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C O N T E N T S

DOCUMENTS xv

MAPS xix

FEATURES xxi

PREFACE xxiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxix

· THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST

CIVILIZATIONS 1

The First Humans 2

The Emergence of Homo sapiens 2

The Hunter-Gatherers of the Old Stone Age 3 The Neolithic Revolution (c. 10,000–4000 B.C.E.) 3

The Emergence of Civilization	5
Civilization in Mesopotamia	6
The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia	7
Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia	9
The Code of Hammurabi	10
The Culture of Mesopotamia 11
Egyptian Civilization: ‘‘The Gift of the Nile’’ 15
The Impact of Geography	15
O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S
THE GREAT FLOOD: TWO VERSIONS 16
The Old and Middle Kingdoms	18
Society and Economy in Ancient Egypt	19
The Culture of Egypt 19
Disorder and a New Order: The New Kingdom 22
Daily Life in Ancient Egypt	25

On the Fringes of Civilization 26

The Impact of the Indo-Europeans 27

I M A G E S O F E V E R Y D A Y L I F E

THE EGYPTIAN DIET	28
The Hittite Empire	29

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 29

· THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: PEOPLES

AND EMPIRES 32

The Hebrews: ‘‘The Children of Israel’’ 33

Was There a United Kingdom of Israel? 33 The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah 34

The Spiritual Dimensions of Israel	35
The Social Structure of the Hebrews	38

The Neighbors of the Israelites		39
The Assyrian Empire	40
Organization of the Empire	41
The Assyrian Military Machine	41
Assyrian Society and Culture	42
O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S
THE GOVERNING OF EMPIRES: TWO
APPROACHES	43
The Neo-Babylonian Empire	44
The Persian Empire		45
Cyrus the Great		45
Expanding the Empire	46
Governing the Empire	47
The Great King		48
Persian Religion		49
CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER
REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING	51
3 THE CIVILIZATION OF THE GREEKS 53
Early Greece	54
Minoan Crete	54
The First Greek State: Mycenae 55
The Greeks in a Dark Age (c. 1100–c. 750 B.C.E.)	56
Homer and Homeric Greece	57
Homer’s Enduring Importance	58
The World of the Greek City-States
(c. 750–c. 500 B.C.E.)	59
The Polis 59
Colonization and the Growth of Trade	59
Tyranny in the Greek Polis	61
Sparta	62
Athens	64
Greek Culture in the Archaic Age	64
The High Point of Greek Civilization: Classical Greece 66
The Challenge of Persia	66
F I L M & H I S T O R Y
300 (2007)	69
The Growth of an Athenian Empire	69
The Great Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.E.)	72
The Decline of the Greek States (404–338 B.C.E.)	73

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Culture and Society of Classical Greece	74
The Writing of History	74
Greek Drama	75
The Arts: The Classical Ideal	76
The Greek Love of Wisdom	78
Greek Religion	81
Life in Classical Athens	81
I M A G E S O F E V E R Y D A Y L I F E
ACTIVITIES OF ATHENIAN WOMEN	83
O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S
WOMEN IN ATHENS AND SPARTA	84
CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER
REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING	85

4 THE HELLENISTIC WORLD 87

Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander 88

Philip and the Conquest of Greece 88

O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S

DEMOSTHENES AND ISOCRATES ADDRESS

PHILIP OF MACEDONIA 89

Alexander the Great 90

F I L M & H I S T O R Y

ALEXANDER (2004) 93

The World of the Hellenistic Kingdoms 94

Hellenistic Monarchies 94 The Threat from the Celts 96

Political and Military Institutions 96

Hellenistic Cities 97

Economic Trends in the Hellenistic World 98

Hellenistic Society 99
New Opportunities for Women	99
The Role of Slavery 100
The Transformation of Education	100

Culture in the Hellenistic World	101
New Directions in Literature	102
Hellenistic Art 103
A Golden Age of Science and Medicine	103
Philosophy: New Schools of Thought	105

