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The Digital Society

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to complete the following:

• Explain issues with privacy, pornography, and piracy on the Web.

• Summarize how money can be made online and provide examples.

• Define virtual communities and list examples.

• Explain the relationship between online and onground education.

• Summarize the relationship between computing, information, and the law.

• List some trends of globalization and the role of computing in those trends.

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CHAPTER 8Pre-Test

Introduction

Are you a digital native? According to John Palfrey and Urs Gasser, authors of a book titled Born Digital, if you were born after 1980, then you are (Palfrey & Gas-ser, 2008). They believed 1980 was an important turning point because of the rise of the personal computer and software applications. What started with spreadsheets and word processors evolved into more complex digital interactions such as friendships, social relationships, and even civic activities, all taking place through (or mediated by) a computer. Those who were born before 1980 can still become a part of this digital soci- ety, and they have an important vantage point because they have had the opportunity to watch the changes evolve. However, if they remain on the outside and do not take part in this new world, then they are often a step behind in school or the workplace. In the 21st century, this digital society is growing larger each day, with new computing tools designed to become more and more embedded into our lives. Because we cannot afford to live outside of this digital society, we all must become as comfortable with it as digital natives. In this chapter, we will look at both the positive and negative aspects of digital society, as well as the many ways in which the digital society parallels prevalent issues in our real life society. Of course “society” is a vast and multifaceted subject. So, we are going to narrow this topic to five main areas: our concepts of privacy, law, economy, community, and education. These five subjects become the central theme of our chapter on the digital society. And we end our discussion here by exploring the associated globalization of this digital society.

Pre-Test

1. Which of the following is the MOST secure password protection strategy? a. Updating your antivirus software. b. Not using personal information as a password. c. Using a security token. d. Changing your passwords monthly.

2. Which of the following sites allows you to place a bid on an item you would like to purchase?

a. Amazon b. PayPal c. eBay™

d. Instagram

3. Who coined the term cyberspace in 1984? a. Pierre Omidyar b. Pavel Curtis c. William Gibson d. Howard Rheingold

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Privacy, Pornography, and Piracy

4. Ashford University is primarily an example of what type of learning? a. asynchronous b. synchronous c. MOOC d. correspondence course

5. Which of the following is a TRUE statement regarding legal issues and computers? a. There have been so many court cases that most of the legal issues have been

resolved. b. Google’s motto is “Do no evil” and so it has not had to deal with legal issues

to this point. c. Computer programmers had more rights in the 1970s than they do today. d. Computer code can be plagiarized and this is a legal offense.

6. Thomas Friedman has metaphorically suggested that because of the forces of globalization the world is

a. round. b. small. c. flat. d. connected.

8.1 Privacy, Pornography, and Piracy

The computer is neither good nor evil. In itself, it has no morals, positive or negative, because it is simply a machine. As with any other tool, such as a hammer or a gun, the morals of the user shape its functions. In the hands of a carpenter, a hammer can be used to build a shelter for the homeless. In the hands of a thief, a hammer can be used to break a window of that same home and jeopardize the security of its inhabitants. In this regard, a computer is much like a hammer. It can be used for good as well as evil. When we see examples of computers threatening society, do not blame the computer. Blame the person sitting at the keyboard. To protect ourselves from those who wish to use com- puters to infringe upon our rights, knowledge is the best defense. If we can understand aspects of this dark side of computing—such as privacy, piracy, and pornography—we will be better prepared to live safely in our digital society.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Privacy, Pornography, and Piracy

Privacy The amount of data collected about you is staggering. You leave a digital fingerprint every time you use your credit card, borrow a library book, go to the doctor, rent a movie, bank online, apply for a job, email, blog, and use Facebook. You are aware that many people will see some of this information, such as what you post on a blog. It is intended to be public. But other information is extremely private, such as your bank account login code, and therefore, the unau- thorized access of personal informa- tion is a serious threat. How can you protect yourself and preserve your privacy?

How to Permanently Erase Data The first step is to safeguard your personal computer (Tynan, 2005). One thing you should be aware of is that when you delete a file, it is not really gone. The data still exists in your computer’s hard disk (or other type of magnetic media like a flash drive). Deleting a file simply tells the computer that if it needs more storage, it can use that space. But it may not do so. So, when you go to sell or throw away your computer, you could be leaving a wealth of data for an identity thief to easily uncover. There are several solutions for this. First, if you are junking your computer, you can take out the hard drive, get a hammer (wear safety glasses), and literally destroy it. Second, if you are selling or donating your computer, you can delete all the files on your hard drive and then make one large Word file with lots of pictures and copy it over and over until your hard drive is full. This will write over all of your data. A third solution is to purchase a software program such as Active,Kill Disk Hard Drive Eraser, which will permanently delete anything you want to erase from your hard drive.

Backing up Files At the opposite end of the spectrum from permanently erasing data is making sure that you are saving it, which is known as backing up files. Hard drives are known to fail from time to time, so it is essential to periodically back up your files, or save your data to a dif- ferent location. There are several ways to do this. You can purchase an external hard drive (typically with a USB connection) that can be set up to automatically back up your data at a certain time every day (typically in the early morning hours when you are not working on the computer). This way, if something happens to your internal hard drive, all your data can be restored from your backup external drive. The other benefit is that an external drive is portable, so you can easily transport all of your information if you are away from your home computer. The downside is that if there is a physical catastrophe to your com- puting environment (fire, water damage, and so on), both your internal and external data

The ability to store information digitally is useful but can also present privacy issues. What solutions can you think of to prevent unauthorized people from accessing your personal information?

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Privacy, Pornography, and Piracy

will be lost. For this reason, offsite storage (called cloud storage—to be discussed further in Chapter 9) is essential, so if your computer is destroyed, you can easily retrieve all of your information.

Another offsite storage option is Google Drive™ with the first 5 GB given to you for free. Once installed on your phone or mobile device, files can be placed and accessed on any device that has Google Drive™. Files can also be edited on the Web, allowing you to col- laborate with others.

Apple® has a similar product with its iCloud®, which backs up all of your data (5 GB of free storage with an option to purchase more) on your iPhone®, iPad®, or iPod® Touch. It can also backup files on a mobile device.

Log-In Protection Another privacy concern is that someone might break into a computer that you currently use and steal data. You should require a strong password (discussed in Chapter 5.2) to log in to your account, but this is sometimes not enough protection against a skilled data thief. One solution is a small device, often found in large organizations, that updates your pass- word every 30 seconds. You carry around a keychain device, called a security token, and when you want to log in, you enter the current password shown on the security token.

How to Encrypt Files Another solution is to encrypt your most sensitive files. Encryption is like a secret code for your data, and only your computer has the key to unscramble the code. So, if someone manages to break into your computer and copy your files, when he opens them again later, he or she will see nothing but useless garbage information. To encrypt a file in Win- dows® 7, simply right-click the file or folder, select Properties, click the General tab, and select Advanced. Then, select Encrypt Contents to Secure Data and press OK. You will then get an encryption certificate that should be backed up, because if you lose it, you will not be able to decrypt your own files.

A Look Further: Encryption Tools However, there are third-party encryption tools you can also use. Here are the top five, as chosen by Life Hacker:

http://lifehacker.com/5677725/five%E2%80%90best%E2%80%90file%E2%80%90encryption%E2% 80%90tools18.

Virus Protection We all know what a human virus is, and that is why we cringe when someone sneezes too close to us. A computer virus is something similar, and we should take precautions to protect ourselves. In 1948, John von Neumann was the first to suggest that a programmer

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Privacy, Pornography, and Piracy

could create a computer virus by writing a program that replicated itself (or made unau- thorized copies without human intervention). Hundreds of thousands of viruses now exist, and your computer can become infected when you download software, open your email, or copy an infected file onto your computer. Downloading is a term used to describe the process of bringing information that exists somewhere on the Internet onto your home computer. Although this is a powerful feature for accessing and using software and infor- mation, downloading is also risky because of the possibility that the data might contain a virus. It can only take a few minutes for an unprotected computer to become infected with a virus (Lehtinen, Gangemi, & Russell, 2006, p. 6). Data thieves use automated tools that constantly probe the Internet for vulnerable computers, so do not let yours be one.

One way to lessen this threat is antivirus software, which works in two ways. First, it references a vast virus dictionary of all known ways to infect a computer. The antivirus program compares and contrasts code in your computer with this database. If there is a match, it tries to remove or quarantine it. Second, the antivirus software looks for unusual behavior from the computer that could be the work of a virus, such as a program that tries to write an executable file. This is a program that can initiate a series of wanted actions, like word.exe to launch Word for Windows®, or unwanted actions in the case of a virus. For more on how viruses work, see Antivirus World: http://www.antivirusworld.com/ articles/antivirus.php.

A number of virus protection options are available, including Webroot® Secure Anywhere Antivirus, Norton™ AntiVirus, Bitdefender Antivirus Plus, and Kaspersky Anti-Virus.

