Media Analysis Project - Thesis and Outline

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Chapter

6Visual Analysis

British critic and artist John Ruskin, who died in 1900, was best known for initiating the Arts and Crafts aesthetic movement that celebrated handiwork. The Bolshevik revolutionary Leon Trotsky called him “one of those rare men who think with their heart.” Ruskin once wrote, “The greatest thing a human soul ever does in this world is to see something. . . . To see clearly is poetry, prophecy, and religion, all in one” (Figure 6.1). As you have learned by now, the first step in seeing clearly is to think clearly. Analysis is a way the mind not only engages with the outside world, but also internalizes its lessons and learns from them.

Critics throughout the history of litera- ture have used many methods to analyze works created by others. For example, David Lodge, in his book Small World: An Academic Romance (1984), lists 14 dif- ferent analytical perspectives: allegorical,

archetypal, biographical, Christian, ethical, existentialist, Freud ian, historical, Jung- ian, Marxist, mythical, phenomenologi- cal, rhetorical, and structural. Although most analyses don’t require so many approaches, you must be able to use some sort of critical method to analyze pictures to fully appreciate visual commu- nication.

Image analysis teaches two important lessons about the creation of memorable pictures: A producer of messages should have an understanding of the diversity of cultures within an intended audience, and she should also be aware of the symbols used in images so that they are under- stood by members of those cultures.

Although visual analysis is vital in understanding a picture’s place within a cultural context, the concept of visual analysis is fairly new given the long his- tory of visual message production—over

Analysis reveals the

person making the

analysis—not really the

piece itself.

David Lodge, b. 1935 NOVELIST AND PLAYWRIGHT

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30,000 years. But from the dawn of modern typography—Johannes Gutenberg’s com- mercial printing press, first developed in the 1440s—the visual media were rarely employed for any purpose other than as margin drawings or as sensational, atten- tion-getting pictures to attract the non- reading public to performances. At best, images might be used as maps or medi- cal diagrams. Consequently, those who produced pictures were often regarded

as lesser than their written word counter- parts. For example, newspaper photogra- phers in the first half of the 20th century were often considered to be “reporters with their brains knocked out.” However, later in the century, critics and educators such as Rudolf Arnheim, John Berger, Roland Barthes, Susan Sontag, and others took image production and visual communica- tors seriously. Consequently, visual literacy gradually developed into a serious study.

John Berger is a British critic, artist, and novelist born in 1926. For visual communicators he is best known for his landmark book on visual culture, Ways of Seeing (1972), which was developed into a television series for the BBC. For Berger, an image must be analyzed within its presentational context. A quick-click photograph viewed on an iPhone, a som- ber and respectful gallery exhibit with viewers enjoying cheese and drinks, a series of travel images on Facebook or Flickr, murals sprayed on subway trains, any photograph published in this book, a newspaper front page or magazine cover picture, a movie in a theater or shown on television or a computer monitor, a large advertisement on a billboard—all create unique contexts of meaning and, thus, of analysis (Figure 6.2). But as varied as

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Figure 6.1 “John Ruskin,” watercolor on paper, 1879, by Sir Hubert von Herkomer. Ruskin said of his portrait that it is “a beautiful drawing of me, the first that has ever given what may be gleaned out of the clods of my face.” Von Herkomer was a British painter, filmmaker, and composer. After a long career as a painter of portraits and landscapes, he established his own Herkomer School for art education. In 1896, Queen Victoria knighted him.

Figure 6.2 Facebook is one of the most popular websites for storing pictures and sharing them with friends. Here, an album contains 10 images of a user’s trip to Australia in 2008. With a mouse click on a small, thumbnail photo, you can see a larger version with any caption details the user cared to include.

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the contexts are for viewing images, so too should be the varied ways in which images are analyzed.

Historian and educator David Perlmut- ter identifies eight ways to help under- stand an image: production (how was the image physically produced and how are elements combined within a frame), content identification (what are the major elements and what is the story being told), functional (what is the context for the image and how was it put to use), expressional (what emotions are conveyed by the content and how are those feelings translated across cultures), figurative (how are the symbols and metaphors employed and what are any culturally sensitive ele- ments), rhetorical/moral (what are the philosophical justifications for making and showing the work and what are any responsibilities the producer has to the subject and viewers), societal or period (how does the image reflect the culture and mores of the time it was produced and what does it communicate to future generations), and comparative (how is the image similar to previously created works and how does it fit within the body of work of the image creator). Not sur- prisingly, Perlmutter admits that such an analysis “involves a great deal of effort.”

Analytical approaches, although time- consuming, are valuable because they help you notice the smallest details that make up an image, which often leads to greater, universal truths. Meaning/per- ceiving should be the goal of any type of visual analysis—whether for personal, pro- fessional, or cultural reasons. The process also requires that you become familiar with the biography of an artist, the details of her culture and her life, that led to the picture’s creation. Analysis should come after a detailed viewing of the work itself and the impact, if any, the work had on

the artist, other artists, the subjects, the viewers, the genre, the culture, and soci- ety. As such, an analysis of any image, whether still or moving, seen in print or screen media, should not be taken lightly.

