you begin to label them.

a. To solve this problem, we recommend a program aimed at achieving the following goals:

• Research the use of alternative thermal conductors used in similar applica- tions, and determine the cost-effectiveness of each

• Secure the selected thermal conductor

• Train technicians in special mounting procedures

Proposal section: ____________________ Sequence: _______

b. Other thermal conductors have been used successfully in the research and develop- ment division of Eaton Electronics. On testing the old RJ3 transistors, thermal joint compounds were used with no complications, and testing proceeded on schedule. Thermal joint compounds are presently used in the production of X2 amplifiers without complication. Please sign the attached letter to give your consent to this change.

Proposal section: ____________________ Sequence: _______

(Continued)

Proposals and Special Projects 19

Self-Check 1 c. I propose that the beryllium oxide wafers be replaced by an alternative thermal

conductor in the testing of RJ30 power transistors.

Proposal section: ____________________ Sequence: _______

d. Fred Garrett: B.S. (1989) in electrical engineering, University of Maryland; five years as an electrical engineer, RCA; two years as assistant coordinator of research and development, Eaton Electronics.

Proposal section: ____________________ Sequence: _______

e. Since we began testing the new RJ30 power transistors six weeks ago, three have burned up. Transistors in normal use have an expected life of five years. Because the RJ30 is a new design, we thought the design might be faulty; however, when we mounted the old RJ3 model to the same heat sink, that transistor also burned up. We suspect that beryllium oxide wafers used to mount the transistor to the heat sink are at fault.

The test, intended to reach completion by May 22, must be postponed indefinitely. Estimated losses for the transistors approach $10,000.

Proposal section: ____________________ Sequence: _______

f. Thermal conductors Negligible Test transistor $3,200

Total $3,200

Proposal section: ____________________ Sequence: _______

4. Describe the main differences between reports and proposals.

__________________________________________________________________________

Check your answers with those on page 47.

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DESCRIPTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS In business and technical writing, description means some- thing quite different than it does in literature or journalism. For example, consider this line from Robert Frost’s poem “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”: “The woods are lovely, dark, and deep.” In this line, the words lovely, dark, and deep are intended to set a mood or arouse a feeling, not to describe the appearance of a forest.

In a similar vein, news reporters may use descriptive words to convey the “what, when, who, where, and why” of a situa- tion, but reporters also try to engage their readers by evoking feelings or sentiments. A reporter describing a murder scene, for example, will attempt to mix drama with the known facts. In addition, those who write newspaper editorials often use emotional language to persuade their readers.

In business, on the other hand, the intent of descriptions of products, procedures, or processes is generally to provide information to assist management in making effective and timely decisions. Descriptions may also be part of material for employee training or orientation. In either case, descrip- tions should be objective, impartial, and logically ordered. They should provide needed information, not attitudes.

In the following sections, you’ll be introduced to the art of effectively describing an object and a process.

Describing an Object It’s not unusual for a business or technical writer to have to describe an object. The object is often a new or redesigned product, but it could be nearly any object that will be used in an organizational environment. The object may be as simple as a redesigned light fixture or as complex as a computer hard drive.

A description should generally have three parts:

1. An introductory paragraph

2. A body of several paragraphs—one for each of the main parts of the object being described

3. A conclusion—if a conclusion is necessary

Remember the differ- ence. When you’re writing a proposal, you’re trying to per- suade your audience to make a needed change. When you’re writing a description or a set of instruc- tions, you’re relaying information or perhaps teaching facts or pro-

Proposals and Special Projects 21

Introduction

The introduction for a description of an object should usually be a short paragraph in which the writer

• Defines the object to be discussed

• Explains how it functions

• Describes the object’s general appearance

• Provides a list of the object’s main parts

Let’s say the object to be described is a personal or low-cost copier being prepared for production. In your introduction, you would give the name of the machine. You would then explain its function in terms that distinguish it from other kinds of copiers. Here’s what such an introductory paragraph might look like:

If your reader isn’t familiar with the object you’re describing, you may need to explain both the function of the object and how it operates. Suppose the company you work for wants to keep a gas chromatograph available for security purposes. If you must describe this object for management, you should include an explanation of how the instrument works:

The new CopyCat 200 is a low-cost, personal copy machine. It maintains the basic functions of the 1000 models, but uses a low-cost, lower-capacity toner cartridge designed for easy installation. In addition, the overall weight of the CopyCat is much less than that of the 1000 models.

The gas chromatograph separates chemical mixtures into their component parts by means of a column packed with a special solid material. As a mixture of gases passes though the solid substance, the rate of flow of each component chemical is retarded at a different rate, depending on the chemical. The result is an identifiable separation of the gas

Writing a description of an object may require research. For example, if you must write a description of an object with which you’re not completely familiar, you may have to conduct some research before you begin your writ-

Proposals and Special Projects

Within the introductory paragraph, you should also describe the physical appearance of the object. Include information such as

• Size

• Weight

• Shape

• General physical appearance in terms of such things as color, texture, or consistency

Finally, the introduction should include a list of the main parts of the object, listed in the order in which you’ll present them in the body of your description. The list of parts may follow your description of the physical appearance or some functional sequence based on how the object performs. Either approach is acceptable as long as it will be clear and logical for the reader. As a rule of thumb, divide your object into at least three parts, but no more than seven. For example, for the CopyCat 200, you might break the main parts down into chassis, paper feed mechanism, electronic controller, and toner cartridge.