There are also a number of free antivirus tools, which are powerful alternatives for stu- dents on a budget. These include:

• Panda Cloud Anti-Virus • AVG Anti-Virus Free • Avira Free Antivirus

In 2013, the Top Ten Reviews website ranked Bitdefender the best antivirus product, fol- lowed by Kaspersky, and Norton™ (http://anti-virus-software-review.toptenreviews.com/ best-antivirus-software-for-2013.html).

Security Software The best protection is to install a security software suite on your computer. One example is McAfee® Total Protection Service. This actually includes multiple programs to help keep you safe. The first is virus and spyware protection. Spyware is a secret program that gath- ers information about you in the background of your computer and then shares it with another person. This type of information might be advertising, personal data, or even ways to change how your computer is configured. Such a program is also called malware (mal means “bad”). Spyware can change the home page of your browser, it can adjust set- tings so it becomes very difficult to change it back, and it can also cause computer crashes. Microsoft®, at its Safety & Security Center, has an excellent overview of the dangers of spy- ware and how to prevent it. The following is a detailed article from Microsoft® on how to prevent spyware: http://www.microsoft.com/security/pc-security/spyware-prevent.aspx.

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http://www.antivirusworld.com/articles/antivirus.php

http://anti-virus-software-review.toptenreviews.com/best-antivirus-software-for-2013.html

http://www.microsoft.com/security/pc-security/spyware-prevent.aspx

CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Privacy, Pornography, and Piracy

It is very important to understand that spyware and malware is not a virus, and antivirus programs do not detect spyware. Therefore, it is essential that any protection suite you purchase has both antivirus and spyware protection. And it should also have a firewall.

A second type of program is firewall protection that will block malicious attacks on your computer from outside threats (see Chapter 5, Section 5.2 for more on this). But, as refer- enced, the Microsoft® Safety & Security Center also has some excellent firewall tips here, too. The bottom line is that if you have a computer connected to the Internet, or to another computer, or if you share files with anyone else (and there are very few computers which do not meet at least one of these criteria) then you need protection. This includes a hard- ware and software firewall.

A third is browser protection. This includes a list of unsafe websites that might contain viruses or other privacy issues related to your computer, so when you browse the Web, you will see a green check mark if the site is clean. Programs like this from McAfee® all require that you pay ongoing subscriptions for the service. A subscription like this will give you the latest updates because new threats are developed all the time. If you buy virus protection once and do not renew it, you are inviting an attack.

Pornography There are other dark sides of the digital society that may not pose a direct threat to your own data, but you should be aware of them if you have an underage child in the house with computer access. It is somewhat difficult to get accurate statistics on the use of por- nography. It is not like the movie industry where tickets can be easily counted. In contrast, no national organization is tracking how many people click on a pornographic image. But, there are some important statistics that convey the massive amounts of pornographic material online. According to Morality in the Media (founded in 1962, it is one of the leading national organizations opposing pornography and indecency), 12 percent of all websites are pornographic. Over 40 million Americans regularly visit porn sites. Each day, 2.5 billion emails have a pornographic message (8 percent of all emails sent). One out of every four search engine requests is pornographic (http://pornharmsresearch.com/ infographic-porn-addiction-in-america-statistics/).

And many social networks can be used to engage in something known as cybersex, defined as virtual sex using text functions to chat between two real people. Now, this also includes sharing photos or videos in various stages of undress. While this might have been consensual when a relationship was in progress, after a messy breakup, disgruntled partners sometimes post the private photos as a hurtful act of vengeance.

Children are also exposed to Internet pornography at a young age. In fact, the average age of first exposure is 11 (http://www.mykidsbrowser.com/pornography_stats.php). This happens though intentional and accidental online exposure. It is easy to mistype a word and suddenly be in a part of the Web that is for adults only. The pornography industry is big business, generating revenues that rival the mainstream film industry in Hollywood. It is not going away. What is the solution? If you want to control access to this type of material, there are software applications called antipornography filters. Examples include NetDogSoft’s Anti-Porn Filter, which attempt to block sites of this nature from appearing

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Privacy, Pornography, and Piracy

on your computer. However, it is important to realize that no Web filter is 100 percent effective in blocking pornography.

Piracy We have all heard stories about pirates with names like Blackbeard who sailed the seas. They would find unsuspecting and unprotected ships, board them, and steal all of their property. Something similar occurs in the world of computing. Data is also known as intellectual property. This term refers to the creativity behind everything from songs to books and even computer programs. In the digital era, this intellectual property is reduced to a stream of zeros and ones in a computer. While this is great for our access, it also makes intellectual property vulnerable to unauthorized and easy reproduction. If you purchase a music CD, copy it in large quantities and then sell the copies to all of your friends, then you are guilty of copyright infringement and have violated intellectual property rights. In other words, you are a pirate! This is a significant issue. According to the Business Software Alliance (BSA), 62% of all software in Central and Eastern Europe

is pirated, compared with 60 per- cent in the Asia Pacific region. The United States had the lowest piracy rate at 19 percent (http://globalstudy .bsa.org/2011/).

Copyright is a significant issue on the Internet in part because it is so easy to make digital copies of music, books, images, movies, and other material. However, just because something is easy to do does not make it lawful or ethical. Therefore, a number of orga- nizations (as well as governments) are working to reduce and prevent the illegal copying of information. One example is the Association for the Protection of Internet Copyright (APIC). Its mission is to educate the world about Internet copyright law, and enforce that law (see http:// www.a-w.org/Home.html).

Peer-to-Peer Piracy One famous example of intellectual property theft was the Internet site called Napster. It used what is known as peer-to-peer (sometimes written as P2P) file sharing that enabled millions of people to download copyrighted songs for free on their computers. When you logged in, Napster took note of all the music files on your computer. These became a part of the Napster database and enabled its community to download them from you. In turn, you had the ability to browse and download anyone else’s music. Record companies and musicians banded together and filed a lawsuit against Napster. They won the case, and

As computer-related copyright violations increase, law enforcement agencies are working hard to shut down illegal download sites and distributors of pirated media. Do you think computer piracy can be stopped? Why or why not?

AP Photo/The Medford Mail Tribune/Bob Pennell

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Napster was charged with copyright infringement. The website still exists, but you now have to pay for the songs that you download.

The next generation of P2P file sharing services is the torrent. The torrent is often an ille- gal service that enables the sharing of copyrighted materials such as software, music, and movies. Notorious examples are The Pirate Bay and ISOHunt. Each of these has roughly twelve million unique monthly visitors (“Top 15 Most Popular Torrent Sites,” 2013).

Law Enforcement and Cyber Crimes Cyber crimes, or crimes associated with computers connected to the Internet, are closely policed and prosecuted by the United States government. The U.S. Department of Justice has a Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section that is responsible for finding those individuals who are abusing the powers of computers and breaking the law (see: http://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/index.html). It specifically investigates ille- gal hacking into private computers, the theft of private data, and violations of copyright and intellectual property laws. It works with a variety of partners, including other govern- ments, private companies, and universities, to find violators and also propose new legis- lation to protect law-abiding citizens from cyber crimes that include computer intrusion (hacking), password trafficking, counterfeiting of currency, child pornography and exploi- tation, Internet fraud, spam, Internet harassment, Internet bomb threats, and trafficking in explosive or incendiary devices or firearms over the Internet. Intellectual property crimes include copyright piracy, trademark counterfeiting, and the theft of trade secrets.

Cyberwarfare and Cyberterrorism What will the battlefields of the future look like? If World War I was the trench, World War II was the amphibious assault, and Vietnam was the jungle, then what is warfare in the 21st century like? Certainly conventional warfare still exists, however, cyberwarfare is an increasingly significant threat in the future. Consider that in June 2012, the U.S. Air Force graduated its first elite cyberspace task force. Designed to emulate the Navy’s famous Top Gun program (elite fighter pilots), these new computer savvy warriors, who trained at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada, learned how to defend American computer databases and infrastructure, track down those that seek to do it harm, and plan and execute their own cyber attacks. Already there have been attacks on this front, allegedly by United States and Israeli cyber forces attempting to destroy key elements of Iran’s nuclear capa- bility. In fact, the U.S. Cyber Command commenced in 2008 and is integrated within the National Security Agency. In total, the Air Force spends $4 billion per year on these cyber programs. Likewise, the Navy trains 24,000 individuals each year at its Center for Infor- mation Dominance (Barnes, 2012).

Crimeware There is actually software created for use by criminals. One example is ransomware, which is a program that lets a criminal enter in stolen data, where it is encrypted. The criminal can then hold the data “ransom,” telling the victim they can have it back once they pay a ransom fee. For example, in February 2013, police in Europe arrested eleven people for a ransomware scam that affected thousands of people. It works by making a program look

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Making Money Online

like it comes from a legitimate law enforcement agency telling the user they must pay a fine for some alleged offense. The fine can be paid online, and when the user does so, the criminals gain access to the computer and can steal data (“Police hold 11 over ransomware scam ‘affecting thousands’,” 2013).