As you will note in the subsequent chapters, six perspectives for analysis— personal, historical, technical, ethical, cultural, and critical—will help explain a wide variety of presentation media, from the use of typography in graphic designs to the way websites present almost unlim- ited links. But before using any of these six analytical perspectives, there are a few preliminary steps you should take in order to prepare yourself for a thorough analysis. These 13 steps include making a detailed inventory list of all you see in a picture; noting the unique compositional elements within a frame; discussing how the visual cues of color, form, depth, and movement work singly and in combination to add interest and meaning; looking at the image in terms of the gestalt laws of similarity, proximity, continuation, and common fate; identifying any iconic, indexical, and symbolic signs; thinking of how the four semiotic codes of metonymy, analogy, displaced, and condensed contribute to its understanding; isolating any cogni- tive elements that may be a part of the image; considering the purpose the work might have; and whether the image can be thought of as aesthetically pleasing.

A picture taken by National Geographic photographer Clifton Adams of Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover and Secre- tary of War Dwight Davis standing among children in a relief camp at Natchez, Mis- sissippi, during the flooding of the Missis- sippi River in 1927 is used as an example of visual analysis. For a more in-depth analy- sis of this image, see On Floods and Photo Ops: How Herbert Hoover and George W.

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Bush Exploited Catastrophes by Paul Mar- tin Lester and published by the University Press of Mississippi. Before you read the author’s analysis, study the image yourself and get your own interpretation. Your response may be quite different. Also, even though a photograph is used for this dem- onstration, the procedure described here should be used with any form of visual message (Figure 6.3).

Inventory

Make a list of all you see—animal, veg- etable, and mineral—in the picture. If it helps, imagine a grid with horizontal and vertical lines superimposed upon the pic- ture so that you actively consider every possible part of the picture.

Two adults are seen standing. They are formally dressed. Both wear hats. The man at the left is in a dark suit and looks at the

camera. The other man looks down. Nine children no older than ten years old are standing with the men. Most of the chil- dren are barefooted (Figure 6.4). One boy wears a hat. All stand on worn-down grass. Behind them are two teepee-style tents tied with stakes to the ground. A woman sits in the tent at the left. She wears a hat. Her left hand covers her mouth. Behind the tents is a forest.

Composition

Actively notice the picture’s elements. How do the individual parts contribute or distract from the picture as a whole? How do the gestalt laws of similarity, proximity, continuation, and common fate contrib- ute to compositional elements?

The camera angle is straight on in the horizontal view. The photographer is prob- ably standing at eye level with the adults.

Figure 6.3 The original caption for the picture as it appeared in the April 1927 issue of National Geographic read: “‘YES, WE HAD BREAKFAST, BUT WE HAVE NOTHING TO PLAY WITH’ It was not easy to explain to children why pets and toys had to be abandoned when families fled before the rising floods. At Natchez, Mississippi, Secretaries Hoover and Davis visited the youngsters in camp. One bashful boy, dodg- ing the camera, hid behind the friendly coattails of Mr. Hoover.”

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VISUAL ANALYSIS 119

The group of men and children are in the center and front of the frame. There is extra space on all four sides of the frame. The woman in the background is not a part of the group and is a bit distracting (Figure 6.5). Similarity: Although wearing different colored jackets, the two men are easily grouped separately from the others in the picture by their age, similar height, and position in the frame. Proximity: The children are an identifiable group since they are all standing so close to each other. Continuation: The point of the tent at the left can be imagined as its triangle shape continues beyond the top. Common fate: Since only one child actually looks up at an adult while the other man looks down at the children, this gestalt law is invoked with the man at the left looking directly into the camera’s lens. In other words, the viewer of this image is the designation of the subjects’ gaze.

Visual Cues

Study the visual cues of color, form, depth, and movement within the image. Note how they interact and conflict. How are colors used? Look for the source and direction of light in the picture. Does light come from a natural or artificial source? How are shapes and lines utilized within the frame of the image? If there are

persons in the image, take notice of their eyes to see whether they are looking at or away from the camera or are hidden from view. How is the illusion of depth achieved? Are your eyes actively moving around the frame?

Color: The photograph is black and white with a wide variety of light, gray, and dark tones. The dense and dark shadows on the ground from the persons standing indicate a bright day, sometime during the early afternoon. Form: A boy wears a hat that is pyramidal in shape, similar in form to the tent in the background. In fact, a reverse pyramidal “V” shape is formed by

Figure 6.5 A close-up of the mystery woman sitting on a footlocker at a tent’s opening shows that she looks away from the camera’s lens with her hand attempting to cover her face. She wears a distinctive, tight- fitting, bell-shaped cloche hat (cloche is French for “bell”), made popular by “flappers” of the 1920s. This type of modern hat is strangely out- of-place in this rural, relief camp setting. She wears a skirt perhaps made of leather and a jacket. The out-of-place woman distracts from the politicians with the children and was cropped out from the National Geographic printed version. Could she be a friend of the photographer?