Body

Each of the middle paragraphs should elaborate on the main parts of the object as you’ve listed them in your introduction. Ideally, if you’ve listed five parts in the introduction, you should have five middle paragraphs in your description—one for each of the parts. For each part, you should

• Define the part

• Explain its function

• Describe its physical appearance

As you describe each part and the way in which it functions, keep your audience in mind. Try to put yourself in their posi- tion, and describe the object accordingly. For example, if the object is rather complex, consider whether your readers are familiar with the operation of such devices. Tailor your description to the needs of your audience. Giving too much explanation where it’s unnecessary may insult your readers. Leaving out information that the readers may need will confuse them.

To enhance your writ- ten description of the appearance of an object, you may wish to include an illustra- tion of the object. The illustration can be a simple line draw- ing or a scanned-in photograph.

Proposals and Special Projects 23

Also consider your audience as you explain the location of each of the parts on the whole object. Use terms like above, below, to the left, and so on to help readers visualize the object. For complex devices, you might want to supplement what you write with visual images, such as line illustrations.

Conclusion

Unless your description is quite simple, you’ll need a con- clusion. How you write the conclusion depends first on the object you’re describing and second on the needs of your audience. For example, the conclusion might include a brief description of how a machine runs through its cycle of opera- tion. Or you may choose to emphasize a certain aspect of the object, depending on the purpose for your description. What- ever you put in your conclusion should address the knowledge and perspective of your audience.

Figure 4 gives an example of a description of an object—the Omni 85 Model G portable heater. As you read this descrip- tion, notice the following points:

• The introductory paragraph names the object, gives some particulars about the object, and then lists its five main parts.

• The middle paragraphs describe the parts in the order in which they’re mentioned in the introduction.

• The concluding paragraph adds a few more details and then ends the way the description began.

Note: In the description in Figure 4, the writer assumes that the readers are familiar with abbreviations such as sq. ft. (square feet), Btu/hr. (British thermal units per hour), and lbs. (pounds). If you think your readers are unfamiliar with any abbreviations you use, explain them as we did in the previous sentence.

Use comparison and contrast to describe parts with which your reader may be unfa- miliar. For example, explain that a part is shaped like an S, an L, a rectangle, or an inverted funnel.

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The Omni 85 Model G Portable Heater

The Omni 85 Model G Portable Heater is designed to consistently and economically heat an area of approximately 440 to 615 sq. ft. Heater output of 12,300 Btu/hr. is generated by a kerosene-fueled flame. Burn time per tank of fuel ranges between 20 and 28 hours. The heater weighs 22 lbs. (empty), stands 21 in. high, and has a width of 171/2 in. It con- sists of five main parts: outer cover, burner and automatic extinguisher, igniter, fuel tank, and drip tray.

The complete outer cover is designed to channel heat efficiently and safely. It is a strong metal cylinder 11 in. in diameter and 15 in. high. The cover is centered on top of the fuel tank. It resembles a cage with 24 thin metal bars placed 11/4 in. apart. These bars serve as a protective barrier. The other parts of the outer cover include the top plate/spill ring, carrying handle, mica windows, three thumbscrews, and an access door.

The round metal top plate, located on top of the heater cover, is 9 in. in diameter. It has 12 vents designed to disperse heat efficiently. The heatproof, arch-shaped carrying han- dle is attached at either side of the top of the heater, directly beneath the top plate. The handle has a depth/length of 14 in. The mica windows at the back and front of the outer cover midway down the cylinder are 31/2 in. square. They allow the operator to view the height of the heater flame.

The three thumbscrews are equidistantly spaced at the base of the heater cover. They secure the cover to the fuel tank. The access door is 3 in. by 31/2 in. and is located directly beneath the mica windows. It allows the operator access to the heater ignition mechanism.

The disc-shaped burner, which provides the heat, is centrally located within the heater cover and is visible through the mica windows. The complete heat chamber is 7 in. in diameter and 4 in. high. It is composed of a wick adjuster with a knob located at the top of the chamber. A wing nut, retainer, and flame regulator knob with screw are located at the middle. At the bottom of the chamber are a glass fiber wick and rubber packing. By using the knob to adjust the wick and regulate the flame, the operator can alter the amount of heat generated.

The disc-shaped automatic extinguisher is located directly above the burner. The extin- guisher is 7 in. in diameter and is attached, by a thumbscrew at its base, to the burner mechanism. It is operated by means of the flame regulator knob, which the operator turns to the extreme left, or “off,” position. This allows the automatic extinguisher to fit directly over the wick and extinguish the flame.

The igniter, which is used to light the heater flame, is located directly beneath the burner mechanism and directly behind the access door of the outer cover. It is powered by D- type, dry-cell batteries attached to the fuel tank. The igniter is composed of an igniter coil, igniter unit, spring slip, and screw, all assembled within a cylindrical igniter cover. The cover, the only visible part of the igniter mechanism, is approximately 21/2 in. high. The igniter is operated by means of a lighting lever located at the base of the fuel tank,

FIGURE 4—Sample Description

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Omni 85—2

The metal fuel tank is secured at the bottom of the outer cover. A squat cylinder in shape, it is 31/2 in. high and 15 in. wide, with a capacity of 1.99 U.S. gal. At the top of the tank knob, centered directly beneath the access door, is the flame regulator knob, a functional part of the burner mechanism. A fuel gauge is located at the top of the tank, 31/2 in. left of center, and a fuel filler cap with chain is 31/2 in. right of center. A battery holder with cover is attached 7 in. to the left rear of center.