Creative Commons It is important to learn how to protect yourself if you are the creator of online content. If you are an artist, musician, or writer, you want people to see and hear your creative products. Sharing is essential. But you also do not want your intellectual property to be used inappro- priately, nor do you want to use other people’s work illegally. One option is the traditional copyright, and another is available from Creative Commons (http://creativecommons.org/). This nonprofit organization has developed an electronic “commons”—a vast body of work that is available for legal sharing and remixing. Authors and artists can submit their work with copyright terms attached, such as “all rights reserved,” “some rights reserved,” or “no rights reserved.”

In conclusion, the dark side of the Internet will always be with us. If you arm yourself with knowledge, install advanced software protection, and license your intellectual prop- erty, you should have a safe experience. We will now turn to more positive ways in which computers are reshaping society in areas such as business, community life, and education.

Questions to Consider 1. Is the computer a good or an evil machine? 2. What are some of the main computer privacy issues you should be aware of? 3. Does deleting a file on your computer permanently erase it? 4. What is encryption? 5. How do you protect your computer against viruses? 6. What threats does Internet pornography pose? 7. What is computer piracy?

8.2 Making Money Online

Are you interested in using your computer to earn some money? Imagine this sce-nario. You turn on your computer one morning to see an email from a Nigerian bank official who claims that because of some strange overpayment, the bank has a lot of extra money. The only problem is that in order for the bank to maintain the funds, the money has to leave the country for a period of time. The Nigerian bank official then compliments you in the email because of your known trustworthiness, promising that if you agree to simply hold these funds at your bank, you will receive a large percentage of the money for your minimal effort. Who would have suspected that making money online was going to be this easy? Sometimes hundreds of thousands of dollars are promised.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Making Money Online

If you reply to the email from the Nigerian banker and express interest in his proposal, this is what usually happens. The official is, of course, delighted you want to help, and says that all you need to do is take care of some advanced fees or a bond, or transfer taxes, and so forth. This is a small amount at first, but gradually more small demands for money up front are made. Eventually, you realize that the Nigerian bank official does not live in Nigeria, nor is he a banker. This business transaction is actually an Internet fraud, and you have been scammed out of your money with no recourse. Estimates by the Secret Service claimed that more than $100 million was lost to Nigerian letter scams in 2001 (Mintz, 2002, p. 115).

The FBI website is actually a great place to keep up to date with the latest scams on the Internet. By visiting this site, http://www.fbi.gov/scams-safety/fraud/internet_fraud, you can learn tips for avoiding Internet auction fraud, investment fraud, business fraud, credit card fraud, non-delivery of merchandise fraud, and of course the classic Nigerian fraud. The FBI lists these common types of frauds in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1: Common scams

Scam Type Examples

Fraud Scams • Telemarketing Fraud • Nigerian Letter or “419” Fraud • Identity Theft • Advance Fee Schemes • Health Care Fraud/Health Insurance Fraud • Redemption/Strawman/Bond Fraud

Investment-Related Scams • Letter of Credit Fraud • Prime Bank Note Fraud • Ponzi Schemes • Pyramid Schemes

Internet Scams • Internet Auction Fraud • Non-Delivery of Merchandise • Credit Card Fraud • Investment Fraud • Business Fraud • Nigerian Letter or “419” Fraud

Frauds Targeting Senior Citizens • Health Care Fraud/Health Insurance Fraud • Counterfeit Prescription Drugs • Funeral and Cemetery Fraud • Fraudulent Anti-aging Products • Telemarketing Fraud • Investment Schemes • Reverse Mortgage Scams

Source: http://www.fbi.gov/scams-safety/fraud

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http://www.fbi.gov/scams-safety/fraud/internet_fraud

http://www.fbi.gov/scams-safety/fraud

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The point is not that all Internet commerce is fraudulent. You can make money in legiti- mate online transactions. But as in all areas of life, especially where money is concerned, you have to be careful and know what you are doing. In this section, we will discuss some of these real Web-based business activities.

E-commerce The name for making money with online transactions is called e-commerce. The “e” stands for electronic, and commerce means doing business. E-commerce occurs when goods or services are marketed, bought, and sold through the Internet. As an individual, you might engage in e-commerce when you purchase a book online from Amazon.com. People who sell goods on eBay™, which is an Internet auction site, are also involved in e-commerce. Large organizations are also moving in this direction. In a B2B (also known as a business- to-business) transaction, bills can be paid online, money transferred, and goods shipped and received, all with a few mouse clicks. E-commerce is growing by the day, and very few businesses are not involved in some type of activity on this front. You will often hear about companies that sell only through e-commerce. They can be compared with bricks and mortar stores, or those that have an actual storefront you can walk into. You will find many of the elements of a real store in an online store. For example, online stores use an icon of a shopping cart that you fill up with your goods. When you are done shopping, you go to the checkout page and then pay by credit card.

Even onground banks are taking advantage of the new electronic world. Many banks now have mobile applications that allow people who have an account to deposit checks from their smartphones or mobile devices. Smartphone users can even use their devices to swipe credit cards and take payment for products or services.

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Technology Today: E-Commerce Issues To get an idea of how integral computers have become to the world’s economy, consider the e-commerce sales data from the U.S. Census. It stated that the second quarter of 2012 alone consisted of $51.2 bil- lion in e-commerce transactions. Another important figure is the percentage of e-commerce to overall retail sales. In 2012, e-commerce represented roughly 5 percent of all sales.

Figure 8.1: Total and e-commerce retail sales, 2012

400,000

200,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Total Sales

E-Commerce Sales

1,029,472

1,093,057 1,080,510 1,156,354

50,295 (4.9%)

51,203 (4.7%)

52,492 (4.9%)

71,500 (6.2%)

Quarter

S a le

s i n

U S

D o

ll a rs

Adapted from: Thomas, I., et al. (2013). Quarterly retail e-commerce sales: 1st quarter 2013. U.S. Census Bureau news. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved from: http://www.census.gov/retail/mrts/www/data/pdf/ec_current.pdf

The convenience factor—the ability to make a purchase without leaving home—is a big advantage for online retailers when it comes to attracting customers. But these merchants increasingly are taking advantage of technological advancements to make their electronic stores even more appealing.

This is displacing some very old types of business. For example, online discount sites like priceline.com, cheaptickets.com, travelocity.com, hotels.com, and expedia.com are replacing the work once done by local travel agents.

Smartphones and 2-D Barcodes

As Sucharita Mulpuru, an e-commerce analyst with Forrester Research, told Internet Retailer maga- zine, “The online shopping experience is getting to be more fun . . . You can create outfits online, you can share products with others, you can read customer opinions on topics; you can watch videos. It’s a much more immersive experience than ever before, and that engages people” (Davis, 2010).

The appeal of e-commerce will become even greater as more consumers adopt smartphones. These devices allow consumers to have the same interactive shopping experience that they currently enjoy on their PCs. With smartphones, however, they can have this experience anywhere at any time—at home, at work, or on vacation.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Making Money Online

Several technology vendors are experimenting with a new type of bar code designed specifically for conducting e-commerce via mobile phones. These 2-D bar codes represent an advance over the black- and-white striped codes affixed to virtually all merchandise in traditional retail stores today. These newer bar codes, because they store data in two dimensions, can contain much more information.

For purposes of e-commerce, website addresses are the key pieces of information being placed on 2-D bar codes.

Microsoft® ran a pilot program to test consumer reaction to 2-D bar codes in conjunction with the release of an Xbox® game called Halo Wars. Displays bearing 2-D bar codes were placed in selected Walmart stores where the game was sold. Consumers were instructed to take pictures of the bar codes with their cell phone cameras. Those who did were immediately directed to a special website where they could preorder the game and get free perks such as ringtones. Microsoft® found that 85% of the people who visited the site ended up downloading content onto their phones (Woyke, 2009).

The next step for merchants using the 2-D bar codes to attract consumers to their sites is allowing them to make purchases.

And now the QR code is becoming ubiquitous. These are small squares of numerous inset white and black squares, which mean nothing to the human eye, but when you let your smartphone scan them they reveal embedded information. QR stands for Quick Response and it is a barcode the Japanese automotive industry first developed. Now, they are on many products and advertisements that let a user with a smartphone, and the associated QR app, learn more.

Let the Buyer Beware

While consumers clearly are enthralled with the new interactive features being added to e-commerce sites every day, they also should be aware of some potential pitfalls.

Just as legitimate merchants are using new technology to entice online customers, there are many unscrupulous characters developing schemes to defraud unsuspecting Internet shoppers. A tactic known as phishing (pronounced fishing) is among the most popular of these ploys. (Also see Chapter 1 for more on this scam.)

