Work

Challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia

Hanan Al-Ahmadi*

Institute of Public Administration, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

(Received 29 June 2010; final version received 22 January 2011)

As a result of increasing enrolment of women in all levels of education and various fields of employment and aspects of public life in Saudi Arabia, the last 10 years witnessed a growing participation of women in senior management positions and in the decision-making process in public and private sectors. Recent developments indicate a clear strategic direction of policy makers and development plans in Saudi Arabia towards an even greater role for women in public life and into top leadership positions in public domains. In spite of the considerable role of women in Saudi society, evidence suggests that women in leadership positions are facing a different reality from their male counterparts due to organizational, personal and cultural challenges that impede their effectiveness as leaders. Through a survey of 160 women leaders, this article attempts to identify the challenges that women leaders face in government sectors in Saudi Arabia. Findings indicate that the main challenges are: structural challenges, lack of resources and lack of empowerment, while cultural and personal challenges ranked last, contrary to common perception. The study ultimately provides a set of recommendations with implications for leadership development in general, in order to address challenges that women leaders face and enhance their leadership role.

Keywords: women; leadership development; KSA; empowerment

Introduction

This paper advances the scarce empirical knowledge that exists on women’s leadership development in the Saudi Arabia. As a result of the increasing enrolment of women at all levels of education and in various fields of employment and aspects of public life, the past 10 years have witnessed a growing participation of Saudi women in senior management positions and in the decision-making process in public and private sectors. The government of Saudi Arabia has adopted a clear vision for the empowerment of women as reflected in recent development plans that show a clear shift in the orientation of planning efforts towards the development of women’s roles instead of focusing on women’s right to education and employment. Empowerment of women and enhancement of their involvement in public affairs have been clearly emphasized not only as targets of development plans but also rather as a means to achieve strategic objectives of development.

Globalization and economic and social developments in Saudi Arabia indicate the strong conviction among policymakers that comprehensive and sustainable

*Email: [email protected]

Human Resource Development International

Vol. 14, No. 2, April 2011, 149–166

ISSN 1367-8868 print/ISSN 1469-8374 online

� 2011 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/13678868.2011.558311

http://www.informaworld.com

development could not be reached without activating all social actors of development in the global society (Metcalfe and Rees 2010). It is quite clear that Saudi Arabia is embracing a new strategic direction to recruit qualified women into positions of leadership at the top of the hierarchy in public and private sectors. Saudi women are slowly but definitely assuming high positions that include deputy minister, university president, Shura Council consultants, board members of Chambers of commerce and many other new and exciting positions in both the public and private sectors.

The roles and skills of women leaders have received increased attention by researchers and practitioners in business and public organizations all over the world (Omair 2008; Stead and Elliot 2009). This growing interest is triggered by the importance of leadership as an essential element to the survival of organizations and as an instrumental factor in their strife for excellence (Stead and Elliot 2009). This interest is also influenced by the increasing role that women play in organizations and in the economy in general.

This paper provides new understandings of women’s leadership progress and challenges in Saudi Arabia. The study presents results of a survey of 160 women leaders in various government sectors in Saudi Arabia to identify challenges and suggests human resources solutions to assist women’s empowerment. Findings and recommendations should prove useful in raising awareness among policymakers regarding the experiences of women leaders in Saudi Arabia and the challenges they face and in identifying factors that may facilitate their role. The study argues that commitment to women’s leadership development is an important aspect of broader social change in Saudi Arabia.

Research problem

Due to globalization forces, Saudi Arabia has witnessed major changes during the past few decades, with women taking more responsibility in public spheres and occupying higher positions in organizations (Alchoui 2009). In the past three decades, there has been a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to development. The second strategic pillar of the Eighth Development Plan emphasized ‘increased attention to women’s affairs and development capabilities, and removal of barriers to participation in the development activities, in line with the Islamic values and teachings’. In this context, the plan identified one of its overall objectives as ‘The empowerment of women and increasing their participation in different areas, whether within the family or in the workplace, and to provide better opportunities in decision-making and empowerment’.

1

Furthermore, the recommendations of the Third National Dialogue Forum that was held in 2003 on women’s rights and responsibilities constituted a foundation for future organized efforts for reform. The recommendations called for the expansion of women’s role, their participation in public endeavours and expression of opinions, an examination of the legal system and its role in empowering women, the separation of traditions and customs from law and religion and the creation of new educational endeavours, both academic and vocational and new work opportunities for women.

