CHEM 121 - General Chemistry I
CHEM121 Exam 2 Study Guide page 1 of 4
CHEM 121: Exam 2 Study Guide Chapter 9: Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table Know the definitions for atomic radius, ionic radius,
and ionization energy. Know Periodic Trends for • Atomic radius: ‐ Increases down a group
‐ Decreases left to right across a period because effective nuclear charge increases ‐ Remember the radii for a snowman • Metallic Character: same trends as atomic radius • Ionization Energy (IE): Decreases down a group ‐ Increases left to right across a period ‐ Opposite trend as atomic radius since IE ↓ as atomic radius ↑
core electrons: electrons belonging to filled electron shells valence electrons: outermost electrons – The group number for each element is equal to its number of valence electrons. – Only valence electrons are gained, lost, or shared during chemical reactions. Determine the formulas for the ions formed by Representative (Main Group) Elements using a Periodic Table.
Chapter 10: Chemical Bonding chemical bond: what holds atoms or ions together in a compound ionic bond: electrostatic attraction holding cations and anions together in an ionic compound Ionic compounds exist as 3D networks of ions held together by ionic bonds. – The formula unit indicates ratio of ions. – NaCl exists as Na+ and Cl− in a 1‐to‐1 ratio;
Na2O exists as Na + and O‐2 in a 2‐to‐1 ratio.
– At 25°C ionic compounds are solids with very high melting points.
ionic radii: distance from nucleus to outermost electrons in an ion – Know how ionic and atomic radii compare: cation radius < neutral atom < anion radius – Be able to rank atoms and ions in terms of
increasing radius. electronegativity (EN): ability of an atom in a bond to draw electrons to itself – Know F is most electronegative, further away from F, less electronegative an atom. – Know H’s electronegativity is between B and C.
Draw Lewis (Electron Dot) Symbols for atoms and ions to represent the formation of ionic and covalent bonds. covalent bond: sharing of electrons between two nonmetal atoms polar covalent bond: unequal sharing of electrons by 2 atoms with different EN values – Electron density is concentrated towards the more electronegative atom.
nonpolar covalent bond: equal sharing of electrons by two atoms with equal EN – Electron density is evenly distributed between the two atoms.
Use delta notation (δ+ and δ−) and a dipole arrow to indicate which atom in a bond is more electronegative
CHEM121 Exam 2 Study Guide page 2 of 4
Chapter 10 (Continued) coordinate covalent bond: a covalent bond in which one atom donated the pair of electrons that are shared to make the bond If the electronegativity difference between two atoms is large, electrons are transferred rather than shared → ions → ionic compound. Metallic Bond: ‐ Metals exist as nuclei in a “sea of electrons”. → The electrons in a metal are delocalized (free to
move around the entire substance). → The special properties of metals (heat and
electrical conductivity, malleable and ductile qualities, etc.) result from electrons’ freedom to move around
Be able to identify a bond as ionic, metallic, polar covalent, or nonpolar covalent. octet rule: atoms bond such that each has 8 electrons, except H only needs 2 electrons. Bond Length and Bond Strength ‐ The shorter the bond, the stronger the bond. ‐ Single bonds are longer and weaker than double bonds.
‐ Double bonds are longer and weaker than triple bonds.
Draw the Lewis Structure for Molecules and Polyatomic Ions 1. Count total number of valence electrons, then
divide by 2 to get # of electron pairs. – Account for the electrons gained/lost for the
charge in polyatomic ions 2. Draw the skeleton structure – The central atom will be indicated. – Know that H and F are always outer atoms. 3. Connect all the atoms by drawing lines to
represent single bonds – Distribute remaining electrons around outer
atoms then central atom until each has octet. – Make double or triple bonds only if an atom
does not have an octet. 4. For polyatomic ions, put square brackets around all
atoms and the charge in upper right corner.
Lewis structures for ternary oxyacids – A ternary oxyacid is a molecule that consists
of H, O, and one other element. (Know that the formula for a ternary oxyacids starts with H.)
– To draw the skeleton structure, write down the central atom, put the oxygens around it,
then attach each hydrogen to a different oxygen. – Distribute valence electrons as usual. Lewis structures for hydrocarbons – hydrocarbon: consists of only C and H atoms – May contain several C atoms bonded to one another and surrounded by H atoms. Molecular Shapes and Polarity • Use the Lewis structure to determine the molecular
shape and bond angle. • Use the Lewis structure to determine the general
formula (A=central atom, X=# of outer atoms, E=# of lone pairs on central atom) and the steric number (SN=# of outer atoms + # of lone
pairs on central atom). Know the following shapes and bond angles: ‐ AX2 and SN=2 → linear → 180° ∠ ‐ AX3 and SN=3→ trigonal planar → 120° ∠ ‐ AX4 and SN=4→ tetrahedral → 109.5° ∠ ‐ AX2E and SN=3→ bent or angular → <120° ∠ ‐ AX3E and SN=4→ trigonal pyramid → <109.5° ∠ ‐ AX2E2 and SN=4→ bent or angular → <109.5° ∠ • Use electronegativity to determine if a bond is polar
or nonpolar covalent. • Be able to sketch a molecule after determining its
shape and use dipole arrows to indicate the more electronegative atom in a polar covalent bond.