A phishing scheme typically starts with an email bearing the name of a legitimate e-commerce pro- vider or financial institution. The message tells the receiver to click a link leading to what also may appear to be a legitimate business website. The tip-off that this is a phishing scheme comes when the consumer is asked to enter an account number or other personal information on this site. Legitimate businesses never ask for that type of information unless the consumer has initiated a transaction on their site. Phishers use this personal information to make unauthorized purchases with a person’s credit card or, even worse, to steal their identity and open other accounts in their name.

The true trademark of a phishing email is that it contains a link to what is supposed to be the real e-commerce site. However, when the user clicks on it, he or she is directed to a fake version of the real site. The actual e-commerce site would have the user actually type in the URL address instead of clicking the link. So, if you do click one of these links (and the recommendation is that you never do), you will often see a non-official URL. For example, here are phishing samples targeting PayPal users: http://www.consumerfraudreporting.org/phishing_paypal.php

This is just a reminder that even in what is fast becoming the E-Commerce Age, the old fashioned warning of caveat emptor—let the buyer beware—is still sound advice.

(continued)

Technology Today: E-Commerce Issues (continued)

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http://www.consumerfraudreporting.org/phishing_paypal.php

CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Making Money Online

Amazon.com One of the greatest online selling success stories is a website called amazon.com. Founded by entrepreneur Jeff Bezos in 1994, it began as a way to buy books and music online, but soon expanded to include just about any product imaginable. With Amazon’s online store, customers can “window shop” for more products than they could find even at the larg- est shopping malls. They can have the goods shipped directly to their house, rather than wasting money on gas or spending time trying to find a parking space. E-commerce is fast and convenient, and it has made Jeff Bezos a wealthy man, even though his company struggled for many years at the outset to turn a profit. At first, people were skeptical about using their credit cards online, and few people had fast Internet accounts. However, with more secure credit authentication systems and other types of security, and more people getting broadband connections in their homes, Amazon and sites like it have experienced a tremendous surge in business (Bacon & Pugh, 2003, p. 20).

Links for More Information

For Quarterly E-Commerce Information, visit: http://www.census.gov/retail/ecommerce/historic_releases.html

What is phishing? http://www.onguardonline.gov/phishing

What are 2-D Barcodes? http://tag.microsoft.com/what-is-tag/2d-barcodes.aspx

Technology Today: E-Commerce Issues (continued)

A Look Further: Visitors to Retail Websites Consider the following statistics for popular retail websites from the first quarter of 2012. Amazon had the most number of unique Web visitors per month at 107 million. They were followed by Apple® (48 million), Wal-Mart (39 million), Netflix (28 million) and Target (24 million) (see http://www.statista .com/statistics/172685/monthly-unique-visitors-of-us-retail-websites/). Do you think this will be how people will purchase goods, rather than driving to a store? Why or why not?

PayPal One other online service that has eased the minds of consumers about online transactions is PayPal (www.paypal.com). This is a money transfer website founded in 1998 for what is known as C2C (consumer-to-consumer) transactions. It enables anyone with an email address to send money safely and securely to anyone else in the world who has an email address. These transactions might be as simple as paying a neighbor’s kid to rake your leaves, or it might be something more substantial, such as collecting payment from the buyer when you sell your car. PayPal can just as easily be used for transferring money for

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http://www.census.gov/retail/ecommerce/historic_releases.html

http://www.onguardonline.gov/phishing

http://tag.microsoft.com/what-is-tag/2d-barcodes.aspx

http://www.statista.com/statistics/172685/monthly-unique-visitors-of-us-retail-websites/

www.paypal.com

CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Making Money Online

services (raking leaves) or goods (a car). To use this service, simply open a PayPal account and then transfer money into it through a bank wire or a credit card transaction. Now, you are ready to give the money to anyone with a PayPal account (Friedman, 2007, p. 86).

PayPal has capitalized on the rise of mobile computing and even its company motto ref- erences it (see it here: https://www.paypal.com/home). With an app, you can link your PayPal to bank accounts, credit cards, or debit cards and then select how you want to pay for a transaction. There are alternatives to PayPal such as Stripe (https://stripe.com/).

eBay™ eBay™ had its beginnings in Pierre Omidyar’s spare bedroom in a Silicon Valley town- house. It was 1994 when he opened a site called AuctionWeb, and few people cared much about it. The idea was to auction goods online, just as one might with a real auctioneer and an audience bidding and one-upping each other on price. It seemed like a strange idea, but Omidyar first tried it by putting his broken laser pointer online with an opening bid of $1. Over the next two weeks, he watched people actually fighting over the pointer, until the auction closed and the winning bidder paid $14.83. When he reminded the pur- chaser that the pointer was broken, the bidder on the item said that was okay because he was a collector of laser pointers. This was the day that Omidyar knew his idea would change the world (Cohen, 2003, p. 4). Four years later, eBay™ itself had a value higher than Sears, Kmart, and J.C. Penney combined. Omidyar’s own net worth was $4 billion. In 2002, eBay™ saw how important Pay- Pal was to its success and acquired the company. Today, PayPal has 113.2 mil- lion active accounts and can make transactions in 25 currencies in 190 markets around the world (https:// www.paypal-media.com/about).

At ebay.com, millions of peo- ple have moved their yard and garage sales to the Internet, where they sell their goods to the highest bidder. eBay™ has taken the visibility that a garage sale pro- vided, which was essentially anyone who might drive by your house, and expanded it to the world. eBay™ works for the casual seller of a few items as well as those who open their own electronic storefronts to sell their own brands of purses, crafts, base- ball cards, or anything else that might be imagined. According to its website, eBay™ currently has 100 million users and is the largest online marketplace in the world. In 2011, eBay™ was responsible for transactions involving $68 billion worth of goods.

eBay™ bought PayPal after the latter’s safe, online payment system contributed to eBay™’s success. In addition to keeping customers’ financial information secure, what else is central to building a successful online business like eBay™?

AP Photo/Paul Sakuma

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https://www.paypal.com/home

https://stripe.com/

https://www.paypal-media.com/about

CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Virtual Communities

8.3 Virtual Communities

When we think about society, which is the theme of this chapter, another word closely associated with it is community. Within the larger society, we also form smaller communities of people with whom we interact on a daily basis. These might be communities within our neighborhood, church, or school, or groups we join based on our hobbies and interests. Is it possible to duplicate these types of activities online? The answer is yes, and virtual communities are a fast-growing segment of digital society. Virtual communities are formed when groups of people come together with a common interest in an online space. Such a community is virtual because the space is not real in the traditional sense, and interactions take place entirely online with people from all over the world.

Cyberspace In 1984, science fiction writer William Gibson coined a new term—cyberspace. It is important to consider how he defined this term, because his words provide an amaz- ingly prophetic vision of a future we are experiencing now. He said that cyberspace was a “consensual hallucination . . . a graphic representation of data . . . [involving] unthinkable complexity. Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding . . .” (Gibson, 2000, p. 51). What was he talking about? Perhaps if you saw the Matrix movies you might have some idea. But Gibson was envi- sioning a virtual community that humans could actually live within. Is this possible?

In 1993, Howard Rheingold wrote a book called The Virtual Community in which he dis- cussed the possibility of people gathering together in a unique new way on the fledgling World Wide Web. It was the beginning of the era of people actually finding “life” on the Net (Rheingold, 1993). Why were people flocking to this new type of interaction? Because there was a real hunger for community, and as informal public spaces began to disappear, the virtual community would expand to fill the void.

Questions to Consider 1. How can you make money online? 2. Are all online business opportunities safe? 3. What is e-commerce? 4. What is the meaning of B2B and C2C? 5. Who founded Amazon.com and when? 6. Is Amazon.com a bricks and mortar store? 7. What is one of the most popular ways to transact money on the Internet? 8. What is eBay™? 9. What company did eBay™ acquire in 2002 and why?

E-commerce is fast becoming the primary way goods are bought and sold (http://www .ebayinc.com/who).

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http://www.ebayinc.com/who

CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Virtual Communities

LambdaMOO One of the first virtual communities emerged at a place that we have seen several other times in this book—Xerox®. In 1990, Pavel Curtis, a computer scientist at Xerox® Corpora- tion’s Palo Alto Research Center, created LambdaMOO on his workstation. This was an experimental MUD (Multi-User Dungeon), which meant that people could use the Tel- net function of their computers to enter a text-based world where they could interact in real time with other people. The MUD was an online textual game much like Dungeons & Dragons. Although this type of interaction does not appeal to everyone, another type of textual environment emerged called a MOO (MUD Object Oriented). It did not have the gaming element and was intended more for social interaction. Much more than a chat room, it was a virtual world in which you could walk around buildings, explore forests, and visit friends. Places like this were where some of the texting terms we use today, like LOL (laugh out loud) and AFK (away from keyboard), originated.

LambdaMOO is now a dying community. At its peak usage, more than 300 people were connected at one time, although this often caused the system to “lag” or slow down. Ironi- cally, now that faster computers have eliminated the lag, only a dozen or so people par- ticipate at any one time.