Figure 6.4 A close-up look at the feet of the children reveals the approximate time of day by the shadows on the ground, the presumed temperature since most wear short pants, and the fact that most are not wearing shoes.

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120 VISUAL ANALYSIS

the negative space of the tent edges in the background that mimics a similar triangle from the man at the left down to the child in the front and up to the hat of the other man. The eyes of the children look up at the man to the left, who looks at the cam- era. The other adult looks down. Depth: The group in the front is separated from the background not only by their inter- position but also because they are more in focus than the elements behind them. They are also more in the light than the objects behind them. Because the man at the left in the dark suit is slightly separated from the group and is looking toward the camera, he appears to be the central focus of the picture and the most important ele- ment. Movement: The moment captured is static, with everyone stopped for the pho- tographer, but there is graphic dynamism with the “V” forms mentioned earlier and the direction of the eyes of the man at the right (Figure 6.6).

Semiotic Signs and Codes

What are any iconic, indexical, and sym- bolic signs that can be identified in the

image? Do any of the metonymy, analogy, displaced, or condensed codes contribute to its understanding?

The photograph itself is an example of an iconic sign, since there is little doubt that the individuals pictured lived and are accurately portrayed. The fact that most of the children are without shoes is an indexi- cal sign that perhaps the weather was warm. The dress of the two men is a sym- bolic sign of their superiority, power, and separation from the others, since they are not wearing clothes you would normally see in a camping environment.

Cognitive Elements

How do the cognitive concepts of mem- ory, projection, expectation, selectivity, habituation, salience, dissonance, culture, and words contribute to the image’s understanding?

Memory: As an historical photograph featuring a future president, Herbert Hoover, the image evokes other memo- rable scenes dating from 1929 and

Figure 6.6 Visual interest is directed toward the children in the photograph by the graphic “V” shape that is made from the outline of the two tents in the background. Further- more, the tall, lean form of Secretary Davis looking down on the children also directs a viewer’s eyes to them.

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the Great Depression. Projection: The strangely shaped object that appears to hang from a tree at the top-right might be the carcass of a deer or other large animal after it has been field dressed (Figure 6.7). Selectivity: There are many elements of the photograph that might catch your eye, but the sweet, polite girl with the blonde curls looking up at Hoover with her hands calmly clasped at her waist stands out (Figure 6.8). Habitu- ation: Perhaps this image is interesting to you because you live in a desert climate and are not accustomed to a forest scene. Salience: If you have broad experience camping you may notice the style of the tents, which are open at the bottom to allow more air to circulate. Dissonance: The mystery woman in the background may be a distraction from the main focus of the image. Culture: Although everyone in the image is Anglo, there is a clash of cultures between the woman in the back and the men, the men and the children, and city dwellers and country residents. Words: The caption in National Geo- graphic (See Figure 6.3) indicates that it is probable that the mood of the children was not as cheerful as the caption writer might suggest.

Purpose of the Work

Where do you think the picture was made? What do you think is the image’s purpose? Is it news, art, scientific, a per- sonal snapshot, or some other type of image?

The photograph might have been taken in a large, open clearing surrounded by woods. With the man at the left looking at the camera and the stiff and formal collec- tion of strangers, the image appears to be a publicity shot used by government officials

Figure 6.7 A bizarre element in a photo op meant to spread positive publicity by government offi- cials visiting children in a relief camp is revealed by this close- up of a shape against one of the trees in the background. Rob Draper of the Federal Highway Administration noted that “the thing hang- ing in the tree could be what remains of [a] deer carcass. Looks like a thoracic cavity minus the loin and rear legs.” If true, what does that say about the relief efforts if those living in the camp are forced to eat wild game?

Figure 6.8 The sweet-faced girl who peers respectfully up at the future president shows a maturity beyond her years (she would be about 86 years old today). Out of the entire group of children and perhaps the adults as well, she stands out.

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to promote themselves in their effort to help children during a natural disaster (Figure 6.9).

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Image Aesthetics

Is there anything about the image that makes it particularly compelling to look at? Does it have formal and/or creative elements that make it particularly beauti- ful? Does the image make you want to see more of the artist’s work?

Although there is a certain charm to an historic black-and-white documentary image, because of its utilitarian purpose— to make two politicians look helpful in the eyes of the public—any formal determination of the picture’s aesthetic worth is tempered. The picture is perhaps one step from a family snapshot, but has little aesthetic value otherwise.

Now you are ready for an in-depth analy- sis. The rest of this chapter details the six perspectives for analyzing images:

Personal: An initial reaction to the work based on your subjective opinions.

Historical: A determination of the importance of the work based on the medium’s time line.

Technical: The relationship between light, the recording medium used to produce the work, and the context in which the work is shown.

Ethical: The moral and ethical respon- sibilities that the producer, the subject, and the viewer of the work have and share.

Cultural: An analysis of the metaphors and symbols used in the work that convey meaning within a particular society at a particular time.

Critical: The issues that transcend a particular image and shape a reasoned personal reaction.

The goal of this analysis is to move from a subjective, quick, and emotional

opinion, often expressed from a personal perspective, to an objective, long-term, and reasoned judgment reflected by the critical perspective.