Despite the considerable expansion in the role of women in Saudi society, evidence indicates that women in upper management positions are facing a different reality from their male counterparts due to various structural and cultural factors that impede their effectiveness as leaders (Almenkash et al. 2007). These factors have

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been found to impede women in management in other Gulf countries. As reported by Al-Lamki (1999), the main obstacles for women managers were limited opportunities to higher education, discriminatory appointment and promotion practices, traditional attitudes of male bosses towards working women, male- dominated sectors, male resistance to women in management, absence of policies and legislation to ensure participation of women in management positions, a lack of professional networking, a lack of female role models, a lack of professional management development programmes, a lack of a sufficient number of quality day care centres, dual responsibilities of traditional and professional roles, balancing traditional and professional roles and family obligations as a wife and a mother for childbearing and child rearing.

Despite the similarities in the challenges facing women leaders in Arab and Muslim countries, the working environment of Saudi women may differ due to the relatively recent entry of women into the labour market and the gender-based segregation in the workplace and in all aspects of public life. Thus, this study attempts to answer the following questions:

(1) What are the challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia? (2) Do these challenges differ according to personal and professional character-

istics, including the level of education, specialization, years of working experience and years of experience in administrative work, job title, marital status and age?

Women, leadership and development

This part of the study reviews the literature on challenges facing women leaders in general and in Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries in particular. There are similarities that women face all around the world but the unique culture in the Gulf region poses a different set of challenges. In western countries, cross-cultural studies on women as managers have found a common rising trend in women’s enrolment in leadership positions and found that women managers worldwide share a number of similarities including stereotyping, lack of role models and lack of access to training (Stead and Elliot 2009). Research on women in top management positions in three Arab Gulf countries (UAE, Oman and Bahrain) found that the challenges faced by those women included discrimination at work, cultural taboos, negative attitudes towards working women and lack of confidence and trust in women managers (Wilkinson 1996). Research identified several inhibiting factors for women that include organizational factors, such as personnel systems/traditional career paths, male employee attitudes and women’s own attitudes (Cooke 2007).

Culture reflected in the set of beliefs and practices associated with the local community, as well as in the work place, can adversely reflect on the effectiveness of women leaders and their ability to exercise a positive leadership role. In her assessment of leadership role of women in the Arab world, Shahine (1997) argues that despite the growing leadership role of women in society, traditional beliefs and practices on behalf of the community prohibit the career advancement of women. Traditional beliefs are reflected in associating leadership abilities with men and not women, in questioning the effectiveness of the few women who have reached positions of leadership, and in the negative attitudes about women in leadership positions, with a common belief that in order for them to be effective leaders they

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need to adopt characteristics that are not naturally associated with women, such as assertive behaviour, commitment and motivation.

The cultures and customs of the tribal community prevailing in the Arabian Peninsula prior to Islam have contributed to the conservative orientation towards women in Islam (Alajmi 2001). Effendi (2003) further argues that because most Arab cultures are patriarchal, a substantial segment of the various Arab societies have, in fact, placed women in a passive role at work and in the family. Therefore, Effendi (2003) maintains that it is not Islam as such that places women in these roles, but rather the way that patriarchal societies interpret Islam to support their positions regarding what is and what is not an acceptable behaviour for women.

Abdulla (1996) studied attitudes towards women in the Arabian Gulf region and found that women are still locked into restrictive traditional roles. Results indicated the presence of a gender gap, with women having more favourable attitudes towards working women, while men are not willing to share public responsibilities with them.

Similarly, Ibrahim (1997) points out that there is a major contradiction in the views in the Arab world towards women, which reflects a deep rift in the fabric of Arab culture. Ibrahim (1997) further asserts that social institutions such as the family, school and the media play a critical role in perpetuating these negative values and attitudes towards women’s work and role in society and their contributions to the process of sustainable development. This attitude towards women is not unique to the Arab world; it is a problem in western societies as well. In a review of research on leadership and gender, Shimanoff and Jenkins (1991) state the following:

Research has demonstrated that there are far more similarities than differences in the leadership behaviors of women and men, and that they are equally effective. Still, women are less likely to be preselected as leaders, and the same leadership behavior is often evaluated more positively when attributed to a male than a female (504).

In a review of women in management, Berthoin Antal and Izraeli (1993, 63) states that ‘probably the single most important hurdle for women in management in all industrialized countries is the persistent stereotype that associated management with being male’.