A circular metal drip tray, 171/2 in. in diameter, is secured to the base of the heater by two thumbscrews. It is designed to catch any leakage during fueling. It also provides a wide base for balance and thus prevents accidental tipping of the heater.

The Omni 85 Model G Portable Heater is designed to be fueled only by clear white kerosene. Heater surfaces can become very hot, so access should be restricted around children, pets, and crowds. The heater needs oxygen to operate efficiently, so proper ven- tilation is an important requirement. Its fuel economy, portability, and easy maintenance make this heater a practical alternative for heating rooms or areas of 440 to 615 sq. ft.

FIGURE 4—Continued

Just for Fun

When people describe something—especially something they’re very familiar with—they often have a tendency to leave out important informa- tion. For example, study the following brief description. Without information on the size and function of the object being described, the description lacks clarity. The description may refer to a spoon, or it may refer to a shovel.

This instrument is made of metal. It has a long, narrow handle. At the end of the instru- ment is an oblong, bowl-shaped tip that allows the user to scoop up something.

Don’t let your descriptions be confusing like this one. Be sure to include all the neces- sary details so your readers know exactly what you mean. Adding information on the length of the handle, the size of the bowl, and the purpose of the tool would improve this description greatly.

Proposals and Special Projects

Describing a Process Suppose your company is considering a new way of doing something—say, assembling voltmeters. Or perhaps your company’s sales division is considering a new approach to handling and processing customer orders. To determine whether either of these options is feasible, the decision makers may need a description of the process involved.

If you’re the one to write this description, you must again consider your audience. For example, executives, managers, and administrators may be mainly concerned with costs, effi- ciency, and product quality. Line supervisors, on the other hand, may be mainly concerned with the what and how of the process. Find out whom the description is for and what they’ll use it for before you begin your writing.

Like the description of an object, a process description should include

1. An introductory paragraph

2. A body of at least three paragraphs

3. A conclusion

Introduction

A process description, like an object description, should tell the readers only what they don’t (or are unlikely to) know. In some cases, you may have to briefly explain the context of the process and then outline the nature of the process. That outline may summarize the high points of the process. If you do outline the process in the introductory paragraph, make sure the steps in the middle paragraphs follow the same sequence.

Body

The middle paragraphs of your process description should present the process in a step-by-step logical sequence, with each paragraph describing a step. Add as much detail as necessary to make each step crystal clear. Make sure that both the function of a step and what it produces are clear. Try to keep the reader focused on the overall process as you move from step to step.

Proposals and Special Projects 27

Conclusion

A conclusion in a simple process description may simply be the last step in the process being described. In more complex process descriptions, however, the conclusion may briefly review the steps in the process, highlighting safety or other kinds of information that seem relevant.

Figure 5 presents an example of a process description.

Writing Instructions Technical instructions and process descriptions are similar in that both explain a process or a procedure. The main dif- ference between process descriptions and instructions is the audience for which they’re written. Executives and managers usually need process descriptions to make decisions. People who are doing the actual work, however, need to know how to perform a process and do their job. Instructions are typi- cally written for individuals who carry out manufacturing processes or use technical skills in a service or maintenance capacity (Figure 6).

Operating Process of the United Tack Lasting Machine Model A

The United Tack Lasting Machine (Model A) is an air- and cam-operated tack lasting machine, which lasts the shanks of all sizes and types of flat-lasted shoes. The machine can also be used for counter-tacking on flat-lasted, Stickdown, and Goodyear Welt shoes.

The lasting elements wipe and tension the shoe upper and permanently fasten the upper to the insole with tacks. The tacks are driven through the upper and insole and clinched against the metal last bottom.

After the ball has been pulled and the lining counter-drafted by hand, the shoe is pre- sented to the machine in contact with the adjustable shoe rest and edge gauge. This establishes the proper relationship of the shoe bottom to the wiping plane and the angle of tack drive.

Depressing the foot treadle starts the machine cycle. The shoe is moved by hand past the wiping and tacking mechanisms, and the machine wipes the upper stock over and drives the required number of tacks into the lasted-over margin.

Tacks from a double tack pot are gravity-fed down the raceways and delivered by air to

FIGURE 5—Description of a Process

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All instructions should have an introduction, usually similar to that of a process description. The introduction may have to include additional information explaining the process, equipment needs, and skills needed. The main purpose in writing instructions is to provide the reader with the neces- sary information for actually doing something.

Obviously, instructions should be written in the order in which they should be performed—first step, second step, and so on. Also, it’s a good idea to number the steps to keep the sequence clear. One of the best ways to write instructions is to perform the task yourself and carefully write down every- thing you do.

Figure 7 presents instructions for the process described in Figure 5.

The lever is pushed to activate

the machine.

Push the lever to activate

the machine.

FIGURE 6—Process descriptions (left) are generally written for executives and managers. Instructions (right) are written for the people doing the work.

Process descriptions often use the passive voice. For example, “The completed object is delivered to the warehouse.” Instructions generally use the active voice or commands. For example, “Deliver the completed object to the warehouse.”