Personal Perspective

Upon first viewing any image, everyone draws a quick conclusion about a picture based entirely on a personal response. When asked about a movie, words and phrases such as “good,” “bad,” “I like it,” or “I don’t like it” are the usual quick responses. These answers indicate that a person initially analyzes the picture on a superficial, cursory level. Personal perspectives are important because they reveal much about the person making the comments. But such opinions have lim- ited use simply because they are so per- sonal. These comments cannot be gener- alized beyond the individual, nor do they reveal much in the way of how others in the present or future should think of an image. A memorable image, perhaps one that is considered a masterpiece by critics and the public alike, always sparks strong personal reactions, either negative or positive, and also reveals much about the culture from which it was made. A viewer who rests a conclusion about an image on only a personal perspective denies the chance of perceiving the image in a more meaningful way.

Although the image was published in National Geographic magazine as part of its coverage of the devastation unleashed by the Mississippi River flood of 1927, the photograph at first glance is not worth a second look. By most professional stan- dards, the picture of two American gov- ernment officials posing with children in a relief camp would not even be published in a daily newspaper. The picture is obviously

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Figure 6.9 Although often excruciatingly shy even with friends and labeled arrogant by his crit- ics, Herbert Hoover was one of the first American politi- cians to know how to find a camera. He understood the power of publicity to paint a positive picture of himself. No wonder he is the only person in the photograph looking straight into the camera’s lens with the best smile he could muster.

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a set-up and stage-managed photo op or media event so that politicians can show their concern and advance their own political self interests. Additionally, on technical and content criteria, it does not deserve much notice. Consequently, an initial reaction of the picture is rather negative.

Historical Perspective

Each medium of presentation—from typography to the web—has a unique history of circumstances that were set in motion and fostered by individuals interested in promoting the medium. For typography, the history of writing dates from the dawn of recorded history. For the web, the developments are relatively recent. Knowledge of a medium’s history allows you to understand current trends in terms of their roots in techniques and philosophies of the past. Innovative and aesthetically pleasing visual messages come from an awareness of what has been produced before, and contempo- rary pictures will influence future image creation. Since images are artifacts that immediately are thought to preserve past events, an historical analysis is of utmost importance in understanding the present meaning of any image.

Ask yourself: When do you think the image was made? What major develop- ments were happening in the area where the image was produced and throughout the world? Is there a specific artistic style that the image imitates?

The Mississippi River flood of 1927 started out as an ordinary rainstorm during August 1926. But the storm never let up. By Sep- tember, all the river’s tributaries were full. The storm persisted throughout the winter.

Rain and then snow accumulated until February. By April, the soaked land couldn’t take any more water. Over a 19-hour period beginning on Good Friday, April 15, 1927, Greenville, Mississippi, received 10 inches of rain. Six days later a levee about 18 miles north of the city collapsed. The Mississippi River widened to 80 miles. The flood even- tually covered 25,781 square miles in seven states, the approximate size of the state of South Carolina. The estimated number of persons killed was about 1,000. Total damages were about $230 million ($2.7 bil- lion in today’s value). More than 600,000 persons were made homeless, with about 540,000, or 90 percent of them, African Americans. Although orphaned by the time he was nine years old and considered withdrawn and hard to get to know, by the age of 46 Herbert Clark Hoover was a multi- millionaire and considered one of the most admired Americans in the world. He parlayed his knowledge of mining, learned from his degree in geology from Stanford University, into a means of becoming a wealthy man. During World War I he accepted governmental positions to aid Americans trapped in Europe and helped Belgian citizens survive the war. He also saved Russians from starvation. By the time of the Mississippi River flood he was Secretary of Commerce under President Calvin Coolidge and selected to head the massive relief effort. The positive publicity he garnered from journalists that followed him to every relief camp helped his can- didacy for president, which he won in the election the next year. However, because of his handling of the economic crisis called the Great Depression, historians and oth- ers consider his term in office as one of the worst in American history. At the time the picture was taken, mass circulation newspapers and magazines were

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popular, television was still in an experi- mental stage, and sound had just been introduced in motion pictures (Figure 6.10). The style of photography most common was typified by the image analyzed—a straight-on perspective with the main subjects in the center of the frame aware of the camera.

Technical Perspective

You must know something about how each medium of presentation works. A thorough critique of any visual presen- tation requires knowledge of how the producer generated the images you see. Whether clay for stop-motion animated films, camera settings with still and mov- ing pictures, or software controls for computer-generated images, knowing the ways they are produced gives you a clearer understanding of the meaning and purpose of a work. With an understand- ing of the techniques involved in produc- ing an image, you are also in a better posi-

tion to know when production values are high or low, when great or little care has been taken, or when much or little money was spent to make the images. Ask your- self: How was the image produced? What techniques were employed? Is the image of good quality?