Structural factors can present an important challenge to women leaders due to managerial and organizational practices, women managers around the world are often found in lower management positions that give them little access to power and few meaningful challenges (Omar and Davidson 2001). Evidence similarly indicates that women leaders in Saudi Arabia face a number of structural challenges, including limited authority, which is disproportionate to the size of their responsibility (Al-Halawani 2002; Almenkash et al. 2007; Abdullah 2008).

A study conducted by Al-Halawani (2002) concludes that women in many sectors of government are operating under the umbrella of men, which impacts negatively on the performance of women sections, and that the constant intervention by men restricts their freedom to make decisions. The study further concludes that lack of authority and centralization of authority in headquarters run by men limit women’s ability to lead effectively and to make decisions, even those that concern their own departments (Al-Halawani 2002).

Research studies suggest that women’s sectors in Saudi Arabia face several organizational shortcomings including the lack of clarity in the organizational relationship between women’s and men’s departments, poor coordination and the

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subordination of women’s sections on the organizational chart (and in some cases not including women sections in the organizational chart all together), as well as a lack of control over financial and material resources (Almenkash et al. 2007). Almenkash et al. (2007) indicates that poor communication and inadequate information system contribute to the widening gap between women sections and top leaders, as well as the isolation of women’s sections from the course of events that take place at the corporate headquarters, and the lack of participation in strategic planning and academic decision-making and membership in academic and administrative committees.

Lack of empowerment can be another challenge facing women leaders, which is reflected in their inability to influence the decision-making process and achieve organizational goals due to the lack of tools or methods of empowerment (Metcalfe 2008). Empowerment can be achieved through access to knowledge, the granting of sufficient authority and access to information, as well as through self-development, reward and encouragement, participation in setting goals and policy-making and identifying means and methods (Kubaisi 2004). Thus, any deficiency in any of these aspects will result in a lack of empowerment and, consequently, ineffective leadership. According to Effendi (2003), empowerment enhances the moral and physical sense of belonging and affiliation with the institution, leaving a positive effect on the psyche of the individual, and enhances feelings of appreciation and importance to the institution.

Evidence suggests a number of factors contributing to the lack of empowerment of women leaders. These include lack of administrative efficiency, limited training opportunities, lack of professional exchange opportunities and cooperation with other institutions to gain diverse experiences, the exclusion of women from some policies and regulations and from participating in decision-making (Almenkash et al. 2007) and lack of access to information (Sultan 1994). Evidence also shows that the amount and quality of leadership training available to women is not adequate to meet the demands of their role as leaders; women often undertake training based on self-initiative, which does not follow a strategic plan for leadership development in the organization (Al-Ahmadi 2005).

Several factors associated with the personality of women leaders and their social circumstances, may hinder their ability to fully exercise their leadership role effectively. These include lack of self-confidence, fear of responsibility, difficulty of balancing professional responsibilities and family obligations and the sense of isolation in the administrative position, in addition to physical and health factors and psychological pressures. Some scholars assert that women are subjected to socialization, educational and social pressures that may prevent the formation of values and attitudes appropriate to leadership roles, thus limiting the effectiveness of some women in leadership positions (Shahine 1997). Studies show that working women face role conflict as a result of the difficulty of balancing professional and social or family obligations in the absence of structural support (Al-Halawani 2002). Ibrahim (1997) indicates that feelings of frustration and suffering among women increase because of this dual role and the accumulation of the sense of marginalization, inferiority and lack of self-confidence. In the study by Alajmi (2001), the highest ranked personal traits identified by respondents as impacting women in leadership positions in Saudi Arabia are energy, self-confidence and independence; they do not rank very highly in initiative, taking risks or relationships.

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Based on the review of the literature, it is concluded that women leaders face many challenges that limit their effectiveness and prevent them from achieving their leadership potential. These include organizational structure, culture, policies and practices, as well as individual factors such as personal skills, capabilities, confidence, support, ability to achieve balance and a sense of empowerment. This is similar to many western regions, but the Middle East region faces additional concerns relating to greater importance of family ties and the significance of religion in governing all work and social relationships, which both men and women support (Metcalfe 2008). Although several studies have been conducted on this subject, the current study comes at a time that is critical in Saudi Arabia, where important social reforms for women are taking place. The advancement of women in the public sphere is an important goal for the region, given the implementation of the eighth development plan, and the millennium development goals (MDG), that strongly emphasize the need for women empowerment.