Second Life The vision of having a vibrant virtual community is now realized in Second Life. Have you ever asked yourself what you would do if you could live your life over? What type of person would you be? What career would you select? What would you look like if you could change your appearance? Would you be the same gender? If these questions appeal to you, then Second Life may be for you.

Unlike LambdaMOO, Second Life is a visually immersive community that uses all the power of the Internet to create a simulated world. No longer is text the way that items are defined. Instead, complex 3-D renderings of a world created by the users enable you to walk through it and see and interact with other people. The avatars are much more complex, too. An avatar is a character or image that represents someone in a virtual com- munity. You can design and clothe a character that looks just like your real self, or you can create a fantasy character for your avatar, such as a superhero, a race car driver, a robot, or an animal.

Launched in 2003 by Philip Rosedale (http://www.secondlife.com), Second Life initially had just 1,000 users or players. By 2006, its population had reached one million. Real life also has its representations in Second Life. For example, many colleges and universities have Second Life locations. Just about any real landmark you might want to visit (such as the Sistine Chapel, the Statue of Liberty, or the Eiffel Tower) exists as a stunning repli- cation in Second Life. Another reason Second Life is such a powerful virtual community is that it has its own economy. This is important because it enables people to have their own jobs. You could be a newspaper reporter, a politician, a seamstress, a priest, and so on. Your options are limited only by your own imagination. And what would an econ- omy be without its own currency? Second Life has Linden Dollars (L$), and there

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http://www.secondlife.com

CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Virtual Communities

is actually an exchange rate with real U.S. dollars (US$). For example, if you wanted 100,000 L$, it would cost you roughly 400 US$. You can make this payment to your Second Life ava- tar by credit card or PayPal. Or you can actually earn money in Second Life by working at your Second Life job. For example, if you are a good house builder or clothing designer, you can sell your goods to other char- acters and make a nice living for your virtual self (Rymaszewski, 2007). You can watch this video on Second Life to see some of the expe- riences possible: http://youtu.be/ LraV05R2m50.

Though Second Life is still a vibrant community, membership is declining.

MMORPG For those who want to join a virtual community but are more interested in fantasy gam- ing than replicating or simulating real life, then an MMORPG (massive multiplayer online role-playing game) might be for you. Some of the most popular games are World of Warcraft (http://www.battle.net), RuneScape (http://www.runescape.com), League of Legends (http://www.leagueoflegends.com), MineCraft (http://www.minecraft.net), and EverQuest (http://www.everquest.com). As with Second Life, you get an avatar and a pro- fession, but these are fantasy worlds, so you can become a magician, a warrior, or a thief. By completing quests, killing monsters, and exploring dungeons, you gain experience points, increase your abilities and attributes, and earn gold. This is yet another example of a virtual community because you are playing with other real humans. You can team up to quest together for just one night, or you can align with a Guild to share more extensive quests for longer periods.

Many of these games are browser based, meaning that you do not have to purchase soft- ware from a store to begin playing. Some also have mobile apps to continue games while on your tablet or smartphone.

Also there are increasing numbers of MMORPGs for kids. One example is Toon Town (http://www.toontown.com), the Disney MMORPG for kids with a variety of parental con- trols to prevent inappropriate chatting. Another is WebKinz, which ties in real-life prod- ucts purchased at a store (stuffed animals) with an online community. With each animal purchased, a child can enter information into webkinz.com (http://www.webkinz.com) and see that animal as an avatar in the virtual world.

NASA maintains a presence in Second Life, and in this photo NASA is holding a press conference inside the virtual world. What might be some of the advantages and disadvantages of visually immersive virtual environments?

NASA/Science Faction/SuperStock

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http://youtu.be/LraV05R2m50

http://www.battle.net

http://www.runescape.com

http://www.leagueoflegends.com

http://www.minecraft.net

http://www.everquest.com

http://www.toontown.com

http://www.webkinz.com

CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Virtual Communities

A Virtual or Real Community? How far can you take this? In March 2003, Julian Dibbell, the author of Play Money, announced to his friends and family that he was going to start his own business selling “make-believe commodities.” His products did not exist in the real world. They were sim- ply ones and zeros that when strung together became a virtual item in Second Life, and they had enough value that other people would pay real money for them. He, and oth- ers, have had real (not virtual) financial success. He called this “half-illusory economy” the most improbable industry earning a half-billion U.S. dollars a year on earth (Dibbell, 2006, p. 2). So, is this a virtual or a real community? Perhaps in the future there will be no difference. In April 2012, Forbes Magazine announced the first virtual currency exchange opened, giving people “the opportunity to cash out or monetize their virtual world activi- ties” (Matonis, 2012).

This has expanded so dramatically today that it is difficult to estimate the total amount of virtual items owned. One example of how large this has become is the company called Zynga, which went public with a $10 billion market value. Most of its revenue comes from selling virtual products, like strawberries and other produce, in its popular game Farmville (Mir, 2012).

A Look Further: Create Your Own Avatar If you want to create a custom avatar just for fun that is not linked to any other application, you can build one at:

http://doppleme.com/

Questions to Consider 1. What is a virtual community? 2. Why interact in a virtual community when you live in a real one? 3. When was the term cyberspace coined and by whom? 4. What is LambdaMOO, and why was it important? 5. What can you do at Second Life? 6. What is an avatar? 7. What is an MMORPG?

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http://doppleme.com/

CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Online Education

8.4 Online Education

Clearly, online education is a topic you know something about already. But educa-tion is fast becoming one of the most significant areas of the digital society. It is important to take a step back to look at more general issues of online education and its role in society. What is remarkable is how quickly these schools have become a viable and important educational alternative. In the 1990s, few universities had online classes. Today, online education is one of the most exciting and revolutionary aspects of our edu- cational system.

The Origins of Computer-Assisted Learning Online education, or distance learning, is defined as the use of computer technology to link students and teachers together who do not share the same geographic location. In 1970, Murray Turoff developed the first computer conferencing system, and some of these ideas eventually became a key component of the online classroom. In the 1980s, computer learning typically meant a multimedia presentation on a medium such as CD-ROM. It was not until the development of the World Wide Web in the 1990s that a more interactive type of learning environment was created.

Synchronous and Asynchronous Learning Two types of learning models evolved. In synchronous learning, all the students meet at the same time but in different locations. They learn by engaging with other students and the professor at the same time. With asynchronous learning, there are no set times for everyone to gather together. There are weekly assignments and discussion board post- ings, but students do not have to be logged on at any specific time of the day. The avail- ability of asynchronous learning is important when there is a worldwide student body. For example, when it is noon in New York, it is midnight in Jakarta, Indonesia. This makes attending a class at 2 p.m. impossible for someone living half a world away.

The Growth of Online Education Online education is growing dramatically each year not only in higher education, but also at the K-12 level. U.S. News & World Report is considered by many one of the most thorough rankers of higher education, including both online and on-ground institutions. It published an article on why six students decided on online over on-ground education. Despite their different backgrounds and educational pursuits, the majority of these stu- dents chose online classes because of the flexibility it offers (McMullen, 2012).

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Online Education

Most educators see online learning as essential for the long-term success of their schools. In other words, if a uni- versity is not offering some online classes, it will have a hard time com- peting in the future. Another trend is the growth of graduate degrees. Recent statistics from the Sloan Con- sortium (2011) indicate that 30 per- cent (roughly 6 million) of all students take at least one course online. The study coauthor Elaine Allen said that, “The rate of growth in online enrollments is ten times that of the rate in all higher education.” She continued by saying, “While growth rates have declined somewhat from previous years, we see no evidence that a dramatic slowdown in online enrollments is on the horizon” (Allen et al., 2011).

Course Management Systems Course management systems are software programs that define the online classroom envi- ronment. In 2004 and 2005, Forbes Magazine listed eCollege as one of the 25 fastest-growing technology companies. It was also the first online learning company that targeted higher education (colleges and universities) to be publicly traded on the stock market. There are course management systems other than eCollege, such as Educator, BlackBoard, and even Outlook® Express. With a growing demand for these systems among educational institutions, the developers will continue to put pressure on each other to improve their products. This benefits the student, because it ensures that course management software will continue to evolve and enhance the online learning experience.

Two growing open-source course management systems (CMS) are Moodle and Sakai. Moodle (http://moodle.org/) can be used by a single professor or an entire university with hundreds of thousands of students. With forums, databases, and wikis, it requires installation on a Web server and some knowledge of how to configure it to receive stu- dents. Sakai is another open-source example (http://www.sakaiproject.org/). Over 350 educational organizations now use Sakai with features including forums, emails, chat, and Twitter integration.