Religion in the Hellenistic World 107

Mystery Religions 107

The Jews in the Hellenistic World 107

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 108

5 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC	111
The Emergence of Rome 112
Geography of the Italian Peninsula	112
The Greeks	112
The Etruscans	112
Early Rome: Impact of the Etruscans	114
The Roman Republic (c. 509–264 B.C.E.)	114

x n Contents

The Roman State 115

The Roman Conquest of Italy 117

The Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean

(264–133 B.C.E.) 119

The Struggle with Carthage 120

The Eastern Mediterranean 121

The Nature of Roman Imperialism 122

Evolution of the Roman Army 123

Society and Culture in the Roman Republic	124
Roman Religion	124
Education: The Importance of Rhetoric	126
The Growth of Slavery		127
The Roman Family 127
F I L M & H I S T O R Y
SPARTACUS (1960)	128
The Evolution of Roman Law	130
The Development of Literature	130
Roman Art	131
Values and Attitudes	132
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic
(133–31 B.C.E.)	132
Background: Social, Economic, and Political Problems 132
The Reforms of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus	133
Marius and the New Roman Army	133
The Role of Sulla	134
The Death of the Republic 134
O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S
THE END OF THE REPUBLIC: THREE VIEWS	137
Literature in the Late Republic	139
CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER
REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING	142
6 THE ROMAN EMPIRE		144
The Age of Augustus (31 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)	145
The New Order	145
The Army	146
Roman Provinces and Frontiers	147
Augustan Society	148
A Golden Age of Latin Literature	148
Significance of the Augustan Age		150
The Early Empire (14–180)	150
The Julio-Claudians (14–68)	150
The Flavians (69–96)	151
The Five ‘‘Good Emperors’’ (96–180)	151
The Roman Empire at Its Height: Frontiers and
Provinces	152
Prosperity in the Early Empire	154
Roman Culture and Society in the Early Empire	157
The Silver Age of Latin Literature	157
Art in the Early Empire	157
Imperial Rome	158
The Gladiatorial Shows	159
Disaster in Southern Italy	160

The Art of Medicine 160

F I L M & H I S T O R Y
GLADIATOR (2000)	161
Slaves and Their Masters	162

I M A G E S O F E V E R Y D A Y L I F E

CHILDREN IN THE ROMAN WORLD 164

The Upper-Class Roman Family 165

Transformation of the Roman World: Crises in the Third Century 165

Political and Military Woes	165
Economic and Social Crises	166

Transformation of the Roman World: The Rise of Christianity 167

The Religious World of the Roman Empire 167 The Jewish Background 167

The Origins of Christianity	167
The Growth of Christianity	170

O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S

ROMAN AUTHORITIES AND A CHRISTIAN ON

CHRISTIANITY 171

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 173

· LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE EMERGENCE

OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD 175

The Late Roman Empire 176
The Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine 176
The Empire’s New Religion 178
The End of the Western Empire	179
O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S
TWO VIEWS OF THE HUNS	180

The Germanic Kingdoms		182
The Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy	183
The Visigothic Kingdom of Spain	184
The Frankish Kingdom	185
Anglo-Saxon England	185
The Society of the Germanic Kingdoms	186
Development of the Christian Church 187
The Church Fathers	187
The Power of the Pope	189
Church and State 189
Pope Gregory the Great	190
The Monks and Their Missions 190
Christian Intellectual Life in the Germanic Kingdoms 195
The Byzantine Empire	197
The Reign of Justinian (527–565)	197
From Eastern Roman to Byzantine Empire 200
The Rise of Islam	203
Muhammad	203
The Teachings of Islam	204
The Spread of Islam	204
CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER
REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING	206

· EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 750–1000 209

Europeans and the Environment	210
Farming	210
The Climate	210
The World of the Carolingians	210
Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire (768–814) 210
The Carolingian Intellectual Renewal	214
Life in the Carolingian World	215
Disintegration of the Carolingian Empire	219
Invasions of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries	220
The Emerging World of Lords and Vassals	223
Vassalage	224
Fief-Holding	224

O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S

LORDS, VASSALS, AND SAMURAI IN EUROPE AND

JAPAN 225

New Political Configurations in the Tenth Century 226 The Manorial System 227

The Zenith of Byzantine Civilization 229

The Macedonian Dynasty 230

Women in Byzantium 230

The Slavic Peoples of Central and Eastern Europe 230

Western Slavs	232
Southern Slavs	232
Eastern Slavs	233
Women in the Slavic World 234

The Expansion of Islam	234
The Abbasid Dynasty	234
Islamic Civilization	235

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 236

· THE RECOVERY AND GROWTH OF

EUROPEAN SOCIETY IN THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES 239

Land and People in the High Middle Ages	240
The New Agriculture	240
The Life of the Peasantry 242
The Aristocracy of the High Middle Ages	243
The New World of Trade and Cities 247
The Revival of Trade	247