Population and sample

The population of the current study is women leaders who joined leadership development workshops provided in the Women’s Branch of the Institute of Public Administration (IPA) during the past 5 years (2005–2009). (Their total number is 527.) This particular population was selected due to the lack of information and updated databases of women leaders in the public and private sectors. The IPA maintains a database of women in certain civil service ranks, who are eligible to enrol in its leadership development seminars, which was convenient to this research project.

Data collection was conducted in the summer of 2009, a survey questionnaire was emailed or faxed to 300 participants that were selected randomly from the IPA database. A research assistant contacted participants by telephone initially to verify their contact information and to inform them of the study and explain its purpose. A follow-up phone call was conducted 2 weeks later to encourage the selected subjects to fill out the questionnaire. The total number of returned questionnaire forms was 162, with a response rate of 54%.

Measurement

Based on a study of the relevant literature, a special data collection tool was designed for purposes of this study. The tool includes two parts:

Personal data: Qualification, specialization, years of working experience, years of experience in administrative work, job title, marital status and age.

Leadership challenges: This scale included 36 items that were grouped into five categories: Structural challenges, personal challenges, lack of empowerment, lack of resources and cultural challenges.

To verify the validity of the data collection instrument, it was reviewed by a panel of six judges from academia working in the IPA and King Saud University and including specialists in the field of management and human resources development, in order to verify its suitability for the purpose of the study. Based on the comments received by reviewers, appropriate adjustments of the tool were made. In terms of reliability of the measurements used, reliability coefficient was calculated using Cronbach’s a coefficient and was found acceptable at 0.88.

154 H. Al-Ahmadi

Statistical analysis

To answer research questions, data analysis was conducted using SPSS, descriptive statistics including means and standard deviation and frequencies were used. Analysis of variance procedure was used to identify differences in leadership challenges according to personal characteristics, and post hoc comparisons were conducted using Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test. For purposes of this analysis, some categories in the personal background section were grouped because the number of cases in some categories was too small to conduct the analysis.

Limitations

The sampling approach utilized in this study might influence the results and may be a limitation, as the participants were selected only from attendees of leadership development programmes at the IPA. As a result, the sample did not include women leaders who never attended IPA seminars, including leaders in the private sector. Additionally, due to the fact that these seminars have a strict selection criteria based on civil services rank, most attendants are in their forties and are highly educated.

Results

Table 1 presents professional and personal characteristics of women leaders participating in this study. As shown in the table, the vast majority of women leaders are highly educated, and most of them hold a doctorate degree (75.6%) in diverse disciplines, including natural sciences (30%), arts and humanities (21.6%) and education (22%). The data also indicate that these leaders have a long career experience, as 43.8% have more than 21 years of experience. The situation is different in terms of management expertise; participants were divided as follows: 28.4% had less than 5 years experience in administrative work, and about one- quarter had more than 21 years of experience in management. In terms of personal characteristics, most participants were in their mid-forties or older, and most of them were married (64.8%).

Table 2 presents views regarding challenges facing women leaders who have been classified for the purposes of this study into five categories: structural challenges, lack of empowerment, cultural challenges, personal challenges and challenges related to lack of resources. Statistical analysis identifies structural challenges as the most important, with an overall average of 3.24 and a standard deviation of 0.4. Structural challenges include the centralization of decision-making, lack of participation in the formulation of strategic plans, limited powers and so on. This is followed by the challenges related to resources, which are limited financial powers granted to the departments of women, inadequate buildings and facilities, inadequate physical equipment and technology available, lack of financial resources and poor training on the use of technologies. The overall average is 3.20 with a standard deviation of 0.59. Challenges relating to lack of empowerment come in third place in terms of importance, with an average of 3.19 and a standard deviation of 0.46. These challenges include lack of training programmes to prepare women leaders before assignment into leadership role, limited opportunities to gain diverse experiences and learning outside and inside the organization, poor management skills necessary to exercise the leadership role and so on. Cultural challenges rank fourth in importance

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with an average of 2.8 and a standard deviation of 0.5, and they include poor professional culture of some subordinates, lack of top management confidence in women leaders, stereotypes and beliefs about women’s management capabilities, the dominance of personal over professional relationship in the work place, lack of acceptance of women’s authority by female subordinates and, finally, the difficulty of dealing with male colleagues. Personal challenges rank last in terms of importance of the categories of the various challenges facing women leaders with an average of 2.37 and a standard deviation of 0.8. Personal challenges refer to the subjective factors that have to do with family and social pressure, as well as personal capacity, and the underlying feelings of women leaders, which may limit their ability to exercise their leadership role efficiently and effectively.