Another key trend is MOOCs (massive open online courses). These are single courses offered for free by major universities. One example is Coursera (http://www.coursera .org/), a for-profit start-up founded by Stanford University students in 2011 that quickly registered 680,000 students in 43 courses. In 2012, the New York Times reported that Cours- era is expanding its partners to include California Institute of Technology; Duke Uni- versity; the Georgia Institute of Technology; Johns Hopkins University; Rice University;

In general, educators and institutions understand that providing online learning opportunities is crucial to remaining competitive. Here, a video is produced for use in online learning at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Melanie Stetson Freeman/The Christian Science Monitor

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http://moodle.org/

http://www.sakaiproject.org/

http://www.coursera.org/

CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Online Education

the University of California, San Francisco; the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; the University of Washington; and the University of Virginia. Richard A. DeMillo, the director of the Center for 21st Century Universities at Georgia Tech said, “This is a tsunami. . .It’s all so new that everyone’s feeling their way around, but the potential upside for this experiment is so big that it’s hard for me to imagine any large research university that wouldn’t want to be involved” (Lewin, 2012).

In July 2012, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University released their own joint plans to form edX (https://www.edx.org/), along with 120 college and university partners. Unlike Coursera, edX is a not-for-profit start-up (Young, 2012).

Tips for Online Education Success There are a number of skills required for success in an online classroom. Many of these are the same study habits required to do well in an onground classroom. As one professor stated, “It’s similar to a brick-and-mortar class, but you have so much flexibility that you really need to plan for how and when you’re going to do it”(Sheehy, 2012).

However, there are some important differences and U.S. News & World Report offered these four tips.

1. Familiarize yourself with the course and important due dates. The first thing all students should do is go through the syllabus and all other introductory mate- rials and literally map out a plan with your schedule for how you will navigate through it. This is something the student needs to do him or herself because no one knows their schedule like they do.

2. Make sure your hardware and software is up to date with university requirements.

3. Take time to get to know your professor and other students, and strive to make a good impression.

4. Learn about the educational resources at your online university. Make sure you understand how to research in the library and the difference between quality scholarship and an online blog.

In addition to these, time management, balancing personal obligations, finding a good study environment, not underestimating one’s workload, and personal discipline are all critical skills.

Finally, also from U.S. News & World Report, here are the 8 main mistakes that online stu- dents often make and how to avoid them (Clark, 2010):

1. Investigate the school and accreditation. 2. Budget at least 10 hours of study time per week. 3. Know your learning style. If you need face-to-face interaction, then online edu-

cation is not for you. 4. Ensure that you have the technology to support your school’s requirements. For

example, if you do not have access to a computer, then you should not consider online education.

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https://www.edx.org/

CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Online Education

5. Investigate your teacher. Ratemyprofessor.com is one way, though often only the best and the worst students post comments there. Better ways to do this are to look to see what they have published, read their bio, and ask friends.

6. Do not jump into a full plate of difficult courses for your first online experience. Start slow, learn the ropes, and then build on those successes.

7. Understand plagiarism. 8. Be willing to work hard and cooperate with your online classmates.

This final tip is essential because online education is not a solitary endeavor. It requires high levels of interaction, and this requires special attention to etiquette.

Online Etiquette Contrary to the idea of water cooler gossip, there are important net etiquette rules for making sure your online interactions are polite and professional.

There are some important guides to follow when engaging in online learning. They are part of a set of rules called net etiquette or sometimes netiquette. In the real world, eti- quette includes unwritten rules of good behavior such as holding the door open for the person entering a building behind you, not shouting in public or being rude, and always showing respect for your colleagues. Online, similar rules are important in order to main- tain a positive learning environment. Since you will be expressing your ideas with your words, you must be careful that your intent is communicated. For example, if you make a joke in a real classroom, you might be laughing and smiling as you say the words, thereby letting the students and professor know that it was a good-natured comment. However, the same words, without the nonverbal cues associated with them, might come across in a far different way online. You are always advised to read everything you write before you post. If you are making a joke, use caution. It never hurts to include a smiley :) emoticon if you are not sure people will understand that you are joking. Be careful not to overuse emoticons, however. Sometimes you will find that it is better to rephrase your post entirely.

Some more clear-cut examples of dos and don’ts of online etiquette include the following.

1. Always avoid offensive language, and be sure to reread everything you write so it cannot be interpreted as offensive in any way.

2. Never share personal material about any other classmate in a post. 3. If you want to upload attachments, try to keep them small (under 1 MB). 4. Never distribute pornographic or slanderous material. 5. Opinions are important to share, but do not make posts a stage from which to

broadcast your personal views of life. 6. The goal for each student is to learn the classroom material, not to try to make

everyone see life the same way you do. 7. Your experiences can enhance this learning for others, but the online classroom

is not only about your experiences.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Computing, Information, and the Law

8. Finally, if you have a question about something you want to write or about what another student wrote, email your professor privately. Do not engage in flaming, which is a term that describes an increasingly intense and vicious debate. If it appears that a discussion is headed in this direction, simply stop.

These rules are easy to learn, and you will find that they quickly become second nature. You will soon be having fun with your online interactions and learning a great deal at the same time. The rules simply make your online learning experience as positive as possible.

This concludes our tour of the digital society. There are certainly other examples of the ways in which computers and society are interacting, but these examples—education, community, economy, privacy, piracy, and pornography—go a long way toward sketch- ing the general outlines of digital society today.

Questions to Consider 1. What is the value of a virtual classroom? 2. What is distance learning? What is another term for it? 3. What is the difference between synchronous and asynchronous learning? 4. What are some examples of online course management systems? 5. What is flaming? 6. What is netiquette? 7. What are some behaviors that would violate online etiquette?

8.5 Computing, Information, and the Law

Just as we need to be aware of special laws that apply when we drive a car (speed lim-its, licenses, school zones, no drinking and driving, minimum age limits, and seatbelt use) there are also legal issues involved in using computers. Did you know that some one was arrested for a Facebook poke? If you are not a Facebook user, a poke is simply

a virtual way to let someone know you are thinking of them, and no physical poking actu- ally takes place. Millions of these pokes happen every day. However, the person who was arrested for her poke had a restraining order against her. Law enforcement considered the poke to be a violation of the restraining order, and an arrest was made. Beyond the spe- cifics of this case, it raises a larger point about the law and the world of computing. The intersection of computers, information, and the law is a vast topic that has been the subject of many books. In this section, you will learn more about this dynamic, ever-changing, and important field, and you will read about some relevant examples of recent legal ques- tions. These issues have a direct relationship not only to your online experience but also to your personal life away from computing. Your own privacy and the power of computers, the legality of people collecting data about you, and the value of this information on the open market are issues all of us should be aware of, regardless of whether or not we are studying digital literacy.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Computing, Information, and the Law

email appear in the inbox of someone who might know your employer personally, or even the boss herself.

Another privacy issue occurred with Google’s new social networking site called Buzz. When it first went live in 2010, everyone who had Google Gmail™ accounts was automati- cally signed up. Buzz shared the user’s email addresses with everyone else on the net- work, without asking permission. The Electronic Privacy Information Center immediately issued a complaint with the Federal Trade Commission stating that Google’s Buzz was in violation of the Federal Consumer Protection Law (Choney, 2010). Google has avoided this mistake with its introduction of Google+™ social networking. Still, this example high- lights the fact that none of us can be confident that we are aware of all the privacy issues that exist. With new social media and ways to use computers and with link information being developed every day, there is a corresponding privacy threat that emerges with all of them. The best defense is knowledge and vigilance.

Contemporary Issues As the above examples demonstrate, the fact that incredible numbers of legal battles have been waged in the past does not mean the legal landscape is now settled. Almost every day, a new question arises over the use of computers and information and their impact on individual rights. One example occurred in February 2010. In a landmark ruling in Italy, Judge Oscar Magi convicted three Google executives on criminal charges. The crime? Google had failed to remove a video that someone had posted that infringed on Italian privacy laws. The video was of a boy who had Down syndrome, and the father said that it violated the family’s privacy. Google actually did remove the video two hours after the complaint was lodged. The Google executives included the company’s chief financial officer, chief legal officer, and the lawyer for Google who specializes in global privacy. The problem is that with millions of videos being uploaded to Google’s YouTube™ site, it would be impossible for the company to be responsible for all the content that users upload. This case not only highlights the ongoing legal issues that surround computing, but also the global nature of many of these issues.

Privacy still remains a central area of legal concerns. Consider the following example. When you type an email in Google’s Gmail™ or Yahoo!® mail, advertisements related to your content will appear. If you type that you love French fries, then you might see an advertisement for McDonald’s. Several California residents are taking Google and Yahoo!® to court for doing this. Their claim is that their e-mails are being intercepted without their knowledge, consent, or permission (Ellin, 2012). They claim that this tactic by Google and Yahoo!® is in violation of the California Invasion of Privacy Act (CIPA), which prohibits wiretapping phones or eavesdropping on emails. Stay tuned to see how this legal battle plays out and how it might affect your email system.

Facebook has been the subject of protests and debates about what it does with its users’ personal data and how well it protects users’ privacy. Do you feel you have enough privacy on social media sites?