Proposals and Special Projects 29

Instructions for Operating the United Tack Lasting Machine Model A

The machine should be placed with the right side to the wall and the rack at your left. Shoes should arrive sole side up and heel end toward you. You should handle two shoes at a time, both to and from the rack. Work from left to right on each rack shelf.

The following procedure outlines the operation of the United Tack Lasting Machine. Notice that it emphasizes proper shoe handling and efficient operation.

1. Take the first two shoes from the rack. Turn to the machine and place the shoe in your right hand on the shelf.

2. Position the shoe in your left hand on the spindle, while getting pincers from the shelf with your right hand.

3. With the pincers, pull the lining and upper on the first side of the shoe. Hold the upper in place with your left hand, and use your right hand to replace the pincers on the shelf. Use both hands to remove the shoe from the spindle.

4. Position the shoe in the machine. Treadle and tack-last the first side of the shoe.

5. Replace the shoe on the spindle. Pull the lining and upper on the second side of the shoe as you did for the first side. Position the shoe on the machine, and treadle and tack-last the second side of the shoe.

6. Place the lasted shoe on the shelf with your right hand while getting the next shoe from the shelf with your left hand. Position this second shoe on the spindle and use your right hand to get the pincers from the shelf. Repeat steps 3, 4, and 5.

7. When you complete the lasting on the second shoe, remove the shoe from the machine with your left hand. At the same time, use your right hand to get the processed shoe from the shelf. Turn to the rack.

8. Return the two processed shoes to the rack and get the next two shoes. Repeat steps 1 through 7.

FIGURE 7—Sample Instructions

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Illustrating Your Instructions

Illustrations are almost always useful in instructions. Have you ever tried to read written instructions, only to wish you had a visual aid that illustrates exactly what the writer is saying? Whenever possible, use photographs or line drawings to illustrate your instructions (Figure 8).

Instructions for Wrapping a Package

Note: These instructions assume that you’ve already cut the wrapping paper to the cor- rect size for the package.

¬ Lay the paper on a hard surface with the outside of the paper facing down (Figure A).

� Center the package on the paper with the top facing down (Figure B).

® Pull up two opposite sides of the wrapping paper and lap them over each other. Make sure the paper is snug against the box; then tape the paper in place (Figure C).

FIGURE A

FIGURE B

FIGURE C

FIGURE 8—The illustrations in this set of instructions add clarity to what the reader must do. Imagine what the instructions would be without the figures.

Proposals and Special Projects 31

¯ On one end of the box, press the open paper down over the edge of the box and crease out to the end (Figure D).

° Bring the bottom side of the paper up toward the top and crease in the same way (Figure E). (Note: The loose ends should be somewhat triangular in shape.)

± Fold in the ends and crease them carefully. Tape them in place (Figure F).

² Repeat steps 4–6 on the other side of the box. ³ Turn the box over and you have a neatly wrapped package (Figure G).

FIGURE D

FIGURE E

FIGURE F

FIGURE G

FIGURE 8—Continued

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Highlighting Important Points

In addition to illustrations, you can also help your instruc- tions by highlighting certain information. For example, if you need to provide warnings related to worker safety or damage to the equipment, you can put the words in italics or bold- face, or you can use symbols to send a variety of messages. For example, Figure 9 illustrates just a few of the many types of symbols available with most software programs. You can use the numbers in circles Ê to number the steps. You can use a pointing finger K to highlight important points. You can use a clock · to indicate a step that must be performed within a certain time frame. Look over the other symbols in Figure 9 and see if you can come up with some other uses for them. You may also want to examine the symbols that are part of the word processing program you use. Maybe you’ll find some others that you can use to clarify any instructions you must write.

FIGURE 9—These are just some of the many symbols that come with most word- processing software. Use them to add interest and clarity to your writing.

If you have several warnings to list in a set of instructions, put them in order of importance, with the most important one first.

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Writing Style

In writing instructions, keep your sentences short. Never give your reader more information than necessary for performing a step or a procedure.

Unless the procedure is very simple and short, use numbered or lettered blocks of type. Don’t write instructions in para- graph form. Start each step with an action verb—for example, place the package, push the lever down, pour the mixture into the vat, and so on.

After you’ve written your instructions, read them over care- fully. Make sure you haven’t left out any step or part of a step. Don’t assume that your reader will know enough to do certain things. Be specific and include all details. Finally, make sure to

• Be clear, courteous, and direct

• Number steps and substeps

• Provide illustrations when they’re needed

• Highlight all warnings and important points

Before you proceed to the final section of this study unit, please complete Self-Check 2.

After you’ve written a set of instructions, have someone who is unfamiliar with the process use the instructions to deter- mine their accuracy and completeness.

Proposals and Special Projects34

Self-Check 2 1. Briefly, explain the primary differences between descriptions used in ordinary writing,

such as journalism, and those required in business and technical writing.

__________________________________________________________________________

2. What is the difference between a process description and process instructions?

__________________________________________________________________________

3. Select an ordinary item like a pair of scissors, a toothbrush, a broom, or a chair. On a separate sheet of paper, write a description of the item. When you’re finished, reread the information in this study unit on how to write a description. See how well you did. Finally, give your description to someone else and see if that person can identify what you’re describing.

4. Select a simple procedure (like wrapping a package or making toast). On a separate sheet of paper, write a set of instructions for the procedure. Give your instructions to someone else and ask the person to perform the procedure by following your instructions.