Table 1. Sample characteristics.

Variables Frequency Per cent

Level of education Bachelor’s 14 8.6 High diploma 1 0.6 Master’s 18 11.1 Doctorate 121 75.6.7 Other 5 3.1

Work experience Less than 5 years 8 4.9 6–10 years 2 1.2 11–15 years 21 13 16–20 years 31 19 More than 20 years 71 43.8

Years in managerial positions Less than 5 years 46 28.4 6–10 years 27 16.7 11–15 years 17 10.5 16–20 years 11 6.8 More than 20 years 40 24.7

Marital status Married 104 64.2 Divorced 17 10.5 Widowed 10 6.2 Single 24 14.8

Specialty Arts and humanities 35 21.6 Education 23 14.2 Islamic studies 14 8.6 Administrative sciences 12 7.4 Sciences 49 30.2 Languages and translation 4 2.5 Medicine and health sciences 9 5.6 Others 11 6.8

Age 30–35 years 5 3.1 36–40 years 31 19.1 41–46 years 42 25.9 46–50 years 47 29 More than 51 years 29 17.9

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Table 2. Types of challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia.

Item Mean Standard deviation Overall

Structural challenges

Lack of clarity of structural vision 3.27 0.65 Mean, 3.24; standard deviation, 0.41

Overlap between women’s and men’s sections

3.19 0.76

The limited powers granted to women leaders

3.34 0.72

The centralization of decision- making

3.47 0.67

The low level of participation in drawing the strategic plans of the organization

3.41 0.69

Lack of material and moral incentives

3.21 0.77

Poor administrative organization of the women’s sections

3.13 0.74

Weak feedback on the performance of leaders

3.22 0.71

Poor representation of women leaders in committees, boards and meetings at the corporate level

3.15 0.79

Wide range of administrative supervision (supervision of a large number of departments and sections)

3.06 0.70

Lack of empowerment

Lack of rehabilitation programmes for women leaders and poor preparation for them before they are assigned leadership roles

3.66 0.54 Mean, 3.19; standard deviation, 0.46

Poor management skills necessary to exercise the leadership role

3.21 0.66

Lack of managerial experience on the part of women leaders

3.11 0.74

Lack of information needed for decision-making

3.20 0.69

Lack of knowledge of regulations governing the work

2.79 0.82

Limited opportunities to gain divers experiences and learning within the organization

3.12 0.71

Limited opportunities to gain divers experiences and learning outside the organization

3.25 0.77

Limited opportunities for training and skill development

3.15 0.72

Cultural challenges

The confidence of senior management women leaders

2.84 0.80 Mean, 2.82; standard deviation, 0.52

Prevailing beliefs about men having higher capacity and management skills of women as leaders

2.84 0.81

A reluctance to accept the authority of women’s leadership by their subordinates

2.69 0.81

(continued)

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Table 3 identifies differences in the types of challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia according to their personal and professional characteristics. Post hoc comparisons are conducted using LSD test. For purposes of this analysis, some categories in the personal background section are grouped together to obtain meaningful results or as a requirement of the LSD test. Significant differences in personal challenges are identified according to level of education, with F¼3.778, P¼0.012. These differences are particularly observed between bachelor’s degree holders and holders of Ph.D.s or other degrees; the mean score is lower for bachelor’s degree holders indicating that they face a lower degree of these challenges than their colleagues in the other two groups.

In terms of marital status, results indicate that widowed leaders identified significantly higher levels of structural challenges than their married, divorced and

Table 2. (Continued).

Item Mean Standard deviation Overall

Tyranny of the traditional relationship as opposed to informal professional relationship between leaders and subordinates

2.83 0.75

Weak professional culture of some subordinates

3.24 0.66

The difficulty of dealing with male colleagues and superiors

2.48 0.81

Personal challenges

Poor self-confidence 2.02 0.75 Mean, 2.37; standard deviation, 0.56

Fear of responsibility 2.18 0.86 Difficulty of balancing between

professional responsibilities and family obligations

2.32 0.80

Sense of isolation in the administrative position

2.17 0.76

Health and physical aspects that affect the effectiveness of the leadership role

2.41 0.81

Sense of stress and tension due to the difficulty of balancing the needs of subordinate structural goals

2.75 0.74

Difficulty of travelling if required by work conditions because of family and personal circumstances