O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S

TWO VIEWS OF TRADE AND MERCHANTS 249

The Growth of Cities 250

I M A G E S O F E V E R Y D A Y L I F E

LIFE IN A MEDIEVAL TOWN 253

Industry in Medieval Cities 255

Contents n xi

The Intellectual and Artistic World of the High Middle Ages 255

The Rise of Universities 255

A Revival of Classical Antiquity 258

The Development of Scholasticism 259

The Revival of Roman Law 261

Literature in the High Middle Ages 261

Romanesque Architecture: ‘‘A White Mantle of

Churches’’ 262

The Gothic Cathedral 263

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 265

10 THE RISE OF KINGDOMS AND THE

GROWTH OF CHURCH POWER 267

The Emergence and Growth of European Kingdoms,

1000–1300	268
England in the High Middle Ages	268
F I L M & H I S T O R Y
THE LION IN WINTER (1968)	270
The Growth of the French Kingdom 272
Christian Reconquest: The Spanish Kingdoms 273
The Lands of the Holy Roman Empire: Germany and
Italy	274
New Kingdoms in Northern and Eastern Europe 277
Impact of the Mongol Empire	278
The Development of Russia	279

The Recovery and Reform of the Catholic Church 279

The Problems of Decline 279

The Cluniac Reform Movement 280

Reform of the Papacy 280

Christianity and Medieval Civilization 282

Growth of the Papal Monarchy	282
New Religious Orders and Spiritual Ideals	283
F I L M & H I S T O R Y
VISION (2009) 284
Popular Religion in the High Middle Ages	285
I M A G E S O F E V E R Y D A Y L I F E
MONASTIC LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES	286
Voices of Protest and Intolerance	288

The Crusades 289

Background to the Crusades 289

The Early Crusades 291

The Crusades of the Thirteenth Century 294

O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S

THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM: CHRISTIAN AND MUSLIM

PERSPECTIVES 295

What Were the Effects of the Crusades? 296

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 296

11 THE LATER MIDDLE AGES: CRISIS AND

DISINTEGRATION IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY 299

A Time of Troubles: Black Death and Social Crisis 300

Famine and Population 300

The Black Death: From Asia to Europe 300

The Black Death in Europe 301

O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S

CAUSES OF THE BLACK DEATH: CONTEMPORARY

Economic Dislocation and Social Upheaval 305

War and Political Instability 308

Causes of the Hundred Years’ War 308 Conduct and Course of the War 308 Political Instability 312

The Growth of England’s Political Institutions 312

F I L M & H I S T O R Y

JOAN OF ARC (1948) THE MESSENGER: THE STORY OF JOAN OF ARC (1999) 313

The Problems of the French Kings 314

The German Monarchy 316

The States of Italy 316

The Decline of the Church 318

Boniface VIII and the Conflict with the State 318 The Papacy at Avignon (1305–1377) 319

The Great Schism 320

New Thoughts on Church and State and the Rise of Conciliarism 320

Popular Religion in an Age of Adversity 321 Changes in Theology 322

The Cultural World of the Fourteenth Century 322

The Development of Vernacular Literature 322 A New Art: Giotto 325

Society in an Age of Adversity 325

Changes in Urban Life 325

I M A G E S O F E V E R Y D A Y L I F E

ENTERTAINMENT IN THE MIDDLE AGES 327

New Directions in Medicine	328
Inventions and New Patterns	329

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 329

RECOVERY AND REBIRTH: THE AGE
12 OF THE RENAISSANCE	332
Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance 333
The Making of Renaissance Society	333
Economic Recovery 334
Social Changes in the Renaissance	335

The Family in Renaissance Italy 337

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I M A G E S O F E V E R Y D A Y L I F E

FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN RENAISSANCE ITALY 338

The Italian States in the Renaissance	340
The Five Major States	340
Independent City-States	341
Warfare in Italy 342
The Birth of Modern Diplomacy 343
Machiavelli and the New Statecraft	343

The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy 344

Italian Renaissance Humanism 344

O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S

THE RENAISSANCE PRINCE: THE VIEWS OF

MACHIAVELLI AND ERASMUS 345
Education in the Renaissance 347
Humanism and History	350
The Impact of Printing	350

The Artistic Renaissance 350

Art in the Early Renaissance	350
The Artistic High Renaissance	353
The Artist and Social Status	355
The Northern Artistic Renaissance 355
Music in the Renaissance 356

The European State in the Renaissance	357
The Growth of the French Monarchy	358
England: Civil War and a New Monarchy 359
The Unification of Spain 359

The Holy Roman Empire: The Success of the Habsburgs 360 The Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern Europe 360

The Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine Empire 361

The Church in the Renaissance 361

The Problems of Heresy and Reform	362
The Renaissance Papacy 363
CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER
REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING	364