Check your answers with those on page 48.

Proposals and Special Projects 35

ARTICLES AND MANUALS

Professional and Technical Articles The number of professional and technical articles published around the world is increasing at a rapid rate. In fact, new technological developments occur so frequently that it’s almost impossible even for specialists to keep up with what’s happening in their fields. In such a climate, manuscripts for technical articles may often be rejected. Nevertheless, making an effort to publish articles in your field, whether it’s advertising, marketing, industrial engineering, or computer software design, is worth considering. Here are some solid reasons for doing so:

• You’ll gain increased contacts in your field.

• Your reputation may be strengthened.

• You’ll have a better chance of receiving prestigious job offers.

• In the current corporate climate, you may find lateral moves easier to make.

• You’ll improve your chances for pay increases and promotion.

Since so many people are submitting manuscripts to techni- cal and professional journals, you must assume that your efforts may be rejected or, at best, returned for revision. If you’re asked to revise a manuscript that you submit, con- sider it a good sign. Busy editors don’t usually ask for a revision unless they’re interested in what you’ve written.

Tips for Being Published

• Always review recent issues of any publication before submitting a manuscript to that publisher. In that way, you’ll get an idea of the types of articles they’re inter- ested in.

• When first beginning, consider submitting your material to minor journals. Major jour- nals aren’t generally as accessible as minor ones—especially to new writers.

• Be patient and persistent. Getting published isn’t easy, but patience and persever-

Proposals and Special Projects

Selecting a Subject

In selecting any topic for a professional or technical article, consider these guidelines:

1. Pick a topic that truly interests you. Writing an article with the sole end of being published is usually a poor strategy.

2. Even if one topic is of particular interest to you, ask yourself if that article will make a genuine contribution to your field. If possible, consult authorities in your field and listen with an open mind.

3. Ask yourself if you have the background and knowledge to pursue the topic you have in mind. In answering that question, be as honest as you can with yourself. Don’t take on a subject you can’t handle.

4. Be sure you have the necessary time, resources, and equipment to investigate and research your topic.

Finding a Periodical

You may have one or more journals in mind when you first begin to think about writing and submitting an article for publication. Whether you do or not, check out a source that lists periodicals in print, just to see if there are other publications you haven’t thought of. You may discover a publication that would be more appropriate to your topic and your purpose.

Read through some back issues of the journal or journals you have in mind. Try to get a good sense of who reads them. Knowing your audience applies to professional articles just as it does to any other kind of business or technical writing.

Before you begin to write your first draft, make sure you take the following steps:

1. Find out if the publisher you’re interested in accepts unsolicited manuscripts (ones they didn’t request some- one to write). If not, you must find one that does.

2. Contact the publisher and ask for the publication’s guidelines for submitting manuscripts and for formatting your material. Then make sure to follow those guidelines.

You may wish to think about submitting an article to an e-zine, a publication mailed electronically via the Web. Use your Web browser to locate a list of current e-zines. If you find one you’re interested in, look around its Web site, which should include information on how to submit articles for publication.

Proposals and Special Projects 37

Take some time to talk to people you know who have pub- lished articles. You may discover things you hadn’t thought of. They may be able to teach you some “tricks of the trade” that you wouldn’t have learned in any other way.

Manuscript Preparation

To prepare a manuscript for publication, follow the writing guidelines you’ve been learning throughout this program. Make sure your research is sound. Outline your main ideas in the prewriting phase. Organize your material in a clear fashion. After completing your draft, devote plenty of time to the revision and editing phase.

Although you must follow the formatting guidelines for the journal or periodical you select, especially with respect to citations and documentation, there are some general rules that are fairly standard:

• Type your manuscript neatly and double-space your text throughout. Don’t add any extra space between paragraphs.

• Make sure your headings are appropriate and logical. Use boldface for headings if your journal format suggests that approach.

• Be sure to include a title page that has your name, address, and organizational affiliation, as required by your journal’s formatting requirements.

• Print your edited file on standard 81/2-by-11-inch, 24-pound white paper.

• Precisely follow the publisher’s guidelines for pagination. Make sure your name appears in a computer-generated header or footer on each page, as may be required.

• Avoid the temptation to “spice up” a computer-generated document with borders or inserted art that detracts from your manuscript’s professional appearance.

Proposals and Special Projects

• When you include Web site addresses in your biblio- graphic citations or in the body of your text, make sure they don’t appear in blue on your computer screen. (Some software programs do this automatically.) The blue indicates that you’ve created a hyperlink to that site. To avoid this problem, use angle brackets before and after the address like this:

<http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/html>

Technical and Procedural Manuals The purpose of a technical or procedural manual is to describe and explain the way something works or how something should be done. Manuals are written for a wide range of purposes. They may, for example, explain how to operate a toaster, locate and replace a defective circuit board, remove stains from carpets, assemble a retail display, service a print- ing press, operate a computer printer, or train employees in quality control procedures. In fact, if you name a product, service, or organizational procedure, someone has probably written a manual for it.

You may be asked to write a manual under a variety of cir- cumstances. For example, your supervisor may feel you’re the best person to write a manual for new employees on how to perform a particular assembly process. You may be assigned to write a manual for a new product if you’re part of a marketing or sales division of a company. You may even find yourself contracted to write a manual as an outsource person.