2.68 0.87

Lack of resources

Lack of financial resources available to the women’s sectors

3.17 0.80 Mean, 3.20; standard deviation, 0.59

Limited powers granted to the financial departments of women

3.33 0.78

Inadequate buildings dedicated to women’s sectors

3.20 0.83

Inadequate material and technical equipment available

3.19 0.80

Poor training on the use of devices and technologies available, which reduces the benefit derived from them

3.17 0.79

158 H. Al-Ahmadi

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3 .3 3 3 3

3 .0 2 3 8

2 .6 4 2 9

3 .5 2 3 8

4 6 – 5 0 y ea rs

3 .3 6 1 7

3 .4 2 5 5

3 .1 7 0 2

2 .4 4 6 8

3 .4 1 3 0

M o re

th a n 5 1 y ea rs

3 .3 3 3 3

3 .2 2 2 2

2 .8 5 1 9

2 .2 9 6 3

3 .3 7 0 4

160 H. Al-Ahmadi

single colleagues, with F¼5.060 and P¼0.002. However, widowed leaders observed significantly lower cultural challenges than their married and divorced colleagues at F¼3.732 and P¼0.013.

As for type of specialty, leaders in arts and humanities, education, Islamic studies and languages reported significantly higher levels of structural challenges than their colleagues in scientific and medical specialties and in administrative sciences, at F¼3.725 P¼0.013. Leaders in scientific and medical specialties reported significantly higher levels of personal challenges than their colleagues in adminis- trative sciences, and art specialties, with F¼3.410 and P¼0.019.

Women leaders in younger age group (30–35 years) reported significantly lower levels of structural challenges as compared to their counterparts in all the other age groups. However, this age group reported significantly higher cultural challenges than all the other groups at F¼3.112 and F¼0.017.

No significant differences were observed in terms of years of work experience or management experience.

Developing women’s capabilities

This study seeks to highlight the challenges faced by women leaders in Saudi Arabia in order to identify alternatives to overcome these challenges. Results provide a profile of women leaders in Saudi Arabia as highly educated in various disciplines, with long career experiences and varying degrees of managerial expertise. These results differ somewhat from findings of prior research that describe women leaders in the public sector as young with limited leadership experience (Khayat 1996). This disparity indicates that women leaders in Saudi Arabia have grown in terms of education and expertise in the past decade. It is also indicative of a policy shift in Saudi Arabia towards enhancing the role of Saudi women in the development process. Research in western countries has similarly shown that many of the women who are making their way into management careers are equally or better qualified in terms of educational attainments than their male colleagues (Wood and Lindorff 2001). These results confirm the maturity of the professional experience of women leaders and the importance of providing suitable leadership development opportu- nities to improve their capabilities and enable optimal use of their expertise.

Structural challenges, particularly those associated with the centralization of the decision-making process, lack of authority and participation in the formulation of strategy, are found to be the most important challenges facing women leaders in this study. This may be due to the fact that women’s access to leadership positions in Saudi Arabia is relatively recent, so there may still be concerns regarding their capabilities and managerial efficiency (Al-Halawani 2002).

Results further indicate that lack of empowerment is a significant obstacle to women’s leadership, which confirms previous findings regarding inadequate preparation of women prior to appointment into leadership positions and limited opportunities for learning and for enhancing their professional experiences (Almenkash et al. 2007). As a result of the Saudization process and absence of leadership development strategies, many women in public and private organizations find themselves relatively too soon in positions of leadership, before accumulating the experience and maturity necessary for effective job performance (Al-Ahmadi 2005). Saudi women also lack opportunities to learn by example, through mentorship and guidance, because of the limited experience of women leaders, the

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lack of role models and the isolation of women’s sectors in general due to cultural and social barriers (Al-Ahmadi 2005). Highlighting the importance of empowerment through education and support, a recent study found that the driving forces for success for Arab women in management are education and the support of their husbands and families, and that success is not defined in terms of financial gains but rather satisfaction, happiness and growth (Omair 2008).

Mentoring through identification with role models and adequate consultation is essential for developing the leadership capabilities of women. A study of women mangers in Saudi Arabia indicates that despite their importance, mentoring programmes are not rated high among the priorities of women leaders as the concept is considered relatively new in Saudi Arabia (Alajmi 2001). Similar findings were reached in a study of women mangers in Oman, which concluded that there were no programmes to facilitate the advancement of women as role models, no mentoring programmes, management training programmes or active shunning of affirmative action (Al-Lamki 1999).