The black-and-white photograph was made using a normal lens, a medium-sized aperture, without fill-in flash, and 10 to 20 feet away from Hoover and Davis. Adams probably used the “Top Handle” Speed Graphic model that was manufactured by Graflex of Rochester, New York, from 1912 to 1927. There is a moderate amount of depth-of-field, indicating a mid-range aperture opening of the lens. Although the woman in a tent and the trees behind can be clearly seen, they are not in clear focus. Since no one is moving, a fast shut- ter speed might have been used (Figure 6.11). The overall quality of the image suffers from being slightly overexposed. From the grassy area in the front to the sky in the background, white-colored areas in the picture are washed out, without detail, to the point that the clothes worn by the two children to the right seem to blend together.

Ethical Perspective

Ethics is the study of how persons, other sentient beings (those that can feel pain), and systems (such as governmental agen- cies and the environment) behave (known as descriptive ethics) and how they should behave (known as normative ethics). You should try as much as possible to concentrate your analyses on normative, rather than descriptive, ethics. You want to come to a conclusion of what someone Top

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Figure 6.10 Hoover recognized the promotional opportuni- ties presented by the visual media, and on April 7, 1927, he became the first politi- cian to be publicized through the new medium of televi- sion. This live picture from a funeral home in Washington, D.C., was shown to newspa- per reporters and dignitaries gathered at the AT&T Bell Telephone Laboratories audi- torium in New York City.

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should do rather than simply describe what someone did.

Anyone considered to be practic- ing ethical behavior should abide by all the role-related responsibilities that a job requires and should not during the execution of those duties cause unjustified harm. Every profession, from graphic design to website production, has a unique set of requirements or role- related responsibilities that combine to form the concept of a person’s “job.” For example, a visual journalist for a news organization develops sources, conceives stories, takes images, records audio, inter- views sources, writes captions, voice- overs, and copy, edits the words and pictures, checks to make sure all facts are accurate, and arranges to display the work in print, on television, and/or the web.

Doing your job and not causing unjust harm has been called the “ethics mantra.” As long as those professional obligations are met, the first part of the mantra is satisfied. But to be considered ethical, you must also make sure that any harm that may ensue must be justified. A nurse causes some discomfort that might be interpreted as harm with a needle stick, but the pain is justified in order to get

well. A professor assesses your exams and papers that may cause harm to your GPA, but it is justified to help you learn. Show- ing a video of a celebrity in an embarrass- ing situation on a local newscast may be harmful to that person’s reputation, but as long as the airing is deemed accept- able for reasonable, objective persons, the harm can probably be justified. Any action that causes physical or mental harm without adequate justification is unethical.

Six principal ethical philosophies can and should be used to analyze a picture. Knowledge of philosophies is important because they help explain how actions can or cannot be justified. In chronologi- cal order, they are golden rule, hedonism, golden mean, categorical imperative, utili- tarianism, and veil of ignorance. Although there are many more useful philosophies that could be discussed, these are the principal theories that have survived for more than 2,500 years of Western moral philosophy. Even if the names are new to you, their basic ideas should be familiar to all who have grown up in the United States or other European-influenced cul- tures. Aspects of these theories are used to justify our public policies, laws, and social conventions.

Figure 6.11 Normally fidgety children are stopped by the camera’s relatively fast shutter speed.

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Golden Rule

The golden rule, or the ethic of reciproc- ity, teaches people to “love your neigh- bor as yourself.” This theory has been attributed to ancient Greek philosophers such as Pittacus of Mytilene (died 568 bce), considered one of the “Seven Sages of Greece,” who wrote, “Do not to your neighbor what you would take ill from him;” Thales of Miletus (died 546 bce), another Sage of Greece who said, “Avoid doing what you would blame others for doing;” and Epictetus (died 135 ce), a Stoic philosopher who wrote, “What thou avoidest suffering thyself seek not to impose on others.” In fact, every major religion has some variable of the golden rule as a part of their scriptures and/or teachings. This philosophy holds that an individual should be as humane as pos- sible and never harm others by insensitive actions.

A television producer who decides not to air close-up footage of family mem- bers mourning the loss of a loved one at a funeral, because seeing themselves on television might compound their grief and the image might make viewers feel bad, invokes the golden rule.

For the Hoover relief image, it is a positive “feel-good” moment despite the reality of what life must be like under such liv- ing conditions. As such, it probably made readers of National Geographic smile to see children taken care of by powerful and famous members of their government.

Hedonism

From the Greek word for pleasure, hedo- nism is closely related to the philosophies of nihilism and narcissism. A student of Socrates, Aristippus (who died in Athens in 366 bce) founded this ethical philosophy

on the basis of pleasure. Aristippus believed that people should “act to maximize plea- sure now and not worry about the future.” However, Aristippus referred to pleasures of the mind—intellectual pleasures—not physical sensations. He believed that peo- ple should fill their time with intellectual pursuits and use restraint and good judg- ment in their personal relationships. His phrase sums up the hedonistic philosophy: “I possess; I am not possessed.” Unfortu- nately, modern usage of the philosophy ignores his original intent.