Given this broad spectrum of possibilities, you can see that manuals may fall into a range of categories from simple “how to” booklets to lengthy technical documents. Of course, they may also be written for customers who may have no techni- cal background, people who are already skilled in specialized tasks, or managers who must use technologies for practical purposes.

An outsource person performs services or supplies goods to outside organizations.

Proposals and Special Projects 39

Understanding the Job

As you can imagine, there are all kinds of manuals for all kinds of purposes. Since it’s difficult to summarize the com- ponents of every kind of manual under one conceptual roof, it’s best to think of them in four categories:

1. A simple technical manual may be for something like operating an electric can opener. It may be only a few pages long, including illustrations.

2. A complex technical manual may explain something like operating a photocopier or repairing a particular kind of automobile engine. It will be longer than a simple techni- cal manual and may require a table of contents, logically divided sections, a glossary of key terms, and even an index.

3. A simple procedural manual may explain how to perform CPR (cardio-pulmonary resuscitation). It may be only a few pages long, including illustrations.

4. A complex procedural manual would be for topics like managing sexual harassment in the workplace or dealing with customer complaints. This type of manual may require all of the components mentioned for complex technical manuals.

No matter what type of manual you’re working on, follow these basic guidelines:

• Include an introduction that explains what the manual is for.

• Write with simple, conversational language unless you need to use specific technical terms.

• Explain terms that may not be clear to the reader.

• Arrange the steps in a procedure or process in a logical order.

• Keep your sentences short and to the point.

• Almost always include clear illustrations to accompany the text.

• Highlight necessary cautions and warnings.

Proposals and Special Projects

Complex Manuals

Any given manual may require a variety of different types of writing—for example, process descriptions, object descriptions, instructions, some combination of these, or all of these.

To illustrate that point, let’s examine a possible assignment. Suppose you’re expected to write a manual to inform people on how to use an electronic security system for structures such as banks, schools, retail businesses, and so on. Let’s call the system SafeGuard. You understand the technology involved in the SafeGuard system, but you can’t expect your readers to have a similar knowledge. You’re experienced in installing such systems, but you realize that your readers will need clear, step-by-step instructions on installation pro- cedures, if only for troubleshooting purposes. You also realize that a security system presents an expense that needs to be justified both before and after the sale. Based on market research that you’ve read, you know that people often need to be reassured that their purchase was a wise one, even after they’ve bought something.

In writing this manual, you’ll need to include the following components roughly in this order:

• Table of contents

• Introduction

• Operational theory or explanation

• Training or procedural instructions

• Rationales that explain why a step or procedure is necessary

• Glossary of key terms

• Summary

Table of contents. The table of contents for a manual should be just like that for a formal report. Include all of the headings from the text itself. Across the page from each heading, insert the page number on which the heading begins.

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Introduction. In the introduction to your SafeGuard manual, you should

• Present a concise overview of the system and the way it works

• Reassure the reader that the system is dependable and easy to operate

• Explain the way the manual is organized

Operational theory. The operational theory section is that part of a manual where you should

• Elaborate on the overview in your introduction

• Include basic, accurately labeled diagrams

• Explain technical terms in simple language

• Provide an installation guide

Note: Technical systems are usually installed for the client or customer. However, you should probably include an installation guide, even if the customer won’t be doing the installation. If the SafeGuard system is relatively easy to install, you should probably include the installation instructions in the operational theory section. If the system is usually profes- sionally installed, you may find it best to include a simplified installation or troubleshooting guide as a concluding section of your manual. In that case, you should advise the reader that the installation section is mainly for reference.

Training or operational procedures. The training or operational procedures section of a complex manual is usually the main part of the document. In the case of the SafeGuard manual, the main body of the document will almost certainly be a well-illustrated guide to operating the system. Subsections of this part of your document may include such headings as

• Using the keypad

• Arming the system

• Disarming the system

• Backup power module

• Automatic phone alert

• Registering your system for emergency assistance

Proposals and Special Projects

Rationales. Have you ever read a set of instructions that included a statement something like this:

Don’t push the On button until you’ve performed steps 1–4.

Most people who read a statement like that will ask, “I wonder what would happen if I were to push the button before I completed the steps.” The rationale section is where you should answer questions like that. For example, study the following paragraph. Pay particular attention to the last sentence, which includes a rationale.

Glossary. A glossary of key terms is almost always helpful in complex technical or procedural manuals. To determine which terms to include in your glossary, ask yourself these questions:

• Would this term be confusing to me if I had little famil- iarity with the kind of technical system in question?

• Is the term crucial to the procedure or operation I’m explaining?

If the answer to either of these questions is yes, include it in a glossary.

Summary. The summary of a manual should restate what you said in the introduction. Once again, reassure your reader that your system or procedure is effective and dependable. Highlight the benefits of the technical system or procedure. When necessary, provide a final overview of the system or procedure.

The SafeGuard system may be partially disarmed through your keypad before you exit your premises. To do this, press Control 6. Wait for the red light to go off and the orange light to illumi- nate. Then, exit the premises within 10 seconds. If you do not exit within the 10-second time period, the system will auto- matically return to armed status. As you leave, make sure to close the exit door firmly. Once the door is closed firmly, the system will be rearmed.

Always highlight cau- tions and warnings.

Whenever possible, explain why the user should avoid a certain operation or procedure.