13 REFORMATION AND RELIGIOUS

WARFARE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 367

Prelude to Reformation	368
Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism	368
Church and Religion on the Eve of the Reformation	370
Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany	371
The Early Luther	371
F I L M & H I S T O R Y
LUTHER (2003)	374
The Rise of Lutheranism	374
Organizing the Church	377
Germany and the Reformation: Religion and Politics	377
The Spread of the Protestant Reformation 380
Lutheranism in Scandinavia	380
The Zwinglian Reformation	380

The Radical Reformation: The Anabaptists 381

O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S

A REFORMATION DEBATE: CONFLICT AT

MARBURG 382
The Reformation in England	383
John Calvin and Calvinism	385

The Social Impact of the Protestant Reformation 387

The Family 387

Education in the Reformation 387

Religious Practices and Popular Culture 389

The Catholic Reformation 389

Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation? 389

The Society of Jesus	389
A Revived Papacy 392
The Council of Trent	392

Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century 393

The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) 393

Philip II and Militant Catholicism 395

Revolt of the Netherlands	396
The England of Elizabeth	397

F I L M & H I S T O R Y

ELIZABETH (1998) 399

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 400

14 EUROPE AND THE WORLD: NEW ENCOUNTERS, 1500–1800 403

On the Brink of a New World	404
The Motives for Expansion		404
The Means for Expansion	406
New Horizons: The Portuguese and Spanish Empires	407
The Development of a Portuguese Maritime Empire	407
I M A G E S O F E V E R Y D A Y L I F E
SPICES AND WORLD TRADE	409
Voyages to the New World	409
The Spanish Empire in the New World 410
Disease in the New World	415
New Rivals on the World Stage	416
Africa: The Slave Trade 416
The West in Southeast Asia	419
O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S
WEST MEETS EAST: AN EXCHANGE OF ROYAL
LETTERS	421
The French and British in India	422
China	422
Japan	423
The Americas	425
The Impact of European Expansion	427
The Conquered	427
F I L M & H I S T O R Y
THE MISSION (1986)	429
The Conquerors	429

Contents n xiii

Toward a World Economy 431

Economic Conditions in the Sixteenth Century 432

The Growth of Commercial Capitalism 432

Mercantilism 432

Overseas Trade and Colonies: Movement Toward

Globalization 433

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 433

15 STATE BUILDING AND THE SEARCH FOR

ORDER IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 436

Social Crises, War, and Rebellions	437
The Witchcraft Craze	437
The Thirty Years’ War	439
Was There a Military Revolution? 442
Rebellions 444
The Practice of Absolutism: Western Europe 444
Absolute Monarchy in France	444
The Reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715)	445
The Decline of Spain	450
Absolutism in Central, Eastern, and Northern Europe	451
The German States 451
Italy: From Spanish to Austrian Rule	453
Russia: From Fledgling Principality to Major Power 453
The Great Northern States	456
The Ottoman Empire	457
The Limits of Absolutism	459
Limited Monarchy and Republics	459
The Weakness of the Polish Monarchy	459
The Golden Age of the Dutch Republic 460
I M A G E S O F E V E R Y D A Y L I F E
DUTCH DOMESTICITY	461
England and the Emergence of Constitutional Monarchy	462
O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S
OLIVER CROMWELL: THREE PERSPECTIVES 464
The Flourishing of European Culture	468
The Changing Faces of Art	468
A Wondrous Age of Theater	471
CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER
REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING	473

16 TOWARD A NEW HEAVEN AND A NEW

EARTH: THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

AND THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN SCIENCE 476

Background to the Scientific Revolution	477
Ancient Authors and Renaissance Artists	477

Technological Innovations and Mathematics 477

Renaissance Magic 478

Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy 478

Copernicus 479

Brahe 481

Kepler 481

Galileo 483

O P P O S I N G V I E W P O I N T S

A NEW HEAVEN? FAITH VERSUS REASON 485

Newton 486

Advances in Medicine and Chemistry 488

Paracelsus 488

Vesalius 489

William Harvey 489

Chemistry 489

Women in the Origins of Modern Science 490

Margaret Cavendish 490

Maria Merian 490

Maria Winkelmann 490

Debates on the Nature of Women 491

Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and a New

View of Humankind 493

The Scientific Method and the Spread of Scientific

Knowledge 494

The Scientific Method 494

The Spread of Scientific Knowledge 495

Science and Religion 497

CHAPTER SUMMARY • CHAPTER TIMELINE • CHAPTER

REVIEW • SUGGESTED READING 499

GLOSSARY 503

NOTES 513

INDEX 519

xiv n Contents