The Renaissance playwright and poet Ben Johnson, a contemporary of William Shakespeare, once wrote one of the best summaries of the hedonistic philosophy, “Drink today, and drown all sorrow; You shall perhaps not do it tomorrow; Best, while you have it, use your breath; There is no drinking after death.” Phrases such as “live for today” and “don’t worry, be happy” currently express the hedonis- tic philosophy. If an opinion or action is based purely on a personal motiva- tion—money, fame, relationships, and the like—the modern interpretation of hedo- nistic philosophy is at work.

When an image maker considers only the aesthetic pleasure, monetary gain, or possible awards a picture might bring, hedonism is the dominant philosophy. It is rare for a visual communicator or any- one else to admit to a purely hedonistic justification for an act that others might judge unethical.

A freelance professional photographer, known as a paparazzo after a character in the movie Irma la Douce (1963), who stands in wait for a celebrity to exit a concert, restaurant, or her home so that a picture can be made solely for the purpose of making money from it uses the hedonism philosophy. As such, this philosophy is probably the least admitted

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to by practitioners out of the six principal ethical philosophies.

The relief image demonstrates hedonism because the photographer wanted to feature the notable person in the picture, Herbert Hoover, and his work in aiding those affected by the flood in the most positive light possible. The commerce sec- retary is using hedonism too as he wanted to be seen with children to seem more compassionate.

Golden Mean

The Greek philosopher Aristotle was born near the city Thessaloniki in 384 bce. As his parents were wealthy, he studied at the Athens-based Academy led by the renowned Greek philosopher Plato. After learning and teaching at the Academy for 20 years, he traveled throughout the region studying the biology and botany of his country. He was eventually hired as a tutor for Alexander the Great and two other kings of Greece, Ptolemy and Cassander. When he was about 50 years old he returned to Athens and began his own educational institution, the Lyceum, where he wrote an astounding number of books on diverse subjects that made breakthroughs in science, communica- tions, politics, rhetoric, and ethics. He was the earliest known writer to describe the phenomenon of light noticed in a camera obscura that eventually led to a further understanding of how the eyes and the photographic medium work.

Although the golden mean was originally a neo-Confucian concept first espoused by Zisi, the only grandson of the Chinese philosopher Confucius, Aristotle elaborated on it for Western readers in his book Nicomachean Ethics. The golden mean philosophy refers to finding a middle ground or a compromise between

two extreme points of view or actions. The middle way doesn’t involve a precisely mathematical average but is an action that approximately fits that situation at that time. When using the golden mean phi- losophy, you must first think of the two most extreme examples. For a particularly violent or controversial news photograph or video, there are two extreme choices. The first is to take and then use the pic- ture large and in color on a front page of a newspaper, the cover of a magazine, or in the lead for a news broadcast. The other extreme choice is not to use the image at all. A compromise or middle way might be to use the image in black and white, small, on an inside page, as a short, edited video, or on a website where users are warned before clicking a link to it. Generally speak- ing, most ethical dilemmas are solved with the golden mean approach.

The relief camp picture is a compromise between close-up images of the children in their harsh day-to-day living conditions, in their tents with their fellow family mem- bers, and not taking any pictures at all.

Categorical Imperative

Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg, the capital of Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia) in 1724. The fourth of 11 children, at an early age he showed intellectual promise and escaped his crowded house- hold to attend a special school. At the age of 16 he graduated from the University of Königsberg, where he stayed and taught until his death. Kant never married and never traveled farther than 100 miles from his home during his lifetime. Thirteen years before his death in 1804, he pub- lished Critique of Pure Reason. It is con- sidered one of the most important works in philosophical history. Kant established the concept of the categorical imperative.

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Categorical means unconditional, and imperative means that the concept should be employed without any question, exten- uating circumstances, or exceptions. Right is right and must be done even under the most extreme conditions. Consistency is the key to the categorical imperative philosophy. Once a rule is established for a proposed action or idea, behavior and opinions must be consistently and always applied in accordance with it. But for Kant, the right action must have a posi- tive effect and not promote unjustified harm or evil. Nevertheless, the categorical imperative is a difficult mandate to live up to.

If a visual reporter’s rule is to document any situation and take pictures regardless of whether she thinks her newspaper will print them because she considers that action to be part of her job and to be performed without objections, then this decision becomes a categorical impera- tive. She takes photographs because it is her duty to do so, and it leads to a posi- tive conclusion—the pictures document an activity for historical purposes if for no other reason.

As a National Geographic photographer, Clifton Adams had little choice but to take a picture of a posing Herbert Hoover and Dwight Davis with a group of chil- dren. Regardless, Adams no doubt felt it was part of his professional role-related responsibility to take the picture in order to publish it in the magazine. Therefore, his categorical imperative would be to per- form the same act under any similar set of circumstances.

Utilitarianism

This philosophy is usually considered the combined work of British thinkers Jeremy

Bentham and John Stuart Mill. The legal scholar and philosopher Jeremy Bentham developed his theory of utility, or the greatest happiness principle, from the work of Joseph Priestley, who is consid- ered one of the most important philoso- phers and scientists of the 18th century. Bentham acknowledged Priestley as the architect of the idea that “the greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of morals and legislation.” John Stuart Mill was the son of the Scottish philosopher James Mill and was tutored for a time by Bentham. When he was three years old, he was taught to read Greek; by the time he was 10 he read Plato’s works easily. With the aid of his wife Harriet Taylor, he developed the philosophy of utilitarianism expressed in his books On Liberty (1859) and Utilitarianism (1863). He gave credit to Taylor for her influence but, as was the custom of the time, did not give her co-authorship credit.