Paul Sakuma/Associated Press

Legal Battles and Computers Litigation, or the process of bringing legal proceedings against a person or organization, has paralleled the evolution of computing and mirrored its growth. While we hear about many frivolous lawsuits today, some important and necessary legal battles have been fought. For example, before 1976, computer programmers had few rights because the pro- grams they wrote were not considered eligible for copyright protection. Over time, the law has been shaped to enable this type of protection. The programmer’s code is now considered intellectual property, and it is subject to rights and laws that protect its creators and owners. Just as you would not directly copy someone else’s words when writing a paper for school without citing the source (because this is plagiarism), computer code also cannot be used without the owner’s consent (Graham, 1999).

But this is just a small snapshot of the intersection between the law and computers. Take a look at your computer screen and consider this fact: just about every feature you see has had a lawsuit attached to it at one time or another. Lawrence Graham, in his book Legal Battles That Shaped the Computer Industry, provided a list of these features. He said that each of them (and many more) had a major lawsuit, fought between computer hardware and software companies, and that the resulting legal rulings have shaped the way that we use computers today. A partial list of these include menu arrangements, fonts, icons, trademarks, keystrokes, back-up copies, operating systems, and even the “look and feel” of the screen itself (Graham, 1999). One thing is clear: lawyers have been as busy as pro- grammers during the computer age.

Privacy Many of the current legal concerns revolve around the issue of privacy. In a book on inva- sions of privacy in the computer world, Dan Tynan (2005) listed more than 150 privacy con-

cerns. It would be impossible to discuss all of them here, but some of these include keeping medical data private, using public Internet termi- nals to store information, and online shopping and the safety of sharing your credit card number with unknown vendors, cyber stalkers, and identity thieves. As Scott McNealy, the CEO of Sun Microsystems, infamously said in 1999, “You have zero privacy anyway. Get over it” (Tynan, 2005, p. 1). Of course, this is not something we can or should “get over,” but we do need to be aware of the threats. Some- times privacy invasions happen as simple mistakes. For example, Face- book mistakenly sent emails to the wrong addresses. Imagine sending a private email to your friend complain- ing about your boss, and having this

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Computing, Information, and the Law

email appear in the inbox of someone who might know your employer personally, or even the boss herself.

Paul Sakuma/Associated Press

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Globalization and a Flattened World

8.6 Globalization and a Flattened World

The word globalization is a fairly recent term dating back only to the 1960s, but it was not until the 1990s that it became the buzzword of the decade. The central meaning of globalization is that all social life on the planet, from Andorra to Zimbabwe and every country in between, is interdependent (Steger, 2010). No longer is there an “us and them,” or “over here and over there.” We are all living in the same world. But why should you have to be concerned about globalization in a class on digital literacy? It sounds more like something that you would read about in a textbook on international business. The reality is that at the heart of globalization has been a technology that makes it all possible. You probably guessed it—the computer. But did you realize that in helping to bring about globalization, the computer also flattened the world?

Is the World Flat? It may come as a surprise to you to hear that the world is flat. Before you begin hunting down your grade school teachers and asking why they taught you that the world was round, you should know that the idea that the world is flat is credited to a journalist rather than a geographer. Thomas Friedman is the journalist, and in his best-selling book, The World Is Flat, he used this metaphor to explain the new global economy and illustrate how closely connected we all are. Of course, he acknowledges that the world is in reality still round. But he says that our computer technology has “flattened” it, meaning that people from all over the world can interact with each other and “plug, play, compete, connect, and collaborate” (Friedman, 2007, p. x). No longer are geographical boundaries or dis- tance factors that prevent communication.

Browsing the World The first important flattener involves connectivity. The only way people in all parts of the world can compete and collaborate with each other is if they can connect and communi- cate with relative ease. Friedman says the key moment was the convergence of the Inter- net, the World Wide Web, and the browser. While university students had created several UNIX browsers in the early 1990s, it was the release of Netscape Navigator® in 1994 that made this convergence available to a much larger audience. While it is true that people

Questions to Consider 1. Is everything legal on the Internet? 2. What is an early example of a legal battle that programmers waged? 3. What are some visible elements of computing that have had lawsuits attached to them? 4. What are some of the main privacy concerns that center on the use of computers? 5. What was the legal issue involved in the release of Buzz? 6. Is the right to free speech online threatened today?

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Globalization and a Flattened World

were connecting to the Internet at very slow speeds by today’s standards, the widespread availability of Netscape Navigator® set in motion a revolutionary trend in connectivity. We see it today in our online courses. It does not matter where all the students in your virtual classroom are located. Your classmates may be scattered on every continent of the world, but each of you has the same opportunity to earn an education as a person actually standing on a university campus itself. This is the power of globalization, and computers are central to making this possible.

Leveling the Global Playing Field We typically do not think much about the process of uploading something to the Internet. Uploading happens when we send an image to Facebook, attach a Word document to an email, or post a school paper to the electronic classroom. These are all examples of upload- ing. The more time you spend online, especially in a Web 2.0 world, the more you will be uploading information. According to Friedman, this is an essential force involved in glo- balization. Again, it levels the worldwide playing field because a programmer in India has the same opportunity to upload ideas about a software project as an employee living in Silicon Valley. If that person in India could not easily upload these documents and images, he would be isolated and cut off from the world. Closely associated with this flattener is the ability to download. This is equally important to globalization, because without it, the flow of information would go just one way. That same employee in India also has an opportunity to download information to his own computer—company manuals, software updates, books, and articles—so that access to information is equalized.

Linking through Outsourcing If you are old enough to have been aware of computers during the turn of the millennium between 1999 and 2000, you may remember something called Y2K (which is short for Year 2000). There was a global fear that at the stroke of midnight, computers all over the world would suddenly not know how to tell time and that everything from flights to bank accounts would crash. Why is Y2K important to globalization? According to Friedman, it was essential, because in preparing for the predicted Y2K disaster, the United States and India “started dating.” He suggested that Y2K should actually be a “national holiday in India” (Friedman, 2007, p. 136). In order to make sure the doomsday Y2K scenario did not occur, American executives hired massive numbers of inexpensive programmers from India to go through the old code with a fine-tooth comb and remove all dating errors. India’s skilled labor force was perfect for this task. In the process of our working with India, the idea of outsourcing began to grow.

Outsourcing is the process by which jobs in one country (the United States, for example) are sent to another (India) that has cheaper labor. India is vital to the U.S. and world economy today because of a relationship that started with Y2K. This collaboration has fueled globalization because American companies saw how easy it was, using new com- puter technologies, to outsource work to other parts of the world. Today, the outsourcing of American jobs includes not just programming but also customer service and many other white-collar professional positions. Although many corporations find outsourcing

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Globalization and a Flattened World

to be a profitable and efficient busi- ness model, others argue that it is ultimately weakening the United States by hurting middle-class men and women whose jobs have been outsourced (Hira & Hira, 2005).

In 2011, the United States outsourced over 2.5 million jobs. Over 50 percent were in manufacturing, while only 12 percent were in call centers. The reasons Chief Financial Officers most often give for doing this is to reduce costs, relieve internal resources, expand IT services, and reduce the time to put products in the market. India and Indonesia are considered the top countries to outsource to (ht t p://w w w.st at i st icbra i n.com/ outsourcing-statistics-by-country/).

India Next Door In this chapter, we have looked at the digital society from a variety of perspectives, includ- ing privacy, e-commerce, virtual communities, education, legal issues, and globalization. In conclusion, I would like to offer a personal example that ties all of these issues together. Late one night, I was working at my computer when my virus protection crashed. This is a serious and urgent problem because it left my computer vulnerable to hackers who might break the law, infringe on my privacy, and steal my information.

A friend of mine, who happens to be a programmer, lives a few doors down from me. He is the person I typically call when I have a question, but it was late, and I did not want to wake him up. So, I went online to the support site for my virus protection, found the tech- nical support number, and called it. In a matter of minutes, I was connected with a person who could help. He actually worked in India, and to fix the problem, he used a software connection program to take control of my computer, delete some corrupted files, and rein- stall the software. This is significant, because while I watched someone from India move my mouse pointer around the screen, I knew beyond a shadow of a doubt that we were truly living in a digital society. It was easier and more convenient for me to get assistance from a stranger in India than it was to call my friend who lived in my own neighborhood. The digital society has indeed created a flat world.

What are the effects of globalization on the United States? Ultimately, the final outcome is unknown. There are detractors who argue that it hurts American interests because of the loss of middle-class jobs to outsourcing, the reduction of services that small Ameri- can business can offer, and the shift of wealth to other countries. However, others argue

Many call center jobs are outsourced to countries like the Philippines, where educated labor is cheaper than in the United States. How do you think outsourcing affects the U.S. economy?