• Use the 3D shape to determine if dipoles cancel or if there is an overall dipole to determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar.
CHEM121 Exam 2 Study Guide page 3 of 4
Chapter 12: Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces Intermolecular Forces (IMF’s): attraction between 2 different molecules in a liquid or solid • Identify the type(s) of intermolecular force for a molecule as London/dispersion forces, dipole‐
dipole forces, hydrogen bonding, or ion‐diple forces. – Recognize that polar molecules experience London/dispersion forces as well as dipole‐dipole
forces or hydrogen bonding. – Know that hydrogen bonds are the strongest type of intermolecular force, dipole‐dipole forces
are the next strongest, and London forces are generally the weakest. – Recognize that London forces increase with more electrons—use the number of electrons to
determine relative strength of London forces for different molecules. – Know the terms: evaporation, boiling point, vapor pressure, volatile, nonvolatile, hydrophilic,
hydrophobic – Recognize how IMF’s influence vapor pressure and boiling point. – Given different substances, be able to rank them in terms of increasing boiling point based on
IMF’s. • Given a bond or intermolecular force, identify it a polar covalent, nonpolar covalent, ionic, metallic,
ion‐dipole forces, London/dispersion forces, dipole‐dipole forces, and/or hydrogen bonding. • Know ionic and covalent bonds are stronger than all intermolecular forces, even hydrogen bonds. • Given its formula, classify a solid as ionic, molecular, metallic or network covalent (e.g. diamond). • Know the unique properties of ice resulting from the hydrogen bonds between molecules in the
solid (e.g. density of solid versus liquid, why snowflakes have hexagonal symmetry, effects on aquatic life, etc.).
• Use “Like Dissolves Like” to predict if a substance will be soluble/insoluble in or miscible/immiscible
with another substance based on its polarity (for molecules). – Recognize that some ionic compounds (e.g. NaCl) dissolve in polar liquids like water, but ionic
compounds never dissolve in nonpolar liquids. Chapter 11: Gases • Know the properties of gases. • Know definitions: vacuum, gas pressure, atmospheric pressure, compressibility • Recognize that atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude • Be able to explain how atmospheric pressure aids drinking liquids with a straw Gas pressure and Atmospheric pressure • Be able to convert between units of pressure: 1 atm ≡ 760 torr ≡ 760 mmHg = 14.7 psi
CHEM121 Exam 2 Study Guide page 4 of 4
Chapter 5: Molecules and Compounds ionic compound: a compound consisting of metal cations and anions held together by ionic bonds molecule (or molecular compound): a compound consisting of nonmetal atoms held together by covalent bonds Diatomic elements: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, Know the NAMES AND SYMBOLS OF ALL ELEMENTS included on pp. 10‐11 of the Chapter 4 lecture notes. Spelling counts!
Know the ions formed by the Representative (or A Group) Elements using the Periodic Table. Be able to use the names and formulas of POLYATOMIC IONS included on your Periodic Table. Naming cations: ‐ Group IA, IIA, Al, Ag, Zn, Cd: element name + ion ‐ All other metals ‐ Stock system: element name (charge in Roman #s) + ion Naming anions: nonmetal stem + "‐ide" + ion
Naming ionic compounds: ‐ cation name + anion name ‐ IA, IIA, Al, Ag, Zn, Cd do NOT need Roman #s indicating the charge ‐ All other metals can form multiple charges, so they need Roman #s indicating the charge Identify a compound as an ionic compound or a molecule given its name or chemical formula. Nomenclature for Ionic Compounds: ‐ Given formula of a compound, determine name. ‐ Given the name of a compound, give formula. Naming binary molecular compounds: ‐ Use Greek prefixes when more than one atom of an element is present. ‐ Know names for NH3, CH4, and H2O2, or given the name, write the formula. Naming binary acids: Naming ternary acids: H('s) + "‐ide" ion → "hydro____ic acid" ‐ e.g. Cl‐ = chloride ion → HCl (aq) = hydrochloric acid H('s) + "‐ate" ion "_____ic acid" ‐ e.g. SO4
2‐ = sulfate ion → H2SO4 (aq) = sulfuric acid H('s) + "‐ite" ion →"_____ous acid" ‐ e.g. NO2
‐ = nitrite ion → HNO2 (aq) = nitrous acid
You will be given a copy of the CHEM 121 Periodic Table with element symbols, atomic numbers and atomic masses.
Be able to solve problems combining a variety of topics from
Chapters 9, 10, 12, and 5 as well as those from previous chapters.