Mill expanded on Priestley and Ben- tham’s idea of utilitarianism by separating different kinds of happiness. For Mill, intel- lectual happiness is more important than the physical kind. He also thought that there is a difference between happiness and contentment, which is culminated in his phrase, “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.” In utilitarianism, various consequences of an act are imagined, and the outcome that helps the most people is usually the best choice under the circumstances. However, Mill specified that each individual’s moral and legal rights must be met before apply- ing the utilitarian calculus. According to Mill, it is not acceptable to cause great harm to a few persons in order to bring about a little benefit to many. However, if everyone is being treated justly, then it is acceptable to do something that might

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provide a large benefit to the community as a whole.

Editors and news directors frequently use and misuse utilitarianism to justify the printing of disturbing accident scenes in their newspapers, magazines, on televi- sion, and on websites. Although the image may upset a few because of its gruesome content, it may persuade many others to drive more carefully. That action is accept- able under the utilitarianism philosophy because people do not have a moral right to be sheltered from sad news on occa- sion. For many, the educational function of the news media—from the typographi- cal and graphic design displays that can be easily read to informational graphics that explain a complex concept—is most often expressed in the utilitarian philosophy.

Clifton Adams most likely thought that by producing the relief camp picture he would be educating National Geographic readers that although camp life could be rough, the children looked reasonably well fed and happy to be visited by Hoover and Davis.

Veil of Ignorance

Articulated by the American philosopher John Rawls in his book A Theory of Justice in 1971, the veil of ignorance philosophy con- siders all people equal as if each member were wearing a veil so that such attributes as age, gender, ethnicity, and so on could not be determined. No one class of people would be entitled to advantages over any other. Imagining oneself without knowing the positions that one brings to a situa- tion results in an attitude of respect for all involved. The phrase “walk a mile in some- one’s shoes” is a popular adaptation of the veil of ignorance philosophy. It is considered one answer to prejudice and discrimination.

Rawls taught at Harvard University for almost 40 years. In 1999 he received the National Humanities Medal from President Bill Clinton, who said that he “helped a whole generation of learned Americans revive their faith in democracy itself.”

A viewer of a print or screen display might invoke this philosophy in an e- mail of thanks to a visual communicator or journalist, if the viewer were made to think of her own loved ones after seeing a picture of subjects of a visual message.

A National Geographic magazine reader might think of a child she knows and imag- ine her living in a temporary camp after a terrible environmental catastrophe. Think- ing of such a connection with “the other” and feeling empathy for those affected by the Mississippi River flood might result in contributions to the Red Cross and Salva- tion Army.

After a thorough study of the six ethical philosophies briefly described, an analysis of the Hoover picture might also include the following:

Herbert Hoover was the first American politician to understand that “public relations could change behavior.” Conse- quently, he and the people who worked for him tried to promote him at every step of his career. He was the first politician to make extensive use of the radio and the first to be broadcast via the new television medium. He was the first to use motion pictures and sound in his presidential campaign films. Hoover orchestrated his appearances at flood-damaged sites and camps for maximum public exposure. But the picture demonstrates the exploitation of the good graces, best wishes, and inno- cent hopes of those most vulnerable—the children—who naively looked up to the powerful adults visiting them.

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The other compelling aspect of the photo- graph is the fact that there are no African Americans. In 1927 the United States was deeply segregated, and the relief camps reflected that racist era. Nevertheless, since an estimated 90 percent of those affected by the flooding were African Americans, it seems fitting that Hoover and his entourage should have visited and been pictured with non–Anglo Americans.

Cultural Perspective

Here is your chance to further refine your analysis given the influences from the his- torical, technical, and ethical perspectives. Cultural analysis of a picture involves identifying the symbols and metaphors used in an image and determining their meaning for the society as a whole. Sym- bolism may be analyzed through the picture’s use of heroes and villains, by the form of its narrative structure, by the style of the artwork, by the use of words that accompany the image, and by the atti- tudes about the subjects and the culture communicated by the visual artist. The cultural perspective is closely related to the semiotics approach.

Metaphors combine a viewer’s experi- ences with the meaning of a visual mes- sage. Aristotle, in Rhetoric, wrote, “It is a great thing, indeed, to make proper use of poetic forms, . . . But the greatest thing by far is to be a master of meta- phor.” Real world experiences infuse an image under analysis with special mean- ing for the viewer so that underlying metaphors can be discovered. Educator Stuart Jay Kaplan defines metaphors as “combinations of two or more elements in which one element is understood or experienced in terms of the other.” For Kaplan and others, “Metaphors serve as

interpretive frameworks for organizing information about the world and making sense of experiences.” George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, in Metaphors We Live By, expand the point when they write, “No metaphor can ever be comprehended or even adequately represented inde- pendently of its experiential basis.” The American anthropologist Evelyn Payne Hatcher, author of Art and Culture: An Introduction to Anthropology of Art, wrote that metaphors “are a matter of trying to understand and comment upon what is going on [within a picture] in terms of our previous experience.” As such, metaphors that are commonly understood across time and cultures “rest on the common experiences of the human.” For Hatcher, “Visual art is not merely a matter of aes- thetics, but one of visually developed ideas, usually conceived in some meta- phorical form.”