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Appropriate Style

When preparing a technical or procedural manual, concentrate on clarity. Tell your readers what they need to know in simple, conversational language. In general, keep your sentences and paragraphs short, even if that means your writing must be a bit dry. Develop headings that clearly describe the information that follows them. Keep technical language to a minimum. When technical terms are crucial, explain them in the context of your writing.

As you should in any instance of professional, business, or technical writing, adhere carefully to the three phases of the writing process:

1. Research and outline your manual in the prewriting phase.

2. Write your document carefully.

3. Spend plenty of time revising and editing in the final phase.

Illustrations

Illustrations are crucial in nearly all manuals. Appropriate illustrations include simple line drawings, photographs, tables, charts, diagrams, and photographs. Since the advent of desktop publishing with personal computers, creating illustrations that can be inserted into documents has become much easier. If you’re working with an art department that will create the illustrations, you may be able to include graphics with various grades of black and white or color and varying styles of text.

Clearly label all of the illustrations you use in a manual, and place them as close as possible to the related text. For exam- ple, an illustration that shows how to perform Step 1 should normally be placed next to or very close to the body of text that explains it. Include any necessary text to identify parts of an illustration (Figure 10). Diagrams or illustrations that don’t include text can be very confusing.

Use the TAO principle for writing manuals, too. Your document should convey infor- mation thoroughly, accurately, and objectively.

Proposals and Special Projects

Please complete Self-Check 3 now and then review this study unit in preparation for the examination.

FIGURE 10—This illustration is used in a manual that explains the operation of a lightning rod. Notice how each of the components is identified.

Proposals and Special Projects 45

Self-Check 3 Indicate whether each of the following statements is True or False.

_____ 1. Most manuscripts that are submitted to technical and professional journals are returned for revision.

_____ 2. The first time you submit a manuscript you should look for a publisher that accepts only solicited articles.

_____ 3. Double-space the manuscripts you submit for publication.

_____ 4. When writing a procedure, try to explain why the operator should or should not do certain things.

_____ 5. If the type of system you’re writing about will be installed for the customer, don’t include any installation instructions.

Check your answers with those on page 49.

Proposals and Special Projects

NOTES

Note: Your answers for many of these exercises may vary from those given, but the sample responses should provide you with adequate guidelines for evaluating your responses.

Self-Check 1 1. The main components of an informal proposal are the

introduction, background, proposal statement, staffing outline, cost or budget statement, and authorization.

2. Your wording and approach may vary. Use these responses as a guide, keeping in mind the guidelines for an informal proposal.

Situation A

Instituting semiannual corporate and quarterly depart- mental meetings will raise awareness, allow employees input, promote company loyalty, and improve morale, all of which should result in reduced absenteeism and increased production. The production increase will help to offset the costs of temporarily shutting down produc- tion for the semiannual meetings.

Situation B

Replace the beryllium oxide wafers with the less expen- sive but proven effective thermal joint compounds in the mounting of the series-pass transistors to the heat sinks.

3. a. Background information/2

b. Request for authorization/6

c. Proposal statement/3

d. Staffing outline/4

e. Introduction, including nature of the problem/1

f. Cost or budget statement/5

A n s w e r s

Self-Check Answers48

4. Reports and proposals may have a very similar format, but the two require a very different relationship between the writer and the material. Reports require impartiality. Report writers should take the role of objective research- ers. They should investigate a problem thoroughly and objectively, draw clear conclusions, and make logical recommendations based on the data gathered in the investigation.

By contrast, proposals are instruments of persuasion. Proposal writers must be objective and present sound facts, but they often ask readers to focus on problems that may not be foremost in their minds. In fact, pro- posal writers must often convince their readers that a problem exists. Therefore, a proposal should engage a person’s point of view, demonstrate a benefit, and over- come resistance. A report writer’s conclusion should flow logically from facts and figures; a proposal writer’s demonstration of a problem must be followed by an effort to persuade the reader that a solution to that problem is available, feasible, and beneficial.

Self-Check 2 1. Journalism often aims at engaging readers by evoking

feelings or sentiments. In business and technical writing, descriptions of products, procedures, or processes are meant to provide information that will assist supervisors, managers, and executives in making timely decisions. Instructions should provide needed information, not attitudes.

2. The main difference between a process description and process instructions is the audience they’re intended to reach. A process description is usually written for man- agement personnel who must make decisions. Process instructions are written for people who actually perform the work.

3. and 4. There are no correct answers to these questions. The test on how well you do comes when you test them out on someone else.

Self-Check Answers 49

Self-Check 3 1. False

2. False

3. True

4. True

5. False

Self-Check Answers50

NOTES

Proposals and Special Projects

This examination is based on all five study units in this series: Using Words Well; Writing Effective Communications; Organizing, Researching, and Illustrating Your Material; Writing the Report; and Proposals and Special Projects. When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in all five study units, go to http://www.pennfoster.edu and submit your answers online. If you don’t have access to the Internet, you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until another examination is ready.

Questions 1–30: Select the one best answer to each question.

1. A covering memorandum should be attached to formal reports that are sent to

A. customers. B. the federal government. C. shareholders. D. someone within the company.

2. One advantage of topic outlines is that they provide

A. topic sentences for your paragraphs. B. new ideas for your outline. C. internal headings for your document. D. more precise ideas.