Networking is an important strategy for leadership empowerment; it allows one to gain information and identify personal mentors and supporters that empower them to face the challenges of leadership role. Informal networks for women in the organization, and beyond it, contribute substantially to their ability to develop by creating an opportunity for sharing and exchanging experiences (Stead and Elliot 2009). Women in the region are found to be more isolated from peer group experiences that facilitate their role, while men often control key networks that have access to the organization’s powerhouse and valuable information (Omar and Davidson 2001). Scholars argue that good work performance by itself is not enough; promotion often depends more on how visible a person is in the organization and the nature of that visibility (Cooke 2007). Women leaders must be able to identify the clues to success criteria used in the organization, both the hidden and the declared.

Contrary to the prevailing perspective, cultural challenges are less important compared to the other challenges faced by women leaders. This is an indication of changing perception of the role of women in society and a reflection of the policy of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Abdullah who calls for the integration of women in decision-making positions. Studies have previously noted a prevailing traditional conservative mentality among some men in leadership positions, which reinforces the exclusion of women leaders and limits their effective participation in decision-making (Almenkash et al. 2007). Researchers have stressed that the role of women in management cannot be viewed in isolation from the general status of women in society and from the general targets of economic, social and educational development (Hammoud 1993). The current study confirms that there are signs of change in the general view of women in Saudi society, and thus, cultural aspects– despite their importance–are not the most serious impediment to women leaders. These results are similar to the findings of another study of factors determining attitudes towards women occupying supervisory positions in Kuwait, which indicates a relatively positive attitude towards women managers (Askar and Ahmad 2003). The study, however, finds that the gender of participant to be statistically significant in determining attitudes towards women managers with females being more supportive of women in supervisory positions (Askar and Ahmad 2003). Similarly, there has been a shift in societal attitudes towards women managers in the UAE from the expected restrictive traditional attitudes to a more liberal view (Mostafa 2005). However, the study also identifies a considerable gender gap in attitudes towards women managers with females being consistently more supportive than males (Mostafa 2005).

162 H. Al-Ahmadi

Personal challenges ranked last among the challenges facing women leaders as a sign on increasing self-confidence and the ability to take responsibility and to achieve balance between professional and family obligations, in addition to psychological and physical readiness to withstand the pressures of administrative work. Omair (2008) points out that although Arab women get domestic help either in the form of paid servants or relatives, housework and child care remain their most important responsibilities. Therefore, it can be concluded that women leaders in Saudi Arabia continue to take responsibility for their homes and family and are able to balance the two sets of obligations. This result is contrary to the beliefs prevailing in the Arabic and non-Arabic literature on the unwillingness of women to face the social, psychological and physical pressures of a leadership role. Findings by prior research show that women often knowingly behaved according to gender-based roles and often revealed a weak self-perception and underestimated their performance (Fondas 1997). Like Fondas, Morley (1993, 28) argues that women unknowingly act in accordance to male ideals, and thus are marginalized: ‘Women enter management as the ‘‘other’’, constantly under surveillance, which may produce a mental set which means women cannot afford to make mistakes and alienate others as the penalties are so high’. Unlike their male counterparts, women managers must manage dual social identity pressures: the effects of socialization and internalized notions of the inferior status of their authority (Morley 1993, 28). In practice, this means that they make strenuous efforts to please others and are vulnerable to criticism and attack from others and often unable to connect with either their institutional power or personal effectiveness. In the Gulf region, Al-Lamki (1999) finds that women managers in Oman report a feeling of inferiority towards men in the management cadre, and they also have to face the triple burden of domesticated wife, mother and professional woman.

Scholars point out the importance of adopting strategies for the empowerment of women leaders. This involves a process of enhancing feelings of self-efficacy through the identification of conditions that foster powerlessness (Conger and Kanungo 1988). Empowerment is therefore a state of mind derived from the leaders’ realization of the value of the work they are doing and their confidence in their knowledge and managerial skills, their independence and professional freedom to make decisions and their ability to identify the impact of their performance. In light of the challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia, it can be concluded that empowerment as a state of mind has not been fully achieved due to the lack of agency associated with authority, independence, knowledge and management skill. According to Gandz (1990), it is not logical to put workers in decision-making positions, assigning them important tasks, without provision of appropriate training that empowers them to do all these things. Results reflect the importance of management training as one of the essential components of the empowerment of leaders in women’s sectors in Saudi Arabia.

Given the expansion of women’s leadership role and their growing involvement in decision-making positions, results of this study emphasize the need to grant a degree of flexibility and autonomy in decision-making in women’s sectors, highlighting the importance of empowering women leaders as an integral part of performance improvement strategies. Such a step would enhance their ability to achieve their objectives and meet the aspirations of the public and would meet the needs of the comprehensive development process in Saudi Arabia.