Ask yourself: What is the story and the symbolism involved in the elements of the visual message? What do they say about current cultural values? What metaphors can be expressed through the work?

The symbolism of Anglo power and dominance as expressed through social perspective is clearly evident in the photo- graph. Hoover is in the front and slightly separated from the others. He is dressed in somber, almost funereal clothes that add seriousness to his demeanor. However, his light-colored fedora hat doesn’t match the rest of his outfit, perhaps indicating a slight air of informality fitting for the campsite setting. The barefoot girl to his left looks up at him with her arms respect- fully held in front. She has a bright, pleas- ant expression on her face. But Hoover, with his arms at his sides, has all his atten- tion directed toward the camera. Hoover knows that the most important element

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is to see his face clearly. Everyone else is secondary. The hat and coat of Davis match his infor- mal attire and the setting. The fact that the two men stand so far apart from each other indicates that the two are not close. In fact, Hoover considered Davis a politi- cal rival. After he was elected president, Hoover appointed Davis Governor General of the Philippines to keep him out of the political limelight. The barefoot children seem at ease in the natural environment, whereas the overly dressed adults, symbols of technological progress and an urbane attitudes, stand awkwardly and look out of place. As seen by their clothing and poses, the city versus country conflict is a metaphor for modern- ism that divides those who are content and secure from those who have lost every- thing and must begin anew.

Critical Perspective

The final step in analyzing a picture is to apply a critical perspective. In this last step, you should attempt to transcend a particular image and draw general con- clusions about the medium, the culture from which it is produced, and the viewer. A critical perspective allows the viewer to use the information learned about a medium, its practitioner, and the image produced to make more general com- ments about the society that accepts or rejects the images. As such, a critical perspective redefines a person’s initial personal perspective in terms of universal conclusions about human nature.

Ask yourself: What do I think of this image now that I’ve spent so much time looking at and studying it? What lessons does it have for those who view the image?

As an artifact that illustrates the history of the public relations profession, the Hoover/Davis relief camp photograph has value for cultural historians who would note the absence of African Amer- ican faces and for visual communicators who study the photo op genre. It also is useful for biographers of Herbert Hoover, who may use the image to illustrate an aspect of his personality and media savvy. Consequently, an initial negative opinion of the picture is changed to one of positive worth through the analytical process.

Whether it is a still or moving image, if you study it by first making an inventory list, then by noting its compositional ele- ments including the gestalt laws, visual cues, semiotic signs and codes, cognitive elements, possible purposes, and aes- thetic qualities, and then from personal, historical, technical, ethical, cultural, and critical perspectives, you become intel- lectually engaged with the picture. Using the six perspectives will encourage you to base conclusions about images on ratio- nal rather than emotional responses. You will find that all images have something to tell you because every picture created, no matter how banal or ordinary it may be at first glance, has some meaning to communicate. The producer of the image took the time to frame and make the pic- ture for a reason. The message that the artist wants to communicate may be sim- ply a literal summary, or the hope that the viewer will appreciate the image’s aes- thetic beauty, or an underlying political agenda. Just because you cannot initially see any purpose for an image is no rea- son to discard it. Many large lessons are lost because of a failure to study small, captured moments. An image, regardless of its medium of presentation, is forgot-

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ten if it isn’t analyzed. A forgotten image simply becomes another in a long stream of meaningless pictures that seem to flood every aspect of communication. Meaningless pictures entertain a viewer only for a brief moment and do not have the capacity to educate. But an analyzed image can affect a viewer for a lifetime.

The nine chapters on typography, graphic design, informational graphics, cartoons, photography, motion pictures, television, computers, and the web are analyzed within the six-perspective ana- lytical framework outlined in this chapter. Although analysis is time consuming at first, practice reduces the amount of time required. It is up to you, and only you, to find meaning and use for a picture. If you take the time to study images carefully, you will become a much more interesting and knowledgeable person. You will also be more likely to produce images that

have greater meaning for more people. These images are also remembered longer than unconsidered pictures.

Your ultimate goal with regard to any analysis of a picture is to understand your own reaction to the image. Through this analytical process, you review, refine, and renew your personal reaction to an image. Being critical is a highly satisfying intellec- tual exercise.

KEY TERMS

• Allegorical • Archetypal • Bolshevik • Cropped • Depth of field • Existentialist • Field dressing • Freudian

• Jungian • Marxism • Mythical • Phenomenolo gical • Rhetorical • Shutter speed • Structural

To locate active URLs for the weblinks mentioned in this chapter, please go to the compan- ion site at http://communication.wadsworth.com/lester5 and select the proper chapter.

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