3. The following four statements tell something about written descriptions. Which one of the statements is incorrect?

A. There is a complete paragraph for each part listed in the introduction.

B. The paragraphs in the body describe each part in greater detail than the introduction.

C. One paragraph describes several different parts. D. Transitional clues such as first and next guide the reader.

EXAMINATION NUMBER:

05001800 E xa m in a tio

n E xa m in a tio

Examination52

4. Business and technical writers use abbreviations for

A. days of the week and months of the year. B. the title of a person if it appears before the person’s name. C. any sign and symbol used in the body of a report. D. technical words used only occasionally in a report.

5. Reports that are very large in both size and scope usually take the form of a/an

A. formal report. C. interoffice memorandum. B. letter. D. feasibility report.

6. Unlike memos, letters include

A. a signature above the sender’s typewritten name. B. a general subject line. C. indented paragraphs. D. the sender’s name in the heading.

7. Among the various kinds of visual aids, tables are

A. the most difficult to construct. B. the most common aid used in reports. C. helpful for showing the relationships between two sets of data. D. generally used to show trends in business performance.

8. When documenting your research, you should cite the sources for everything except

A. paraphrased material. C. common knowledge. B. surveys and interviews. D. statistics from a reference book.

9. Which one of the following sentences contains a misplaced or dangling modifier?

A. Assemble the product in a well-lighted place. B. With three children, a job, and school, my wife has little spare time. C. When prepared correctly, the garden spot should need no further fertilizing. D. Walking down Main Street, the cramp in my foot got worse.

10. Progress reports usually report on work that is

A. about to begin but not yet started. B. currently being done but not yet completed. C. finished and completed in the previous year. D. recently finished and completed.

11. Technical instructions are almost always written for

A. technicians and line workers. B. middle managers and supervisors. C. people who purchase the machinery. D. people who need to evaluate the machinery’s efficiency.

12. Jargon, or specialized words, should be used only when you

A. don’t know who your reader is. C. are writing for your CEO. B. are writing to someone familiar with it. D. have a dictionary nearby.

Examination 53

13. Which one of the following items is included in almost all types of informal reports?

A. Final recommendations C. Summary of work completed B. Description of the investigation D. Statement of the problem

14. A summary or abstract enables your readers to

A. get a quick overview of your report. B. test the accuracy of your findings. C. assess the cost effectiveness of your recommendations. D. test your writing ability.

15. What is the main advantage of sentence outlines?

A. They are easier to write than topic outlines. B. They supply you with internal headings. C. They can be used in your table of contents. D. They supply you with topic sentences for your paragraphs.

16. The table of contents in a formal report is composed of

A. first-level headings only. B. those headings you deem most useful. C. all internal headings. D. whatever information you think is important.

17. The main difference between technical descriptions and literary descriptions is that technical descriptions lack

A. details. C. irrelevant information. B. emotional appeal. D. interest.

18. The major information sources you use in a report may include any of the following except

A. tests and experiments you’ve performed. B. published material you’ve consulted. C. your own personal experiences and observations. D. the opinions of your coworkers.

19. Status reports are distinguished from progress reports primarily by their focus on the

A. absenteeism of personnel. C. solution to a problem. B. description of an investigation. D. present conditions.

20. Unlike most reports, informal and formal proposals must

A. be logical. B. clearly organize all information. C. persuade readers toward the writer’s point of view. D. present a solution to a problem.

21. Which one of the following statements shows appropriate netiquette?

A. “THE SHIPMENT ARRIVED FOUR DAYS AFTER THE REQUESTED DATE.” B. “Don’t know when you’ll get around to this since you never seem to be in the office.” C. Including a specific subject line D. Sending an e-mail of five monitor screens

Examination54

22. Suppose you’re writing a description of an object or a process. How many pararaphs should you include in your introduction?

A. One C. Three B. Two D. As many as you choose

23. To make your writing concrete and specific, you should use

A. words that encompass many meanings. B. facts and figures wherever possible. C. words that are emotional and therefore “real.” D. as few words as possible.

24. When you’re writing instructions, it’s almost always helpful to

A. include a table of contents. B. include an illustration. C. explain why one method is better than another one. D. show how much time and money the process will save the company.

25. When writing a technical article, it’s usually best to pick a topic that is

A. profitable. C. interesting to you. B. appealing to firms who may hire you. D. minimally time consuming.

26. When composing technical or procedural manuals, always use

A. medium-sized sentences and paragraphs. B. medium-sized sentences and short paragraphs. C. sentences and paragraphs whose sizes vary for interest and readability. D. consistently short sentences and paragraphs.

27. An effectively written sentence usually

A. starts with it is or there are to keep the beginnings similar. B. includes passive construction that makes sentences direct. C. ends with a direct object to provide readers with closure. D. uses active voice with a clear subject and verb.

28. The best way to ensure that you use words correctly is to

A. use only simple words that you understand completely. B. look up unfamiliar or difficult words every time you’re in doubt. C. invest in a pocket dictionary. D. hire a secretary.

29. In a paragraph, where does the controlling idea usually appear?

A. In the first sentence C. In the middle of the paragraph B. In the second sentence D. In the last sentence

30. What can you do to increase the chances your technical article will be considered for publication?

A. Include in your cover letter how much time it took you to write the article. B. Offer the editor a commentary on what you found helpful in the publication. C. Include borders and artwork on your manuscript. D. Review recent issues of the publication.