Differences in personal challenges encountered by bachelor’s degree holders may be explained by the fact that leaders with higher qualifications usually work in

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academic positions that might create additional burdens on their personal lives, due to their academic duties and aspirations. In terms of marital status, results indicate that widowed leaders face more structural challenges and less cultural challenges than their married and divorced colleagues. There is no clear explanation for this result, so we can only speculate that widowed leaders might be older in age and rank and may observe organizational limitations, such as limited authority and power, but at the same time, their age and status might lessen social and cultural pressures on them.

Results also logically indicate that leaders specialized in administrative sciences, and also medical and natural sciences, experience less structural challenges, which confirm the fact that qualifications do facilitate empowerment of women leaders. However, the same groups experience more personal challenges that might be a result of their inability to balance personal and professional obligations. Women in younger age groups report less structural and more personal challenges, which might indicate that they are still in early stages of their careers and still struggling with personal and professional life balance. However, they are at a position in the hierarchy that they do experience structural challenges as their older counterparts.

Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that leadership development programmes in Saudi Arabia take into consideration the challenges identified in this study and to include different skills and activities to overcome them. Over the past decade, particularly, there has been a growth in the number of private and public organizations providing training for women in crucial areas that are generally accepted as being instrumental in women’s professional development. One of the key governmental agencies responsible for development of management skills in public institutions through training, consultations and research is the IPA, which plays an important role in the empowerment of women leaders. Leadership development programmes have several objectives, but they should generally focus on three areas. First, these programmes seek to enable women managers to develop the knowledge and skills necessary for effective leadership (Stead and Elliot 2009). Second, they support the transfer of learning of both men and women in adapting to a new understanding of gender relationships so as to reduce the negative bias and stereotyping that limit women’s advancement in leadership roles (Fondas 1997). And finally, to train human resource officers and other decision-makers conform to the specific demands of new regulations, a changing workforce and increasing recognition that organizations must foster a sense of inclusion if they are to make best use of their human resources (Burack et al. 1994).

Training of women leaders should not be isolated from overall development strategies but rather should be integrated into strategic planning efforts and in organizational projects. Women leaders also have to be aware of both their own training needs and the training opportunities available to them. Training should help women leaders identify their own personal style and leadership qualities as well as various sources of power and influence that relate to their role.

Policymakers and government legislatures play a major role in the formation of the social policies, development strategies and legislation that shape opportunities for women in public spheres. Organizations need to adopt human resources approaches that transform work cultures through the change of management, team building, sensitivity training and cross-gender communication. Human resources officers need to monitor organizational performance on gender participation and hold managers accountable in regard to the progress achieved in meeting gender targets (Gatrell and Swan 2008).

164 H. Al-Ahmadi

Organizing forums, workshops and conferences is also essential to keep up with the changing roles of women leaders in Saudi Arabia and with modern trends in management development and to discuss challenges faced by women leaders and ways to overcome them. Job rotation should be promoted in public sectors to create an opportunity to diversify and exchange experiences and gain new skills to introduce fresh changes in government agencies that benefit both the individual and the organization.

Conclusions

This study contributed new insights into the dynamics of women’s role and development in Saudi Arabia. The primary objective of the study was to capture the experiences of women leaders in Saudi Arabia and to highlight the challenges encountered by them in order to pave the way for future generations of aspiring women. The results of this study point out that despite their high qualification, job experience and full readiness to assume leadership roles in their organizations, women leaders in Saudi Arabia face several challenges that limit their effectiveness as leaders and prevent them from achieving their potential. For Saudi Arabia to move on with its current policy of empowering women, thestructuraland cultural barriers identified in this study need to be addressed. The study stresses the importance of training as a means for leadership development, as well as creating platforms for discussion and enhancement of women leadership, and establishing supportive legislation for women’s active role in society. However, any attempt to introduce social change will have to be in line with the cultural norms and values pertaining to women and Islam.

The study comes at a time where Saudi Arabia is undergoing a major reform on all fronts but especially in women’s issues. Results identify the recent positive changes in women’s role and in the official support to women’s participation in public life, which came along as a result of the consistent efforts of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques and his conviction of the need to enhance women leadership and participation in the decision-making process at all levels.

Note

1. The Eighth Development Plan (2005–2009), Ministry of Economy and Planning, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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