Julian Abram Wainwright/Bloomberg via Getty Images

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http://www.statisticbrain.com/outsourcing-statistics-by-country/

CHAPTER 8Summary

the opposite—that globalization strengthens the United States by opening up new mar- kets for American products. For example, China has more than a billion people, and a 2005 survey overwhelmingly concluded that the Chinese people want more American- made products, such as consumer electronics and high-quality personal toiletries (“China Loves U.S. Stuff,” 2005). The United States exports to China are growing and the U.S.- China Business Council stated that “Between 2000 and 2011, total US exports to China rose 542 percent, from $16.2 billion to $103.9 billion” (https://www.uschina.org/public/ exports/2000_2011/2011-state-export-report-executive-summary.pdf).

The growing Chinese middle class also hungers for clothing items with logos worn by American sports stars. So, the final scorecard on globalization has yet to be tallied, but one thing is certain—the forces of globalization will not be stopped, and those who will succeed are the ones that understand them best.

Questions to Consider 1. Is the world flat? 2. What is globalization? 3. Why is globalization important to computer literacy? 4. What is the significance of uploading and downloading to a global society? 5. What is Y2K, and how are its effects still being felt?

Summary

In this chapter, our goal was to focus on the digital society. Just like the society in which we interact with others in our real life, the digital society faces issues involving pri-vacy, protection, and legal dilemmas. We explored examples of some of these issues in the electronic world. As we all know, one of the most important activities we perform in the real world is making money, and there are a variety of ways to do this in the digital society. We examined one popular way to generate e-commerce: selling items on eBay™. The other main activity through which we engage in our society is socializing in commu- nities. The digital society is similar, with several types of virtual communities existing to satisfy everyone from the gamer to the person who wants to experiment with a “second life.” Our final topic was something with which you should be familiar already—online education. Considering all of these aspects together provides a very good picture of digi- tal society. One of its most important features is that it is global. Virtual communities are not confined to your local street or town. The tools provided by computers have created a global digital society that has flattened the world.

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https://www.uschina.org/public/exports/2000_2011/2011-state-export-report-executive-summary.pdf

CHAPTER 8Post-Test

Post-Test

2. Which of the following site allows you to place a bid on an item you would like to purchase?

a. Amazon b. PayPal c. eBay™

d. Instagram

3. Who coined the term cyberspace in 1984? a. Pierre Omidyar b. Pavel Curtis c. William Gibson d. Howard Rheingold

4. Ashford University is primarily an example of what type of learning? a. asynchronous b. synchronous c. MOOC d. correspondence course

5. Which of the following is a TRUE statement regarding legal issues and computers?

a. There have been so many court cases that most of the legal issues have been resolved.

b. Google’s motto is “Do no evil” and so it has not had to deal with legal issues to this point.

c. Computer programmers had more rights in the 1970s than they do today. d. Computer code can be plagiarized and this is a legal offense.

6. Thomas Friedman has metaphorically suggested that because of the forces of globalization, the world is

a. round. b. small. c. flat. d. connected.

7. Ransomware is BEST described as a. software used by the CIA. b. software used by criminals. c. software used by the general population for protection. d. software used by the military.

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CHAPTER 8Post-Test

8. Which of the following is NOT an example of e-commerce? a. B2B b. C2C c. Bricks and mortar d. PayPal

9. Which of the following is NOT an example of a visually immersive virtual community?

a. Second Life b. LambdaMOO c. World of Warcraft d. Toon Town

10. The rules of conduct for interacting with people online are called a. net equality. b. net etiquette. c. net rules. d. net respect.

11. Which of the following is NOT an example of a computer legal issue? a. programmer’s rights b. menu arrangements c. monitor screen size d. privacy invasion

12. Which of the following is an example of uploading? a. Sending an image to Facebook. b. Emailing a friend. c. Posting a status update on Facebook. d. Transmitting a text message.

Answers 1. c. Using a security token. The answer can be found in Section 8.1. 2. c. eBay™. The answer can be found in Section 8.2. 3. c. William Gibson. The answer can be found in Section 8.3. 4. a. asynchronous. The answer can be found in Section 8.4. 5. d. Computer code can be plagiarized and this is a legal offense. The answer can be found in Section 8.5. 6. c. flat. The answer can be found in Section 8.6. 7. b. software used by criminals. The answer can be found in Section 8.1. 8. c. Bricks and mortar. The answer can be found in Section 8.2. 9. b. LambdaMOO. The answer can be found in Section 8.3. 10. b. net etiquette. The answer can be found in Section 8.4. 11. c. monitor screen size. The answer can be found in Section 8.5. 12. a. Sending an image to Facebook. The answer can be found in Section 8.6.

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CHAPTER 8Critical Thinking Questions

Key Ideas

• The computer is neither good nor evil. In itself, it has no morals, positive or nega- tive, because it is simply a machine.

• Not all Internet commerce is fraudulent. You can make money in legitimate online transactions. But, as in all areas of life, especially where money is con- cerned, you have to be careful and know what you are doing.

• Virtual communities are formed when groups of people come together with a common interest in an online space. Such a community is virtual because the space is not real in the traditional sense, and interactions take place entirely online with people from all over the world.

• In the 1990s, few universities had online classes. Today, online education is one of the most exciting and revolutionary aspects of our educational system.

• The intersection of computers, information, and the law is a vast topic. These issues have a direct relationship not only to your online experience but also to your personal life away from computing.

• At the heart of globalization is the computer—the technology that makes it all possible. In helping to bring about globalization, the computer has also “flat- tened” the world.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. As stated at the beginning of the chapter, the computer has no morals, positive or negative, because it is a machine. In your opinion, is the computer used for more positive or negative activities?

2. Have you ever purchased anything online? If so, what types of merchandise do you buy? Other than a physical presence, is there anything different between virtual and real goods bought online?

3. What are the benefits that a virtual community has over a real one? What are the limitations of virtual communities in comparison with real ones?

4. Which of the tips for online success do you find most important? Have you made any of the 8 main mistakes that online students often commit?

5. Why do you think that litigation, or the process of bringing legal proceedings against a person or organization, has paralleled the evolution of computing and mirrored its growth?

6. Is the world “flat”? If yes, what are some reasons that make it so? If not, then how would you argue that Thomas Friedman is incorrect in his best-selling book, The World Is Flat?

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CHAPTER 8Key Terms

Key Terms

asynchronous learning An online course method of delivery, with no set times for everyone to gather together.

avatar A character or image that repre- sents someone in a virtual community.

backing up files Copying files to an exter- nal hard drive or offsite location to protect your data.

bricks and mortar Universities or stores that have a physical presence and real buildings.

business-to-business (B2B) Transactions between businesses, such as bills paid online, money transferred, and goods shipped and received.

computer virus A program that replicates itself (or makes unauthorized copies with- out human intervention).

consumer-to-consumer (C2C) Transac- tions from one consumer to another; examples include PayPal and other ways of sending money from one person to another through the Internet.

cyber crimes Crimes associated with com- puters connected to the Internet.

cybersex Virtual sex using text functions to chat between two real people.

cyberspace The virtual world online, where people, gather, meet, communicate, and share information.

distance learning (See online education).

downloading The process of bringing information that exists somewhere on the Internet onto your home computer.

e-commerce Electronic commerce, or mak- ing money online.

encryption A secret code for your data that only your computer has the key to unscramble.

flaming An increasingly intense and vicious debate online.

globalization Interdependence of all social life on the planet, from Andorra to Zimbabwe, and every country in between.

intellectual property The creativity behind everything from songs to books and even computer programs.

malware (See spyware).

MMORPG Massive multiplayer online role-playing game.

MOO (MUD Object Oriented) A textual virtual community typically accessed with Telnet.

MUD (Multi-User Dungeon) A textual virtual community, typically accessed with Telnet, that often had a role playing component.

net etiquette (netiquette) Rules of con- duct for interacting with people online.

online education The use of computer technology to link students and teachers together who do not share the same geo- graphic location.

outsourcing The process by which jobs in one country (the United States, for exam- ple) are sent to another (India) that has cheaper labor.

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CHAPTER 8Web Resources

peer-to-peer (P2P) File sharing that enables millions of people to download copy- righted material for free on their computers.

poke On Facebook, a virtual way to let someone know you are thinking of them.

security token A small device, often found in large organizations, that updates your password every 30 seconds, and can be clipped on your keychain.

spyware A secret program that gathers information about you in the background of your computer and then shares it with another person.

synchronous learning Online classroom in which all the students meet at the same time, although they are in different locations.

uploading Sending information from your computer to the World Wide Web.

virtual communities Groups of people who come together with a common inter- est in an online space, and interactions take place entirely online with people from all over the world.

Y2K The year 2000.

Web Resources

To learn more about cloud computing, visit: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ae_DKNwK_ms

The Computer Crime Manual from the Office of Legal Education is available at: http://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/docs/ccmanual.pdf

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http://www.youtube.com/watch%3Fv%3Dae_DKNwK_ms

http://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/docs/ccmanual.pdf